theories of religion
functionalism evaluation
+ sees religion as a conservative force, promoting social harmony and protecting the status quo. however, this ignores the role that religion can sometimes play in social change. for example, the establishment of an Islamic republic in Iran in 1979 and the "talibanisation" of Afghanistan and parts of Pakistan illustrate how religion can promote reactionary social change + religion can promote progressive social change such as the role of liberation theology in opposing the military dictatorships in South America in the 1970s. this shows how religion can act as what Gramsci calls a "counter-hegemony" in showing oppressed peoples alternative ways of organising societies - fail to account for the conflicts that arise both within and between religious groups which lead to instability, such as: *conflicts within the same religion: protestant and catholic christians in northern Ireland over hundreds of years, disputes in the Anglican Church over homosexuality and between Sunni and Shia Muslims in Iraq *conflicts between religions: in the Indian subcontinent, warfare between muslims and hindus was in part responsible for the division of a once united India into two separate countries, India and Pakistan
feminism evaluation
+ there is plenty of evidence of patriarchal practices within traditional religious organisations + there is also evidence that, despite changes in some religious organisations such as allowing female clergy, opportunities for these women to achieve higher positions are significantly reduced, which is known as the "stained glass ceiling" - more recent events and research have suggested that feminist views of religion may be out of date. for example, in 2015, the Church of England appointed their first female bishop, which could be considered evidence of a march of progress within traditional religious organisations
neo-marxism evaluation
+ there is supporting evidence + help illustrate how religion can lead to social change that benefits this who are oppressed by capitalist society rather than simply acting as a conservative force that maintains status quo to benefit the powerful - marxists argue that the catholic church does not formally support liberation theology, so acts of individual religious leaders are not an example of religion acting as a radical force - liberation theology is a small example and cannot be generalised to all religions
evaluation of civil religion
-anthropologist BRYAN TURNER (2011) rejects the view that religion is particularly significant in uniting society -he argues that the concept of civil religion has been extended to so many different beliefs and activities that it has become meaningless -turner argues that there is an assumption that because civic rituals such a the coronation, royal weddings or trooping the colour exist, that they must have the function of integrating individuals into society -he also claims that in a trivial sense individuals involved in these events may feel a sense of pride in their country, but he argues that this does not necessarily prove the case for the argument advanced by both functionalists and marxists that communal rituals are functionally necessary to maintain the stability of society / capitalist society
shils and young (1953) : civil religion in the uk
-argued that the rituals surrounding the british monarchy are also instances of civil religion. in particular, they point to the coronation of the current queen. the coronation did serve to symbolise the relationship between the monarchy and the Church of England, but for shils and young it did much more than that. it also signified national unity, as the ritual was watched or listened to by any people, a lot of whom were not religious / christian. this produced social solidarity in a potentially divided society examples of traditions, rituals, symbols, places of worship and religious holidays in the british culture: -monarchy -st Georges day, st Andrews day, st Patricks day -changing of the guards -bank holidays -tea -fish and chips
theories of patriarchy in religion - mary daly (1992)
-argues that christianity is a patriarchal myth -the christian faith systematically eliminated other "goddess" religions and christianity is rooted in male "sado-rituals" -she further claims that the Catholic Church promotes misogyny (hatred of women). she uses the examples of how the book of genesis in the Old Testament talks of god creating Adam in his own likeness (so men are like god) and then creating eve (so women are the second sex) -daly argues that religion reinforces and promotes "symbolic violence" -symbolic violence = gender relations in which both men and women agree that women are weaker, less intelligent, more unreliable -examples to support her view are: it was eve that was weaker and gave into temptation by eating the apple, some religions say that women can't be priests -example of male "sado-rituals" = in hinduism, the women sacrifice themselves who their husband dies EVALUATION -only focusses on christianity
theories of patriarchy in religion - karen armstrong (1993)
-argues that early religions often placed women at the centre -for example, earth mother goddesses, fertility cults and female priesthoods were found throughout the middle east until about 6,000 years ago -however, from about 4,000 years ago the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of a single, all powerful male god, such as the hebrew's jehovah and male prophets such as abraham, the first prophet of judaism, christianity and islam --- the greek goddess athena: wisdom, courage, strength, warfare, law and justice
theories of patriarchy in religion - daphne hampson (1990)
-argues that these monotheistic religions have promoted a patriarchal construction of reality -it has contributed to the pattern of relationships between women and men -many christian feminists argue that there will never be gender equality in the church, so long as images of god are associated with masculinity
how might the promise of the "afterlife" contribute to the exploitation of the working class?
-believe that it is better to work hard for good karma so that in their next life they're in a higher caste (India's caste system) -the things we see now are temporary, while the things we do not see are eternal
examples of objects/animals/places that are sacred by some of the world religions
-bible -cross -holy water -crucifix -crown of thorns -dove -jerusalem -quran
civil religion - bellah (1991)
-civil religion refers to non-relious events, which generate loyalty and express a national sentiment in similar ways to religious ceremonies -he coined the term when examining American society -he argues that there is a "faith in americanism", which involves loyalty to the nation-state and a belief in god, both of which are equated with being a true American. it claims the loyalty of all Americans, not within a belief of a specific religion's god, but simply an "American" one -civil religion involves shared traditions, rituals, symbols and places of worship, and although these are not specifically religious, they draw allegiance from Americans as it is traditional and works to unify the nation examples of traditions, rituals, symbols, places of worship and religious holidays in the American culture: -flag -"god bless america" -thanksgiving -statue of liberty -inauguration of presidents -4th July (Independence Day) -bill of rights
feminist theories of religion
-conservative force -feminists argue that all traditional religious movements are male-centred, from rituals through to teachers and prophets -the church illustrates how deep rooted the masculine nature of the church is using male pronouns, and commands for women to take subservient roles -for example, feminists would point to the following quotes from the holy bible: *"let the women learn in silence with all subjection" *"all wickedness is but little to the wickedness of a woman" -patriarchy is also legitimised through religious power holders and the beliefs that they develop, in which women invariably play a lesser role, with the focus being primarily on male figures
evidence against patriarchy - woodhead (2009)
-criticises feminist explanations of religion, arguing that not all religion is patriarchal and oppressive -whilst she recognises that there is evidence of patriarchy in the practices and religious texts of traditional religions, she argues that women do use their religious practices as a form of feminism itself, to gain greater freedom and respect -for example, judaism has allowed women to become rabbis since 1972, and even some christian religions, particularly quakerism, have never been oppressive to women -in addition, sikh gurus pleaded the cause for the emancipation of women in india, fully supporting them in improving their condition in society
evidence against patriarchy - gilliat-ray (2010)
-found that some young british muslim women choose to wear the hijab in order to gain parental approval to attend further education and future employment, which in the past would never have been considered acceptable for them to do -the hijab or veil allows these women to step into the public sphere whilst maintaining their religious identity and practice analysis - women find wearing a hijab liberating as it rejects stereotypes of what women should look like and act like. it is a choice
how does Jim Jones and the people's temple support gramsci's ideas?
-he provided healthcare, food and clothes to members if they needed it -all people gave him their money and he distributed it evenly / they were provided for -he was caring towards the members so they trusted him -free of discrimination (everyone was equal) -gave people a sense of purpose -had connections to politicians who supported the working class -he was an outsider so could relate to and support the members
talcott parsons (1967) : values of religion
-he sees religion helping individuals cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable outcomes -he also identifies two other essential functions that religion performs in modern society: *religion creates and legitimises society's central values: religion serves to promote value consensus and thus social stability, through sacralising society's norms and expectations. for example, protestantism in the US promotes the core American values of individualism, meritocracy and self-discipline *religion provides the primary source of meaning: it answers "ultimate questions" about the human condition, such as why do good people suffer and why some people die so young. it provides embers with a sense of stability in a seemingly unstable world EVALUATION + there is evidence from all major world religions that they reinforce core values in societies + it is a flexible theory that can be applied universally to religions across different cultures - ignores conflict that exists between religions and the potential it has to disrupt social order e.g. extremism, some religions don't accept gay people or respect women's rights
religious practices after childbirth
-in christian tradition, there is a ceremony where a blessing is given to the mother after recovery called the 'churching of women' -in christianity, women are seen as impure for a week and they mustn't go to mass and they have to immerse themselves in a body of water
neo-marxism - gramsci (1971) : religion as a counter hegemony
-in his view, the superstructure is more autonomous and independent than marx acknowledged, and beliefs are no less real or important than economic forces -for gramsci, if the communist age was to come it would require proletarian action. however, this action must be guided by theoretical ideas -just as intellectuals of the Roman Catholic Church had shaped the minds of its followers over centuries, so must the industrial working class. it must produce its own proletarian intellectuals who can articulate the working-class experience and help shape working class consciousness -gramsci was well aware of the control that the Roman Catholic Church held over its members, he referred to this as hegemony. he noted how the church was often subservient to the state; however, he claimed that this didn't always need to be the case -he argued that popular forms of religion can help workers see through the ruling class hegemony by offering a vision of a better, fairer world -similarly, some clergy may act as intellectuals -- that is, as educators, organisers and leaders who can help the workers see the situation that they are in
karl marx : religion as the opium of the people
-marx wrote: "religion is the expression of real distress and the protest against real distress. it is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of the heartless world, just as it is the spirit of the spiritless situation. it is the opium of the people" RELIGION LEGITIMISES CLASS INEQUALITY -marx argues that religion, through its scripture, hymns and prayers, creates a false consciousness -he argues that it leads people in a false direction - the hopes and solutions it promises are illusory -religion for marx is part of the ruling class ideology, which distorts the believers' reality with teachings that legitimise class inequality and teach us to accept our place in the world, with the promise of reward in the afterlife for our suffering RELIGION IS A FORM OF SOCIAL CONTROL -religion also legitimises power and privilege of the dominant class by making their position seem divinely ordained. for example, in the 16th century, there was the divine right of kings, which was the belief that the king is god's representative on earth. this meant that attempts to change the social order would not only be acts of treason against the monarch, but also a rejection of god's plan, punishable by eternal damnation -this is not the case in contemporary society, as we have progressed the structure of society has become more complex and power has been granted elsewhere (e.g. government). however, there is still evidence of this social control in the house of lords, with a proportion of them being bishops and archbishops, known as lord spirituals. we also still see a clear connection between god and monarchy RELIGION HELPS US DEAL WITH ALIENATION -marx also sees religion as the product of alienation. alienation involves becoming separated from or losing control over something that one has produced or created. alienation exists in all class societies, but it is more extreme under capitalism, where those who own the means of production (e.g. the bourgeoisie) profit from individuals' hard work and efforts -under capitalism, workers are alienated because they do not own what they produce and have no control over the production process, and thus no freedom to express their true nature as creative beings. alienation reaches its peak with the detailed division of labour in the capitalist factory, where the worker endlessly repeats the same minute task, devoid of all meaning or skill -religion acts as an opiate to dull the pain of exploitation. however, just as opium masks pain rather than treating its cause, so religion masks the underlying problem of exploitation that creates the need for it. because religion is a distorted view of the world, it can offer no solution to earthly misery. instead, it promises of the afterlife create an illusory happiness that distracts attention from the true source of this suffering, namely capitalism EVALUATION + the hindu caste system is evidence of religion legitimising class inequality, as individuals born into a caste cannot change their position during their lifetime. if they live their life with good karma, they will be socially promoted or demoted when reincarnated + it accounts for the negative aspects of religion, when religion has been and is used to legitimise class conflict and wars - neo-marxists argue that marxists' ideas are outdated and that religion can actually be used as a force for change in society, by creating a counter-hegemony e.g. liberation theology, Martin Luther king etc. - religion still exists in communist countries today, which means that they must serve other purposes than simply to legitimise class inequality
marxist views of civil religion
-marxists view any apparent consensus in society as a benefit only to the ruling class, those who have wealth and power in society -they argue religious beliefs simply divert the working class from seeing their exploited state and trying to change society for the better -marx summed this up in his famous description of religion as the "opium of the people", liking it to a drug that gives people a false sense of well-being
liberation theology
-movement that emerged within the Catholic Church in Latin America at the end of the 1960s, with a strong commitment to the poor and opposition to military dictatorships -this was a major change for the catholic church, which was traditionally seen as being an extremely conservative institution, reinforcing fatalistic acceptance of poverty -unlike traditional catholicism, which supported the status quo, liberation theology set out to change society -for example, preists helped the poor to establish support groups, called "base communities", and helped workers and peasants to fight oppression under the protection of the church. priests took the lead in developing literacy programmes, educating the poor about their situation, raising awareness and mobilising support for rebel groups who wished to overthrow the government using guerrilla tactics MADURO (1982) -in societies where religion remains a dominant conservative institution, social liberation can only be brought about by movements such as liberation theology -the oppressed who may find all possible forms of protest blocked by the state can then take their discontent to the churches, where priests can fulfil the function of the proletarian intellectual. they would be able to provide a voice for the proletariat and educate them on strategies to combat equality
evidence of patriarchy - places of worship
-places of worship often segregate the sexes and marginalise women, for example seating them behind screens while the men occupy the central and more sacred spaces -women's participation may be restricted, for example not being allowed to preach or to read from sacred texts -taboos that regard menstruation, pregnancy and childbirth as polluting may also prevent participation. for example, in islam, menstruating women are not allowed to touch the quran -jean holm (1994) describes this as the devaluation of women in contemporary religion
emile durkheim (1915) : sacred and profane
-religion creates collective conscience and social solidarity -the main function of religion is to socialise members of society into a collective conscience. religion creates social order by: *setting certain values apart and infusing them with special significance (collective conscience) *encouraging collective worship (social solidarity) -durkheim argued that the key feature of religion was not a belief in the supernatural but a fundamental distinction of what is considered "sacred" and "profane" in the world: *the sacred : object/animals/places that are considered apart and forbidden, that inspire a sense of awe, fear or wonder and are to be treated differently to the profane (e.g. to be respected, placed in places of worship etc.) *the profane : objects/animal/places that are non-sacred but normal and mundane -the sacred evokes powerful feelings in believers, which durkheim believed was because they symbolise something greater than themselves. he argued that this could only be society, so when members of society worship their sacred objects, they are in fact worshipping society itself -durkheim based his theory around studies of clan societies in Aboriginal Australia, where the belief system revolves around totemism -a totem is an object which is usually represented by a drawing on wood/stone. the totem is considered to have divine properties that separate it from those animals or plants that may be eaten or harvested -there are a number of ceremonies and rituals involved in worship of the totem, which serve to bring the tribe together as a group, re-affirming their group identity. the visible totem because the means of objectifying the otherwise visible social life of the group -durkheim argued that when the clan took part in worshipping the totem they were actually worshipping their own society which the objects represented EVALUATION + durkheim has provided supporting evidence from aboriginal clan-societies that a belief system serves to bring people together and create social solidarity through collective worship + this theory can be applied to other societies and there is evidence of the sacred and profane in the different world religions - durkheim relied on second hand accounts of aboriginal culture and society, from anthropological studies conducted by others - Durkheim's ideas may only be applicable to small-scale societies with a single religious practice. it cannot be applied to today's society, where we have seen religious conflict between groups
evidence of patriarchy - religious laws and customs
-religious laws and customs may give women fewer rights than men, for example in access to divorce, how many spouses they may marry, decision making, dress etc. -religious influences on cultural norms may also lead to unequal treatment, such as genital mutlilation or punishments for sexual transgressions -many religions legitimate and regulate women's traditional domestic and reproductive role -for example, the catholic church bans abortion and artificial contraception -woodhead (2002) argues that the exclusion of women from the catholic priesthood evidence of the church's deep unease about the emancipation or women generally
evidence of patriarchy - religious organisations
-religious organisations are mainly male dominated despite the fact that women often participate more than men in these organisations (stained glass ceiling -- can see top positions but not reach them) -for example, orthodox judaism and catholicism forbid women to become priests -karen armstrong (1993) sees women's exclusion from the priesthood of most religions as evidence of their marginalisation eval: in 2015 there was the first female bishop, libby lane
evidence of patriarchy - sacred texts
-sacred texts largely feature the doings of male gods and prophets and are usually written and interpreted by men -stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes, such as that eve who, in the judo-christian story of genesis, caused humanity's fall from grace and expulsion from the garden of eden -e.g. "women should keep silence in church for they are not permitted to speak" -e.g. "the husband is head of the wife as christ is head of the church"
theories of patriarchy in religion - douglas (1966)
-she argues that religion concerns itself with containing and controlling pollution. she says: "i believe that some pollutions are used as analogies for expressing a general view of the social order. for example, there are beliefs that each sex is a danger to the other through contact with sexual fluids. according to other beliefs only one sex is endangered by contact with the other, usually males by females,,, such patterns of sexual danger can be seen to express asymmetry or hierarchy... i suggest that many ideas about sexual dangers are... mirroring designs of hierarchy... which apply in the wider societal system" -ways in which douglas' ideas are still relevant today: *muslim women are prohibited from fasting while menstruating *the 5 daily prayers, reading the quran and stepping into a mosque are also banned while menstruating *in christianity, the book of leviticus outlines the spread of menstrual impurity: anything she has touched is unclean until the evening and a man she has slept with is unclean for 7 days
bronislaw malinowski (1954) : psychological functions of religion
-studied a pre-industrial society, the trobriand islands (located in the western pacific) -he saw religion as reinforcing social norms and values, which promotes social solidarity and value consensus -he does not see religion as reflecting society as a whole, nor does he see religious ritual as worship of society itself as it involves no symbol, which stands for the society -he believes that religion performs psychological functions for members of society, which maintains the value consensus, and therefore, social order: *where the outcome is uncertain : when the islanders finished in the lagoon, there was no need for rituals to protect the fisherman. however, when ocean fishing, Malinowski noted that the islanders blessed the boat with "care magic", rituals to ensure a safe and successful expedition. Malinowski argues that these rituals serve as a "god of the gaps" -- filling in our lack of control in the world, providing a sense of ease and relieving tension *in time of crisis = life events such as births, marriages and deaths disrupt the social order, with the introduction or loss of members. religion provides a way of minimising this, for example funeral rituals unite members in solidarity and the notion of life after death comforts the grieving EVALUATION + his theory is based on first-hand accounts of a pre-industrial society that he studied + there are aspects of his theory that are still applicable to modern day society, e.g. funerals still provide comfort and closure to grieving friends and family members - his theory is based on the conducted in a pre-industrial, non-literate society. therefore, it may be difficult to apply this to societies that are more complex - as malowski was an outsider in his study, it is possible that he misinterpreted the meaning behind rituals and the functions they serve - some people turn to science
theories of patriarchy in religion - holm and bowker (1994)
-suggest that christianity, islam and judaism, all consider women's bodies and women's sexuality to be dangerous -in order to rectify these problems, religious organisations developed exclusively for women, and controlled by women, are the forerunners of the modern women's movement. this falls in line with radical feminists' two main ideas: *separation women from men and therefore escaping the oppression of women *enhancing women's sense of identity; as such, they are an early form of feminism and provide the basis for resistance to the power of men
priests are good proletariat intellectuals because :
-they have a higher status (on behalf of god) -well educated -have strong ties to poorer areas
evidence against patriarchy - holm and bowker (1994)
-they suggest that religious organisations developed exclusively for women are the forerunners of the modern women's movement in that they separate women from men and they enhance women's sense of identity -e.g. new age movements - spirituality and self improvement
oscar romero
-was an archbishop of san salvador -spread the message : "it's not god's will for some to have everything and others to have nothing" -he broadcast his sermon over the radio -- he had superiority because of censorship -he preached about the working class conditions -used "I order you in the name of god" to justify what he was saying