The Russian Revolution

What were the July Days?

"July Days" is the name given to 3-7 July, when workers and soldiers in Petrograd staged demonstrations against the Provisional Government, many of the participants were arms and the period marked a brief decline in Bolshevik power.

What were the most significant factors in the Russian Revolution?

- The First World War paralyzed the authoritarian monarchy and let loose uncontrollable forces. - The proletariat, through the Soviets, was important but the revolutions of 1917 were also a movement of the peasantry and the army.

What reforms did Stolypin introduce regarding agriculture?

- A Peasant Land Bank lent peasants money to buy their land. Those who had little or poor land were encouraged to move to unfarmed land in the east. - Many peasants took advantage of these developments, as a result of which Russia began to experience regional changes. - In places such as Ukraine and Crimea in the South, where the land was fertile, peasants had an incentive to secure their own land. - In the harsh north and east, there was no such incentive. - Agricultural production increased in the most favorable regions, making the kulaks more prosperous, it also benefitted the government and those who exported wheat. - Exact figures are difficult to calculate, but output might have increased by 14% between 1900 and 1914, and the income of some landowners and kulaks rose by as much as 80%.

Who were the soviets?

- A unique characteristic of the unrest in Russia's dynasty was the formation of the soviets (council of workers). - These spread from cities to villages in the countryside, as well as the army. - The soviets were not highly organized, but they were sufficiently coordinated to represent a major threat to the Provisional Government. - The problem of food distribution was not solved and peasants demanded that land was redistributed. - Alexander Guchkov, the war minister confessed that he was unable to govern his own ministry and the army was under the influence of the soviets. - Elections had been promised, but they were not held- Kerensky and his associated knew that they would lose power to a group of people whom they regarded as a disorganized rabble.

What were the impacts of Witte's reforms?

- After falling from grace, Witte was recalled briefly as prime minister at a time of crises after the 1905 Revolution, mostly to negotiate a loan from France. - His support for reforms was still unpopular and he was dismissed as soon as the loan was secured. - The positive results if Witte's reforms were that industry and the railways grew. - The negative results were that the country's national debt increased and the standard of living of most the population declined. These problems were certainly serious, but there was no indication that they would be fatal for Nicholas II. - The situation was no worse than it had been for many years, and most people believed tsarist government could survive as long as it did not have to face a major crisis such as foreign war. - Assassins were always a danger to autocratic monarchs, but Nicholas II's kept police a vigilant eye on potential terrorists.

What was the emancipation of the Serfs?

- Alexander II freed the peasants/serfs in 1861, they could own property and marry without their landlords permission but were not allowed to leave the peasant community freely. - The emancipation still left most peasants in poverty as most peasants were still burdened with redemption payments for the land they had granted for.

What was Russification?

- Alexander imposed severe Russification; different ethnic groups demanding rights and autonomy (like Poland) would be forced to read, write, be Russian in order to suppress ethnic revolt

What were Stolypin's beliefs?

- Although Stolypin sought reform, he was not a democrat, he supported changes in the franchise to weaken the troublesome Duma, and placed it under the control of landowners. - Having restored political order, he pursued a policy of social and economic reform. - He believed that the most beneficial change would be to encourage the growth of a wealthy peasant class, or kulaks, saying that Russia should "bet on the strong".

Who are well-known revolutionaries?

- Although revolutionary groups existed in Russia, they were not solely responsible for the 1905 Revolution. - Vladimir Ilyich Lenin, leader of the small Bolshevik Party- a breakaway faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (SDLP)- was in exile at the time, and played no part in the events of 1905. - Other revolutionary figures were more directly involved, notably Leon Trotsky, who encouraged the revolution from his base in St Petersburg.

Evaluate the first Duma

- Although the Duma was an elected body, it did not represent a democracy. When the first Duma met in 1906, it represented a minority of the population. - The franchise was restricted to landowners, and only a few peasants who owed land could vote. - The Duma's powers were limited to control of a small part of the budget, however Nicholas II ignored it and it was dissolved within two months.

Explain what happened pre-October Revolution

- As the Germany army advanced, Kerensky could not provide enough solders to defend key points in the major cities and rumors began to spread that he was preparing to abandon Petrograd to the Germans - Lenin overruled doubters among the Bolsheviks who believed that Russia was not ready for a Revolution. - He claimed that he was acting on behalf of the Soviets and demanded that his supporters rise up at this critical juncture.

What was the October Manifesto and reactions to it?

- As unrest continues, Nicholas II was persuaded (reluctantly) to make concessions to the masses, which were delivered in the October Manifesto. - The October Manifesto promised free speech and an elected assembly called the "Duma". - Many of the rebels felt that their voices had been heard and the landowners would have to accept their demands. - A minority of extreme revolutionaries including the Bolsheviks felt that the Manifesto did not go far enough in addressing the grievances of the Russian people. - There was some armed resistance, but the Tsar's soldiers suppressed this, it seemed for a time that stability would return to Russia.

Who was Alexander II?

- Ascended the throne during the Crimean War (1853-56) and immediately set about negotiating peace. - Alexander embarked upon a modernization and reform program; the most important was the emancipation of the serfs. - He was succeeded by his son Alexander III - Alexander III had opposed any reforms in Russia, believing they threatened his own power and the ancient traditions on which Romanov dynasty had been built. He considered the innovations being developed in the West as unsuitable for his own country.

Who were the Constitutional Democrat Party/Liberals/Cadets?

- Believed in spreading message through meetings, discussions and publishing articles. - Formed 1905. - Wanted the establishment of a parliamentary democracy and civil rights for the people but were unsure about the role of the monarchy and how far Russia would change. - Supported by the urban middle class and some members of the gentry.

Who were the Social Revolutionaries?

- Believed in widespread revolution which would unite all people suffering under the Tsar - Violent revolution led by the peasants who would receive land following the overthrow of the Tsar - Supported by the peasantry and some urban proletariat. - Formed 1901

Compare the Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks

- Both were formed from the split of the Social Democrats (1903) -Bolsheviks were led by Lenin, followed the teachings of Karl Marx, and supported by workers in cities and large towns. They believed in the overthrow of the Tsar led by the small groups of trained revolutionaries; supported by the proletariat and thought the police would easily infiltrate the mass party. - Mensheviks were led by Martov and Trotsky, followed the teachings of Marx believing the revolution and overthrow of the Tsar through actions of mass movement. The party could work with other worker organisations to improve working conditions.

What were the main causes of the Russo-Japanese War?

- By 1900, China was extremely weak and suffering from internal conflict with a poor government. - Both Japan and Russia saw the possibility of expanding their influence in Manchuria, eastern China, and Korea. - Port Arthur in Manchuria offered Russia an ice-free harbor, which would be useful because its other ports were either in Arctic North or on the Black Sea, with difficult access to other oceans. - Japan suggested that Russia could take control of Manchuria if Japan itself could have Korea. However, these negotiations broke down and war broke out in 1904, after Japan attacked Port Arthur.

Who were the Social Democrat Party?

- Followed the teachings of Karl Marx - Believed in the overthrow of the Tsar and the formation of a communist state. - Workers in cities and large towns supported them. - Formed 1895

What actions did Nicholas take to try solve the situation on the front?

- In 1915, Nicholas II decided to go to the front to make personal changes of his armies, this was a fatal mistake. - The tsar had no military skill or training, his presence inspired neither generals nor soldiers. - His absence in court also left a power vacuum in Russia. - Tsarina, Alexandra was left in charge of the government but was incapable of exercising power effectively. - Her German heritage caused her to be viewed with suspicion, some accusing her of being a Germany spy. She found little power or influence over traditionally minded minsters, being a woman. Her reliance on Rasputin increased her unpopularity.

Explain the installation of the Provisional Government

- In March 1917, when the tsar's government collapsed, the Duma set the Provisional Government - The Provisional Government never really ruled Russia. Right from the start, it had to share power with the Petrograd Soviet, which had a rule (Order No.1) that its members should only obey the Provisional Government if the Soviet agreed with it. For this reason, March to November 1917 is sometimes called the period of Dual Government in Russia.

What reforms did Witte introduce?

- Increased taxes and raised money abroad by giving investors high rates of interest. - Under him, the Trans-Siberian Railway was inaugurated and the coal industry grew in Ukraine. - Witte's policies also caused problems, twice as much was spent repaying the foreign loans as was expended on education. - Taxes were increases to repay the loans and this rise in tax affected the peasants most severely. - Nicholas II gave Witte little support, and he was despised among members of the court and other nobility, who considered his ideas dangerous.

What was the extent of opposition to the Tsar after industrialisation?

- Industrialization brought a level of prosperity to Russia, but it also created problems for an authoritarian and inefficient government. - Between 1909 and 1914, strikes became more common, which provoked increasingly violent efforts to suppress them. - This only encouraged further protests. Shop workers and railway employees went on strike; university students staged protests; even sailors in the navy began to demonstrate dissatisfaction with their situation.

What economic reforms did Stolypin introduce?

- Industry boomed, and trade with Britain, France and Germany increased substantially. - Russia had vast natural resources of coal, oil, metals and wood. Textiles were produced in greater quantities. Some believed that Russia was entering a period of industrial revolution like that in the West in the 19th century.

What made Nicholas II an ineffective ruler?

- Isolated at court and uninterested in matters of government- preferred to go hunting rather than ministered meetings. - Was easily persuadable by advice, usually from courtiers who opposed reforms. - His ministers were typically chosen because of their social position rather than ability, they competed for attention rather than co-operate or offer subjective advice. - Nicholas was a devoted husband and father but was disastrously out of touch with the feelings of his subjects. - He was personally a kind man - His only son suffered from hemophilia- it was doubtful he would survive to adulthood, which left doubts over his succession to the throne, playing a significant part in the instability of Nicholas's regime.

What was a result of Russia's increased expenditure?

- It was clear that increased expenditure on the military had not made the army capable of fighting a modern war, it still relied on it's cavalry- ineffective due to modern weaponry and problematic as horses required large quantities of food and transport, which was needed elsewhere. - The lack of organization was a major problem, the railways could not transport food and supplies to areas in need; food was plentiful in some regions but lacking in others. This was most severe in cities and towns, the poorest suffered from famine while crops rotted in field and warehouses, or were fed to animals to avoid being wasted. - Brave cavalry charged resulted in slaughter, most soldiers relied on bayonet charges meaning the war was lost to gunfire before they could even reach the enemy.

What was the Kornilov Affair?

- It was the Kornilov Affair that restored Lenin's fortunes - Lavr Kornilov the commander-in-chief of the army, favored strong action against the Bolsheviks and marched on Petrograd at the head of a troop of soldiers known as the "Savage Division" because of it's warlike reputation. - It is uncertain how far Kerensky approved of the plan and how far Kornilov acted independently, but the scheme failed. - Kerensky quickly accused Kornilov of attempting a takeover to establish a military dictatorship, and dismissed him from his post. - The soldiers refused to back the government and many of them deserted.

Explain Karl Marx's thoughts on the economic sector

- Karl Marx believed that economic forces were the determining factor in history. - Changes in the economy gave power to the classes and government, and then replaced them by others until the proletariat came to power and established it's own dictatorship. - It would overcome capitalism, which was dominated by the middle class (bourgeois). This meant that successful revolutions would occur in industrialized countries where members of the proletariat were most numerous. - The revolutions would be followed by a state that gave priority to the needs of the workers, wealth would be distributed more equally: "from each according to his abilities, to each according to his needs".

What were the disadvantages of the Provisional Government after the February Revolution?

- Kerensky, head of the Provisional Government after the February Revolution in 1917, was more reformer than radical, favoring a republic of moderate policies. - The Provisional Government kept Russia in the First World War and attempted to balance the conflicting demands of reforming and radical factions. However, such a balance proved impossible to maintain. - Russia was internally unstable; the Provisional Government lacked the strength to restore order. - Popular uprisings and the army unrest were not uncommon in Europe at this time, Germany in particular experienced widespread disorder throughout 1918, as it became clear that was no longer going in it's favor.

Explain Lenin's "stroke of luck"

- Lenin had a stroke of luck that he could not have calculated, his isolation in Switzerland ended when the Germanys, intending to weaken Russia by stirring up disorder, transported him in a train (to prevent observers), from Switzerland to the Russian frontier. - The realistic Lenin quickly realized the potential power of the soviets and saw them as an alternative to the Provisional Government, using the slogan "All power to the Soviets" - Bolshevik control of the soviet was seen as crucial, and soon his party dominated these councils in major cities. - In his April Thesis, Lenin called for "Peace, Land and Bread" to appeal to the wider population.

What were Lenin's thoughts about the proletariat?

- Lenin recognized the value of the industrial working classes in securing the success of any revolution. He believed that the peasantry would not be able to mount a united challenge to the tsarist regime. - The proletariat worked in factories and lived in owns, as far as Lenin was concerned, it was more likely that they could be shaped into an effective revolutionary weapon.

Who is Vladimir Ilyich Lenin?

- Lenin was born in 1870 to a lower middle class family, his father was a minor government official and Lenin trained as a lawyer. - He became a revolutionary when his brother was executed after being accused of involvement in a plot to assassinate Alexander III. - Lenin's life followed a similar course to that of many other Russian revolutionaries of the era: internal exile in Siberia followed by voluntary exile abroad for much of the period from 1900 to 1917. - He eventually proved to be an effective organizer, although there was little evidence for this before 1917. - Lenin was the leader of the Bolsheviks

What were the consequences of Nicholas's abdication?

- Members of the Duma, supported by middle-class liberals and nobles, wished for a government headed by Prince Lvov, but he stood no chance of success. - A member of the Duma and a liberal, Lvov was determined to continue the war, but he had no clear ideas for reform. - Power quickly passed to the Provisional Government, led by the liberal Alexander Kerensky.

Why was there no real challenge to the Tsar?

- Most people still respected the traditions of a monarchy - Nicholas II was able to rely on the police and army before World War One. - The events of 1905 were not forgotten and Russia became embroiled in war, hardships increasing and discontent growing.

Who was Stolypin?

- Nicholas II took a positive step in 1906 when he appointed Pyotr Stolypin as minister of the interior and, later, as prime minister. - Stolypin came from a noble family, but unlike many of his class, he demonstrated an awareness of the hardships that most Russians faced. He was also unusual amongst his class for his willingness to embrace reform. - As well as being prime minister, Stolypin served as leader of the third Duma, and aimed to counter unrest by undertaking reforms that could vastly improve life for the peasants in Russia. - Stolypin saw agriculture as the primary problem and wanted to work towards improving the peasants situation, also believed in strict law and order, and he ruthlessly repressed any peasant uprisings. - "Stolypin's Necktie" (death by hanging) was used widely to punish rebels after the 1905 Revolution.

Who was Nicholas II?

- Nicholas II was of the royal Romanov dynasty that had ruled Russia for nearly 300 years. - He had little education but could speak English, French, German, which he preferred over Russian, believing it was the language of peasants. - He became Tsar in 1894, set on following the hardline policies of his father, Alexander III; promising "I shall maintain the principle of autocracy just as firmly as did my unforgettable father. - He kept his promise throughout his reign, resisting change. The circumstances within Russia altered. - Nicholas believed that the reforms introduced by his grandfather, in the mid 19th century had weakened Russia, especially the emancipation of the serfs.

What was Nicholas II's reaction to the October Manifesto?

- Nicholas II's insincerity in issuing this decree soon became apparent - He proved unwilling to enforce the reforms that he had promised and issued the Fundamental Laws, which asserted his full autocratic powers. - The police and the army continued to harass real or imagined critics of the tsarist regime; it is estimated that 15,000 people were killed and 70,000 arrested within a year.

What was Bloody Sunday?

- On 22 January 1905, a priest named Father Gapon led a non-violent march in Moscow to petition to the tsar for land reforms and an assembly elected by universal suffrage. - The crowd was dispersed violently by Cossack soldiers, this event became known as "Bloody Sunday" and the Russian people blamed the tsar for the extreme reaction of the soldiers.

What made Lenin a powerful leader?

- One of Lenin's greatest strengths was his ability to be both idealistic and practical, and is government of Russia after 1917 showed willingness to compromise when necessary. - His adaption of Marxism gave rise to a new political philosophy that became known as "Marxist-Leninism". - Lenin aimed to incite a revolution that would bring the tsarist autocracy, but ironically he did not tolerate any challenges to his own leadership. - He was a skilled orator- a fact that contributed to his success in 1917, but more importantly in developing the Bolshevik movement, he was also a talented writer and profound political thinker. - Lenin reached two decisions that shaped the future of Russia; he appreciated the importance of organization and discipline within a revolutionary party. The disorganized and fragmented radical groups had achieved very little and spent a great deal of time quarrelling amongst themselves.

What was the role of Rasputin?

- One significant decline of the tsar's reputation was his association with Grigori Rasputin: A self-professed healer, Rasputin seemed able to calm the young tsarevich, Alexei, during the frequent periods of illness, and this made him a great favorite of the tsar's wife in particular. - Rasputin's lack of education and lowly origins meant he was despised by members of the royal court, many grew concerned over the influence he seemed to have on tsar and tsarina. - Alexandra defended Rasputin fiercely: courtiers who were appalled at his crude manners fell out of favor; critical ministers were dismissed. - Before WW1, Rasputin's unpopularity was confined to the court and higher circles of government. When Alexandra was left in control of the country, she sought Rasputin's advice on many matters, which brought him to wider attention of the public, he proved to be equally unpopular. - He was murdered in 1916, not by political radicals striking a blow against the monarchy, but by a group of conservative courtiers who wanted to save the tsar's reputation.

Explain the importance of the war as a role of the Tsar's abdication

- Perhaps the most crucial development in 1917 was a series of army mutinies. Conditions at the front were unbearable and stories spread of hardships at home. Soldiers drifted back to their homes in large numbers, afraid that their families would die if they did not return to help them. They became a focal point of dissatisfaction in major cities. - Sergei Khabalov, the governor of Petrograd, proclaimed martial law and ordered soldiers to restore order. - The soldiers refused and opened fire on officers, even the Cossacks- once the most loyal of the Romanov's soldiers turned against Nicholas II.

Why did Russia go to war?

- Russia claimed that it did not go to war in 1914 to win territory, but rather to protect Serbia, a small state with a population of fellow Slavs from what Russians believed to be the unreasonable warlike demands from Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany. - These intentions seemed honorable to the Russian people, as their country had a history of tension with Austria-Hungary. - Austria-Hungary believed Russia was using Serbia to extend its influence in the Balkans and to benefit from the break-up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire.

What were the causes of the Russo-Japanese War?

- Russia had to agree a humiliating peace in the Treaty of Portsmouth in 1905. - Japan began to be regarded as a more modern and efficient state- the first in Asia to defeat a European country. - Russia's weaknesses were revealed and turned its international interests from the east to the Balkans, with consequences that eventually led to the First World War. - Internally, the defeat was a serious blow to the prestige of the tsarist government. - The Russo-Japanese War was a major cause of the 1905 Revolution.

What was Russia's administrative regions like?

- Russia was made up of 97 administrative regions, far more than was necessary to govern such a large country. - Towns and large cities were governed by appointed rather than elected officials. - Overall, Russia was administered much less effectively than the more modern states in Western Europe.

Explain Karl Marx's thoughts on Russia

- Russia was not a country that Marx thought suitable for Revolution; industrialized countries such as Britain and Germany were more likely in his opinion. - Russia was dominated by a rural economy and the mass of peasants far larger than that of the industrial workers. - There was little organization among the proletariat. - Trade Unions had limited influence before 1914; revolutionaries were scattered and mostly ineffective.

Evaluate Stolypin's agricultural policies

- Some historians believe that most of the increase was the result of a series of naturally good harvests rather than Stolypin's reforms and the point out that many Russians did not benefit from these policies. - Whatever the reason, agriculture, so vital to the Russian economy was improving by 1914

What occurred during and post the October Revolution?

- Taking swift action, the Bolsheviks gained control of Petrograd and seized the Winter Place- the former residence of the Tsar. - The October Revolution was over within a few hours. - The Bolsheviks claimed that it was a popular action, a revolution of the people. - The reality was that few armed men took part and only about 6 people were killed. - Lenin had succeeded in bringing about Revolution, but it was doubtful whether he and the Bolsheviks would be able to hold on to power in the chaos that ensued.

Who supported the Tsar?

- The 1905 Revolution shook Russia, but the tsar still enjoyed considerable support. - In reality, there were very few republicans, and they were confined to tint groups of radicals. - The reaction to the October Manifesto showed that almost everybody wanted a settlement with Nicholas II. - The Romanovs had ruled Russia since 1613, and not many people could see an alternative to tsarist rule. - Many regarded democracy as "un-Russian"- a foreign system that would not suit their country.

What was the human cost of war?

- The Battle of Tannenburg between Germany and Russia highlights Russia's army's weakness. The overwhelming victory of the Germany soldiers showed its superiority in weapons, tactics and speed. - The human cost of the war was steadily mounted for Russia, along with the cost of resources. - The peasant majority of the soldiers were short of clothes, food, weapons and ammunition. - Guns and shells were piled up, unable to reach the front lines due to the inefficient transport system for the vast distance. - Losses in 1916 amounted to a million men; weak army generals did not modify their tactics of throwing masses of badly equipped soldiers against steady gunfire.

Explain Lenin and the 1905 Revolution

- The Bolsheviks and the Mensheviks were caught unawares by the 1905 revolution in Russia, when unrest broke out, Trotsky and other Mensheviks and radicals tried to promote strikes and other workers actions. - Workers' committees (soviets) were set up in factories, - The terms of the 1905 Revolution, Lenin was the right man in the wrong place. He was in exile and returned to Russia 11 months after Bloody Sunday- too late to play an effective role in the revolution. - At the start of 1917, the exiled Lenin could not influence affairs in Russia, a month before the February Revolution, he commented that such an event might not take place during his lifetime. - Events moved more quickly than he, and most others, anticipated.

What were the consequences of the Kornilov Affair?

- The Bolsheviks gained credit by leading resistance among the workers and soviets; Lenin was able to return to Russia. - Kerensky was portrayed as a German agent, plotting to surrender Moscow to the enemy. - The Military Revolutionary Council, dominated by Bolsheviks, took control of Petrograd. - Kerensky and the Provisional Government were aware of Lenin's intentions but were paralyzed by a lack of support. A full revolution was imminent.

What was "The Duma?"

- The Duma means "to think" and its agreement would be needed before any laws could be passed. - Nicholas II initially promised greater liberties and said the Duma would have the power to act to ensure these liberties were upheld - The first statement of the Fundamental Laws was that "supreme autocratic power belongs to the tsar". This denied the hopes of those who saw the Duma as a means of bringing more representative government to Russia. - The Tsar could introduce laws could veto those passed by the Duma. - Ministers were still appointed by the tsar, who controlled military and foreign affairs. - He did not allow the Duma to elect its own ministers, and he claimed the right to discharge the council whenever he wanted. - The Duma had no way of enforcing its decisions.

Give an example of violent strikes and sum up the creation of the different political groups

- The Massacre in the Lena gold mines in 1912, during the strike, 270 miners were killed and almost as many were wounded by tsarist soldiers. - By the start of the 20th century, many people in Russian society did not like Tsarist rule and a number of political groups were formed as a result of this. - Each group had different objectives, each appealing to different sectors of the Russian population.

What were the short-term causes of the October Revolution?

- The Provisional Government had no control over events- it was discredited by disobedience from the soviets and the Kornilov Affair. - A Military Revolutionary Council (MRC) was established in Moscow, acting as a rival government, controlled by Trotsky (behalf of the Bolsheviks) - The Russian army was suffering huge losses in the ongoing war, making the Provisional Government more unpopular. - Kerensky could not deliver other reforms, such as the redistribution of land or a new constitution.

What actions did the Provisional Government take before they fell?

- The Provisional Government made a last effort to exert control against the Bolsheviks and their allies in the "July Days". - Kerensky condemned Lenin as a German agent and spy. - The Provisional Government gathered enough soldiers to put down disorder and Lenin had to leave the center of action, fleeing to Finland.

What were the consequences of Nicholas's actions?

- The Russian army crumbled in the face of its enemy on the front lines and backs home the Romanov government disintegrated. - Russia possessed industries, the railway system had been enlarged and in peacetime, the harvests were sufficient to feed the population. - Inflation raised prices affecting the lower classes in towns and countryside. - Strikes spread in major cities such as Moscow and St. Petersburg. - Courtiers and generals expressed dissatisfaction and the Duma criticized economic policies; it's members were not revolutionaries but conservative- they wanted a more efficient tsarist government.

What was the negative factors of the Russian army?

- The Russian military was in mixed position at the start of this conflict; its defeat by Japan in 1904-1905 has been a spur to addressing the deficiencies in the Russian army and navy. - Considerable sums of money had been spent both enlarging and improving the armed forces. In 1914, the Russian army was three times the size of Germany's with a significantly higher number of large guns. It would still take Russia longer to mobilize than other countries and transport problems were far from resolved as there were not enough railway lines to efficiently transport large number of troops and supplies despite the expansion of the railway system. This was made clear when war was officially declared

What was the aftermath of the October Revolution?

- The aftermath of the October Revolution did not result in the triumph of the workers but in the victory of a small group of political activists. - Russia saw a dictatorship of Lenin and Stalin, not the dictatorship of the proletariat. - Lenin was determined to end war but did not find it easy to persuade all his colleagues. - Trotsky favored dragging out negotiations as long as possible so that Germany would agree to more lenient terms. Lenin was convinced that his approach would result in more German victories that might cause the collapse of the revolution. - Lenin did not find it easy to hold on to power, he had to deliver on his promises of "Peace, Land and Bread".

Explain Russia's production state?

- The country was rich in raw materials, but lacked the factories and railways required to produce and export manufactured goods. - Building these would require huge sums of money, but Russia did not have the funds for this investment. - Wealthy nobles were not interested in industry, dismissing it as undignified.

What were the consequences of Bloody Sunday?

- The events of Bloody Sunday showed the extent of Nicholas II's unpopularity as the 1905 Revolution took hold. - Strikes began in Moscow and rapidly spread to other cities, some of the middle classes supported this protest, and industrial workers organized themselves into trade unions. - Sailors on the battleship "Potemkin" mutinied, and the government feared more unrest among sailors and soldiers. - The revolutionaries were largely disorganized, with no central co-ordination, and fortunately for the tsar, the army remained loyal to him at this point.

Evaluate the fourth Duma and Nichola's involvement in it

- The fourth Duma had just been convened when the First World War broke out. - Historians have argued that Nicholas II missed an opportunity in 1906 to carry the reforms that would have made Russia a more modern and stable country. - However, despots rarely prove willing to surrender any of their power, and Nicholas II was particularly reactionary. - It soon became apparent that the reforms were largely cosmetic. - The very factors that had caused the 1905 Revolution remained largely unresolved even after the tsar had put down the revolution and attempted to implement reforms. - Nicholas II's treatment of the Duma showed his contempt for a representive government, and his refusal to provide any sort of leadership laid the foundations for future troubles.

What were the negative effects of the economic reforms?

- The government's attempts to prevent peasants moving to urban areas in the hope of jobs and a better standard of living did not work. - As more people moved to towns and cities, living conditions they're worsened. - The urban population nearly doubled in the generation before WW1. - The proletariat lived in squalid housing and unhealthy conditions. There was very little medical care and standards of education were very low. - Workers had virtually no rights, trade unions were banned and the police cracked down on protests. - In the absence of a Russian middle class, the country's reliance on loans gave power to banks. - Monopolies weakened the efforts of small businesses - Russia was thus benefiting economically from industrialization, but was suffering socially.

What did Stolypin do in regards to the mirs?

- The mirs, peasant commune villages oversaw the work of peasants and were generally restrictive. They directed what land a peasant could work and which crops could be grown, limiting the ability of an ambitious peasant to make improvements. - Stolypin wanted to make peasants independent of the mirs, which would allow them to put together their individual strips of land and therefore work them more efficiently. - The kulaks became a newly independent and comparatively wealthy class, but the experiment did not last long enough to transform Russia.

Who was Sergei Witte?

- The one forward thinking Russian statesman at this time was Sergei Witte, - He believed that the answer to Russia's problems lay in foreign loans and foreign exports. - Witte was one of the rare officials in Nicholas II's government who supported reform. - As minister of finance from 1892 to 1903, Witte was convinced that rapid industrialization was the solution to the country's economic problems. - Nicholas II never supported Witte's ideas and dismissed him, only to recall him briefly as prime minister after the 1905 Revolution.

What was the state of the Russian army?

- The poor quality of the Russian navy was demonstrated when ships had to be sent from the Baltic in the west to confront the Japanese navy. - The fleet suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Tsushima on 27-28 May 1905- in a stunning victory for the Japanese, two-thirds of the Russian fleet was destroyed, demoralizing the surviving Russian sailors. - The Russian army, larger than the Japanese but inferior in quality, failed to prevent the capture of Mukden, the capital of Manchuria.

Evaluate the second and third Duma

- The second Duma met for a few months in 1907, after the franchise was changed to give even more representation to landowners - The third Duma lasted longer, from 1907 to 1912 but still achieved little. - Nicholas restrained power whilst the opposition Cadets (broadly democrats) and Decembrists (inspired by a revolt against Tsar Nicholas I in the early 19th century) could not agree on a common programe, other than to make no concessions to the peasantry.

What happened in the second congress of the Social Democrats?

- The second congress of the Social Democrats met in London in 1903, Lenin was supported by the Plekhanov, decided to restrict membership of the party to those who were active in the cause of revolution and socialism. This would necessarily be a minority; Lenin wanted a revolution in Russia to defeat Tsarism. - The deciding vote was very close- Lenin's group won by two votes, they took the name the Bolsheviks (meaning majority). - Martov and Trotsky's group, the minority became the Menshevik's. - Despite their victory, the Bolsheviks were not popular and many in the party feared that Lenin would be a dictatorial leader.

Explain the rule of the Tsar regarding the state council and the senate

- The state council had no power: its members were mostly old men who were appointed because of long service to the state rather for their vigor and skill in managing affairs. Usually appointed for life, by the Tsar but he could dismiss them if he wished. Members tended to give him the advice that they knew would be welcomed, rather than what they truly believed to be in Russia's best interests. - The Tsar also appointed members of the senate. This body was supposed to oversee administration but the system was confused and the powers of the senate were unclear. There were many local officials whose responsibility was uncertain.

Explain the power of the Tsar

- The tsar appointed and dismisses ministers; there was no parliament to limit his authority. - At the start of Nicholas's reign in 1894, the Zemstva, which had been set up by Alexander II, maintained some responsibility, but were always under the supervision of the Tsar's officials. - The Zemstva provided a form of self-government for villages and larger areas of the Russian population, but the system was not adopted in areas populated by ethnic minorities. - Governors and other officials who generally opposed reforms could overrule the limited powers of the Zemstva. - The army put down violent unrest and the police kept political dissidents under control. -The Orthodox Church and its leading official Konstantin Pobedonostsev fully supported the Tsar's rule.

Evaluate the Provisional Government's actions in the war

- The war went badly for Russia, the Provisional Government saw it as a matter of honour to continue fighting, and it was pressed to do so by its allies. - The government hoped that war might appeal to Russian nationalism and unite the country - After a disastrous offensive against Germany it became clear that the army was in no condition to fight, and demands to make peace increased.

What was the impact of the economic reforms?

- This was a similar situation to that in the industrializing countries of Western Europe a century earlier however, they often acted reluctantly, the governments of Britain, France and Prussia usually conceded enough to avoid large-scale revolutions. - Nicholas II saw no need for any political concessions apart from the façade of the Duma. - Most of the reforms the people demanded (a maximum working week, factory inspections to ensure that laws were enforced, some health and insurance provision) would have seemed moderate in Western Europe. - To the tsar, such demands were radical.

Who disagreed to Lenin's beliefs?

- Trotsky and Julius Martov- a Russian politician who was exiled for his beliefs on reform- disagreed with these steps, believing that revolutionary success depended on a wider rather than a more restricted membership. - They took the longer-term view of Marxism: that capitalism had to collapse from within before communism could triumph.

Why did the peasants and proletariat oppose the Tsar?

- Unrest also simmered amongst the peasantry, some who bought their land found they could not keep up their repayments, and arrears to the Peasant Land Bank increased. - Many peasants started to feel that their conditions were worse than they had been before the reforms were introduced. - In the midst of this discontent, radical philosophies such as Marxism began to develop and gain popularity. - The revolutionary Mikhail Bakunin encouraged anarchism. Bakunin disagreed fundamentally with Marxism, claiming that such a system would lead to the suppression of the agricultural and industrial poor. - The emerging proletariat had extreme opposition for the Tsar as they had horrible working conditions but were still aware of the problems and power of the Tsar since they were well educated.

How intense was the opposition against the Tsar?

- Unrest was seeping into Russia, weakening the foundations of tsarism. - The police and army could keep radicals under control but they could not eliminate them altogether. - The exile of Lenin and other revolutionaries kept them out the clutches of tsarism, but it allowed them to continue their work abroad, where they gained increasing support. - Radicals in internal exile in remote parts of Siberia still managed to spread their ideas and keep contact with others. - Censorship was evaded and illegal newspapers; pamphlets and books were distributed widely.

Explain the abdication of the Tsar

- Without army support, Nicholas II abdicated quietly in February 1917, unrealistic as ever he blamed "treason, cowardice and deceit". - After the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks in the remote town of Ekaterinburg imprisoned Nicholas II, the Tsarina and their 5 children. They were executed in 1918; the bodies of the royal family have recently been identified and buried with religious and state honors in Russia.

What were the causes of the 1905 Revolution?

-The Russian Revolution of 1905 was not a sudden event, but rather the culmination of ears of discontent caused by several factors: - The poor economic condition of the peasantry, who had seen little improvement in their lives following emancipation. - The autocratic nature of Nicholas II's rule, which distanced him from the population. - An economic recession in the early years of the 20th century, resulting in high rates of unemployment. - Growing nationalist unrest among racial groups such as Finns, Balts, Armenians and Georgians, who resented the policy of Russification. - Other groups within the empire wanted a more democratic form of government, some demanded socialism. - Mass unrest was met with ruthless repression causing further resentment.

What was the main problem with the Provisional Government?

- the Provisional Government was only a temporary government, it did not really carry out any major reforms. All it did was abolish the Okhrana and press censorship, and allow political freedom.This gave the government's opponents - such as Lenin's Bolsheviks - the freedom to attack the government for the problems it was not solving. - The main problem of the Provisional Government was that it tried to continue the war. In June 1917, it organized an attack on Austria. When the attack failed, people began to turn against the government. - Instead, they started to follow Lenin whose welcome message was: 'Peace, bread, land'.

Who was Alexander Kerensky?

The leader of the Provisional Government: - Kerensky, trained as a lawyer and became minister of justice and then prime minister when the Provisional Government was established in Russia - He was a popular leader and tried to hold together the different factions. - He lacked Lenin's ruthlessness and was not able to deal with his country's problems. - He decided to continue the war and postponed land reforms, while the economy got worse. - After the October Revolution, he moved to Western Europe and then to United States, where he lived until his death in 1970.