Unit 2 Skin and Bones

Arthritis

causes inflammed, swollen, and painful joints

Ossification

bone formation

Transverse Arch

stretches across the foot

Special Movements of the Ulna and Radius

supination and pronation

Epiphyseal Plate

synchondrosis joint; is band of hyaline cartilage; allows long bones to lengthen; synarthrotic

True Ribs

the first seven pairs of ribs whose cartilage directly articulates with the sternum

False Ribs

the 8-10th pairs of ribs whose cartilage joins with the sevenths ribs cartilage that joins to the sternum; so they articulate with the sternum indirectly

Differences Between the Female and Male Pelvis

Females: broader hips; pubic arch is greater than 90°; pelvic brim (inlet) is wider; shallow and broad (shorter from top to bottom and sacrum is wider); acetabulum is smaller and look more distinctly forward Males: Deep and funnel-shaped; narrow pubic arch less than 90°;

Structure and Function of the Subcutaneous Layer

Masses of areolar and adipose tissue, contains elastic and collagenous fiber, and nerves, also contains major blood vessels that supply the skin. Adipose insulates the skin, areolar binds skin to underlying organs.

Major Bones that Shape the Face?

Maxillae(2), palatine(2), zygomatic(2), lacrimal(2), nasal(2), vomer(1), inferior nasal conchae(2), and mandible(1)

4 Cell Types Present in the Epidermis

Melanocyte= produce melanin Keratinocytes= produce keratin Epithelial cells= protection Epidermal dendritic cells=play a role in initiating an immune response by phagocytizing microorganisms

How Do Bone of the Pelvis Articulate Anteriorly and Posteriorly

articulates posteriorly to the sacrum via the sacroiliac joint; and anteriorly via the pubis symphysis

Joint Disorders

Sprains, bursitis, osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gout

Pigment responsible for Skin and Hair Color

Melanin

Functions of Bone Tissue

*Give shapes to structures: gives shape to the head *supports: the bones in the legs and pelvis support the trunk *protects: the brain by the skull *When limbs move bone and muscles interact *hematopoiesis (blood cell formation) *inorganic salt storage(calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite), magnesium, sodium, potassium, and carbonate ions) *energy storage: yellow marrow contains fats that can be used for energy

Four Classifications of Bones by Shape

*Long Bones: femur and humerus *Short Bones: carpals and tarsals; sesamoid or round bone= patella *Flat Bones: ribs, scapulae, sternum, some bones of the skull (parietal) *Irregular Bones: vertebrae, some facial bones

Three Factors that Influence the Stability of a Synovial Joint

*shape of opposing bone surfaces *reinforcing ligaments that enclose the joint *muscles that enclose the joint

Phalanges (hand)

14 bones of the fingers of one hand; thumb has a proximal phalanx and a distal phalanx, the other four have a proximal phalanx, middle phalanx, and a distal phalanx

Phalanges (foot)

14 toe bones, similar to the fingers but are smaller; each toe has three phalanges- a proximal phalanx, a middle phalanx, and a distal phalanx; except the big toe only has a proximal and distal phalanx;

Metacarpals

5 bones of the palm region named I to V from thumb to pinky side

How do people of different races differ in skin color?

A race that is closer to the equator will produce more melanin because their melanocytes have the gene to produce more melanin. The more melanin produced the darker the individual.

What is an epidermal derivative?

An epidermal derivative is something that comes from the epidermis. EX: hair follicles, merocrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.

Why is Ossification a Lifelong Event?

Bones are remodeled throughout life

Major Homeostatic Imbalances of the Skin

Burns, wounds, acne, skin cancer,

Synonymous Words for Inorganic Bone Matrix

Calcium Phosphate=hydroxyapatite=mineral salts

Differences Between the Three Types of Vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae: smallest bodies, have transverse foramina; spinous process of of 2-6 vertebrae is bifid (forked) Thoracic Vertebrae: medium sized, medium bodies, no transverse foramina, spinous process is long, and slant inferiorly Lumbar Vertebrae: largest sized, largest bodies, no transverse foramina, spinous process is short and blunt

5 Regions of the Vertebral Column

Cervical= 7 bones Thoracic= 12 bones Lumbar= 5 bones Sacrum= 5 fused bones make up 1 whole bone Coccyx= 4 fused bones make up 1 whole bone

Difference Between Spongy Bone and Compact Bone

Compact bone is solid, organized, and have Haversian Systems (osteon) and is solid and dense Spongy bone has fragments of bone with open space (trabeculae) filled with red bone marrow and function in hematopoiesis

Layers of the Skin, structure and function

Epidermis= stratified squamous epithelium that is keratinized. Function= Protection Dermis=dense irregular CT that contains blood vessels, nerves, muscle, hair follicles and glands Function= secretion, nourishes, and strengthens skin

Hinge Joints

Flexion and extension; EX: elbow joint and knee joint

Four Skull Bones that Contain Paranasal Sinuses?

Frontal, maxilla, sphenoid, and ethmoid

What Are the Eight Bones that Protect the Brain?

frontal, two parietal, occipital, two temporal, sphenoid, and ethmoid

Major Hormones Involved in Bone Remodeling and Development

Growth Hormone= secreted by the pituitary gland and stimulates division of cartilage cells in epiphyseal plates. Too much (kids)= pituitary gigantism. Too little(kids)= pituitary dwarfism Too much ( adults)= acromegaly Thyroxine= secreted by thyroid gland. stimulates replacement of cartilage in the epiphyseal plates of long bones with bone tissue. increases cell metabolism, stimulates osteoblasts Parathyroid hormone= stimulates the increase in number and activity of osteoclasts. Estrogen= effect on epiphyseal plate is stronger than testosterone; promote formation of bone tissue; stimulate ossification at the epiphyseal plates Testosterone= promote formation of bone tissue; stimulate ossification at the epiphyseal plates Calcitonin= secreted by thyroid gland; stimulates osteoblasts to form bone tissue

Intramembranous Vs Endochondral Ossification

Intramembranous= bone develops within a fibrous membrane. EX: flat bones Endochondral= bone develops within a cartilage model. EX: long, short and irregular bones

The Protective Role of Keratin and the Epidermis

Keratin is a protein that makes the skin and hair waterproof. This makes sure that water doesn't escape through the epidermis. The epidermis protects the body from loosing too much water

Organic and Inorganic Components of Bone Matrix

Organic Component: cells, osteoid and collagen=Strength Inorganic Component: calcium phosphate (hydroxyapatite)= solid and dense

Radius

is on the thumb side

Haversian (Osteon) System

Osteocytes are the primary bone cell that carries out daily activities. Lacunae are the "house" within bone matrix where osteocytes live in. Lamellae are concentric layers of bone matrix haversian canal or central canal contains blood vessels (veins and arteries) and nerve fibers surrounded by loose CT. blood vessels nourish bone cells associated with the central canal via gap junctions of osteocytes. bone matrix consists of calcium phosphate and collagen in organized lamellae canaliculi communicating channels between osteocytes that transport nutrients and wastes

Different Types of Bone Cells

Osteoprogenitor Cell: from mesenchyme, in primitive bone and gives rise to osteoblasts Osteoblast: from osteoprogenitor, in bone, and function is to lay down bone matrix Osteocyte: from osteoblast, in bone Osteoclast: from bone marrow, phagocytic cell that left blood and traveled to bone, in bone, and reabsorbs bone and releases calcium into the blood

Functions of the Skin

Protection Control of body temperatures with sweating and constriction or dilation of blood vessels Sensory receptors with tactile Meissner's cell and lamellated Pacinian Corpuscles Vitamin D synthesis with sunlight Immunity with epidermal dendritic cells (macrophages) and some T-cells Blood Reservoir with 10% of blood vessels located in the skin Excretion

Features of Long Bones

Red marrow is within spaces of spongy bone

Merocrine (eccrine) Sweat Glands

Respond to an increase in body temperature; secretion is watery with salts, water, and waste (urea); no odor; run from coil to surface; functions throughout life; widely distributed but abundant in the forehead, neck and back.

Apocrine Sweat Glands

Responds to stress; secretion is thicker due to cellular debris and water, salts and waste (urea); secretion does have odor; empty into hair follicle; function from puberty to rest of life; axillary and inguinal region

Parts of the Zygomatic Arch?

Temporal process and zygomatic process

Epiphyseal Plate

The epiphyseal plate (growth plate) is composed of four zones of hyaline cartilage that allow for longitudinal bone growth (length).

Mandible

The only skull bone that can move and it moves at the temporomandibular joint

How is the Nasal Septum Made Up of Two Different Bones?

The vomer forms the inferior part and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone forms the superior part, theses two join together to form this.

Vitamins and Minerals Involved in Bone Remodeling

Vitamin D= necessary for proper absorption of calcium in the small intestine. Deficiency= osteomalacia (adults) or rickets (children) softening of bone Vitamin A= necessary for osteoblast and osteoclast activity during normal development. Deficiency= retard bone development Vitamin C= required for collagen synthesis. Deficiency= inhibits bone development, bone is abnormally slender and fragile (scurvy) Calcium= needed for strong bones and normal development Deficiency could cause bones to break easily or have deformities Phosphorus= works with calcium to make the mineral calcium phosphate and helps make bones strong Deficiency could cause bones to break easily or have deformities magnesium

How Do Neighboring Haversian Systems Communicate With One Another?

Volkmann's canals or perforating canals

Negative Feedback System of Calcium in the Blood

When blood calcium is low, parathyroid hormone is secreted and stimulates the activity of osteoclasts to break down bone matrix and to release calcium into the blood. When blood calcium is too high it inhibits osteoclasts, and calcitonin is released to stimulate the activity of osteoblast. This is related to remodeling because Osteoclast will break down the bone and then the osteoblast will rebuild that bone where osteoclasts broke it down.

Suture

a ligament that fuses flat bones of the skull together very tightly

How Can Intervertebral Disc Be All of the Following: an amphiarthrosis, cartilaginous joint, symphyses, gliding joint, and plane joint.

amphiarthrosis=Allows for slight movement cartilaginous joint=composed of fibrocartilage symphyses=Composed of a pad of fibrocartilage gliding joint=Allows for slight movement between body's of vertebrae plane joint=Allows for gliding movement

Appositional Vs Longitudinal Bone Growth

appositional= increases bone thickness longitudinal= increases bone length

Synchondrosis

bands of hyaline cartilage unite the bones; most are temporary structures that disappear during growth; synarthrotic joint EX: epiphyseal plate that participates in bone growth and is replaced with bone, once it is completely ossified it becames a synostosis

Why is the skin called the cutaneous membrane?

because it is composed of two tissues. The epidermis is composed of stratified squamous epithelium and the dermis is composed of dense irregular CT.

Syndesmosis

bones are bound by a sheet (interosseous membrane) or bundle of dense CT (interosseous ligament); is flexible and can be twisted; amphiarthrotic joint; EX: interosseous membrane between the tibia and fibula

Ligaments

bundles of strong, tough collagenous fibers that reinforce the joint capsule and help bind the articular ends of the bones; help prevent excessive movement at the joint

Synovial Fluid

clear, viscous fluid; contains stem cells, which can function in ligament regeneration following injury; it moistens and lubricates the smooth cartilaginous surfaces of the joint; helps supply articular cartilage with nutrients obtained from blood vessel in the synovial membrane. Water=lubricates and moistens; phagocytes= phagocytosis;

Intervertebral Disc

composed of a band of fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosus) that surrounds a gelatinous core (nucleus pulposus); absorbs shock and helps equalize pressure between the vertebrae when the body moves, is amphiarthrotic joint

Upper Limbs

composed of humerus, ulna, radius, metacarpals, carpals and phalanges

Calcaneus

is the heel bone, is the largest of the tarsals, cannot move freely; helps support body weight and provides an attachment for the muscles that move the foot

Sebaceous Glands

contain groups of specialized epithelial cells and usually are associated with hair follicles; holocrine glands, cells produce globules of fatty material that accumulate, swelling and bursting the cells results in sebum. Sebum keeps hair soft, pliable, and waterproof. Location= scattered throughout the skin but not on the palms or soles. can open directly on the surface of the skin; usually associated with hair

Fibrous Joints

dense CT holds them together and includes many collagenous fibers; between bones in close contacts; either syndesmosis, sutures, or gomphosis

Synovial Joints

diarthrotic; consists of articular cartilage, a joint capsule, and a synovial membrane, which secretes synovial fluid

Carpals

eight of them, bones of the wrist Anterior View: Thumb------------------------------>Pinky scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

Special Movements of the Shoulder

elevation and depression

Special Movements of the Foot (sole)

eversion and inversion

Longitudinal Arch

extends from heel to toe

Wormian (sutural) Bone

extra bones in the skull that sometimes develop in the sutures between the flat bones of the skull

Bursae

fluid-filled sacs; each has an inner lining of synovial membrane; contain synovial fluid; commonly located between the skin and underlying bony prominences; cushion and aid the movement of tendons that glide over bony parts or over other tendons.

Diarthrotic

freely movable joint; ex: synovial joints (knee joint)

Articulation

functional junctions between bones; bind parts of the skeletal system, make possible bone growth, permit parts of the skeleton to change shape during childbirth, and enable the body to move in response to muscle contractions; also known as joints.

Functional Classification of Joints

grouped according to the degree of movement possible at the bony junctions; can either be synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, or diarthrotic

Structural Classification of Joints

grouped according to the type of tissue that binds the bones at each junction; fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints, or synovial joints

Joint Capsule

has two distinct layers holds together the bones of a synovial joint; outer layer=dense CT, whose fibers attach to the periosteum, completely encloses the other parts of the joint; flexible enough to permit movement and strong enough to help prevent the articular surfaces from being pulled apart; the inner layer is the synovial membrane

Function of Trabeculae

hematopoiesis

Cartilaginous Joints

hyaline cartilage or fibrocartilage connects the bones; two types synchondrosis and symphysis

Synarthrotic

immovable joint; ex: sutures

Axial Skeleton

includes the cranium, middle ear bones, hyoid, thoracic cage and vertebral column

Appendicular Skeleton

includes the pectoral and pelvic girdles and the upper and lower limbs

Pubis Symphysis

is a fibrocartilage disc covered with hyaline cartilage

Hematopoiesis

is blood cell formation that occurs in the red bone marrow in the spongy bone of flat bones and epiphyses of long bones.

Significance of Spongy Bone within Flat Bone

is filled with red bone marrow that functions in hematopoiesis

Ulna

is on the pinky side

Talus

is the top bone of the ankle that articulates with the tibia and fibula; it can move freely where it joins the tibia and fibula

Patella is Unique Because...

it is a flat sesamoid bone that is located in a tendon that passes anteriorly over the knee; functions in lever actions associated with the lower limb movements

Gomphosis

joint formed by the union of a cone-shaped body process in a bony socket; synarthrotic joint; EX: Periodontal ligament where the tooth fastens into the maxilla or mandible

Floating Ribs

last two pairs of ribs that do not have cartilage that articulates with the sternum in any way

Function of Osteoblast in Remodeling

lay down bone matrix and store excess calcium

Hyoid Bone

located at the neck between the lower jaw and the larynx; doesn't articulate with any other bone of the skeleton; supports the tongue and is an attachment for certain muscles that help move the tongue during swallowing. Is a U-shaped bone

Metatarsals

located in the instep of the foot, numbered I through V beginning on medial side;

Olecranon Process

located on the proximal part of the ulna at the elbow joint; it fits into the olecranon fossa of the humerus when the elbow is straightened; provides an attachment for the muscle (triceps brachii) that straightens the upper limb at the elbow

Fibula

long, slender bone; lateral side of the leg; has a distal lateral malleolus, which articulates with the ankle and protrudes on the lateral side; this bone does not enter the knee joint and does not bear any body weight

Femur

longest, strongest and largest bone of the body

Cells that produce melanin

melanocytes

Symphysis

on the articular surface of bones, and are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage, and the cartilage in turn is attached to a pad of springy fibrocartilage; amphiarthrotic joint EX: pubic symphysis in pelvis or intervertebral disc between vertebrae

Capitulum

one of the condyles on the distal end of the humerus that is knob-like and is on the lateral side. it articulates with the radius at the elbow

Trochlea

one of the condyles on the distal end of the humerus that is pully-shaped; on the medial side; articulates with the ulna at the elbow

Sutures

only between the flat bones of the skull, where the broad margins of adjacent bones grow together and unite by a thin layer of dense CT called a sutural ligament; synarthrotic joint EX: parietal and occipital bones meet at the lambdoid suture

Condylar Joint

or ellipsoidal joint; All angular movement except rotation; ex: joints between metacarpals and phalanges

Plane Joints

or gliding joints; Gliding movement; ex: joints in the wrist or ankle and intervertebral discs

Articular Discs

or menisci; are between the surfaces of articular cartilage of some joints; in the knee joint they cushion the articulating surfaces and help distribute body weight onto these surfaces

Saddle Joint

or sellar joint, Concave and convex bone surfaces that allow for free movement; EX: joint between the carpal (trapezium) and the metacarpal of the thumb

Ball-and-Socket Joints

or spherodial joints; Head of one bone surface fits into socket of other bone surface permitting all angular movement; EX: hip and shoulder joints

Pivot Joint

or trochoid joint; Rotation movement; EX: proximal ends of radius and ulna, atlas rotates around the dens of the of the axis

Bursitis

overuse of a joint or stress on a bursa which results in inflammation of the bursa; treated with rest

Functions of the Periosteum

protects muscle attachment bone remodeling

Arches Function

provide a stable, springy base for the body

Trochanters

provide attachments for muscles of the lower limbs and buttocks;

Function of Osteoclast in Remodeling

reabsorb bone matrix and release calcium into the blood

Functions of Paranasal Sinuses?

reduce the weight of the skull and increase the intensity of the voice by serving as resonant sound chambers

Articular Cartilage

resists wear and minimizes friction when it is compressed as the joint moves

Sprains

result from overstretching or tearing the connective tissues, including cartilage, ligaments, and tendons associated with a joint, but they do not dislocate the articular bones; from forceful wrenching or twisting; painful and swollen, restricting movement.

Two Structures Associated with Hair Follicles

sebaceous glands and apocrine sweat glands

Tarsals

seven ankle bones; contains the talus which can move freely where it joins the tibia and fibula, forming the ankle; calcaneus is the largest ankle bone, or heel bone, is below the talus; the other five are the navicular, cuboid, lateral cuneiform, intermediate cuneiform and medial cuneiform

Tibia

shin bone; located on the medial side of the leg; larger of the two leg bones; have medial and lateral condyles on in proximal end that are concave and articulate with the condyles of the femur; at the distal end the bone expands to from a prominence on the inner ankle called the medial malleolus, which is an attachment for ligaments

Synovial Membrane

shiny, vascular lining of loose CT that is only a few cells thick, and covers all of the surfaces within the joint capsule, except articular cartilage covers. surrounds a closed sac called the synovial cavity that secretes synovial fluid; in some areas there are villi as well as larger folds and projections that extend into the cavity and increases surface area; may store adipose tissue, reabsorbs fluid

Intervertebral Discs

shock absorbers of the vertebral column between each vertebrae; made up of a band of fibrocartilage (annulus fibrosus) that surrounds a gelatinous core (nucleus pulposus)

Amphiarthrotic

slightly movable joint; ex: intervertebral discs

Sesamoid Bone

special type of short bone that is usually small and nodular, and imbedded in a tendon adjacent to a joint, where the tendon is compressed. EX. Patella

Components of Thoracic Cage

sternum, ribs, and costal cartilage

Fatty Pads

stored adipose tissue that are movable in a joint; located within the synovial membrane