Unit 2 Test

Diffusion of TV in the 20th century

- TV diffused during the 21st century from the United States to Europe and then to developing countries - Early twentieth century: Multiple Hearths Television tech was developed simultaneously in the UK, France, Germany, Japan, Soviet Union, and US, thought US held a near monopoly - Mid-twentieth century: United States dominates In 1954, the first year that the United Nations published data on the subject, the United States ad 86% of the world's 37 million TV sets - Late twentieth Century: Diffusion to Europe Rapid growth of ownership in Europe meant that the share of the world's sets in the US declined to one-fourth, Still, in 1970, half of the countries in the world, mostly in Africa and Asia, had little if any TV broadcasting - Early twenty-first century: Near-universal access By 2005, ownership rates climbed sharply in many developing countries, diminishing international differences. - Americans are still the most likely to watch tv - how to watch tv is changing, over air is decreasing, cable increasing modestly, and satellite dish and internet growing well

Internal Threats

- TV is a force for political change, not stability. People can access things from any country, making it difficult for the government to control the information that they get - Gov. have little success shutting down satellite technology. Despite threat of heavy fines, several hundred Chinese still own satellite dishes. The small sizes of the dishes makes it easy to smuggle them into the country, and erect behind a wall or canvas, out of sight. Even though it may be expensive - up to twice the annual salary of a typical Chinese worker, several neighbors can share the cost and the Dish - Internet and individual Social Media are even harder to block. Popular uprisings against undemocratic governments in Egypt, Libya, and other countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa in 2011 relied on individuals sending information through cell phones, twitter, and other social media

Diffusion of social media

- The diffusion of the internet and social media has same pattern as TV, but is much faster. While diffusion of TV took a half-century, diffusion of the internet only took a decade - Though social media has diffused all over the world, it is still dominated by the US - US was the source of 1/3 of all twitter messages, another one-third came from India, Japan, Germany, the UK, Brazil and Canada. India is the 2nd leading country in Twitter

Unequal Access

- The main obstacle to pop culture is the lack of access to electronic media. - Access is limited mostly by lack of income but sometimes because of lack of electricity or cell phone service in undeveloped areas

Folk Music: Origin and Context

- Usually originate anonymously - Transmitted orally - may be modified from on generation to the other as conditions change, but content is most often derived from events in daily life that are familiar to most people - folk music travels with a group as they migrate, as part of its diffusion. - may tell a story or convey information about life-cycle events, such as birth, death, and marriage, or environmental features, such as agriculture and climate: For example, in Vietnam, where most people are subsistence farmers, information about agricultural technology was traditionally conveyed through folk songs. Festivals throughout Vietnam feature music in locally meaningful environment settings, such as hillsides or on water. Singer s in traditional clothes sing about elements of daily life in the local village, such as trees, flowers, and water source.

Preserving Endangered Languages: Welsh

- Welsh was dominant in Wales until the 19th century, when many English speakers migrated there to work in coal mines and factories - The Welsh Language Society has been instrumental in protecting the language - Britain's 1988 Education Act made Welsh language training compulsory in all Welsh schools, and added Welsh. Welsh history and music have also been added to the curriculum. - Local governments and utility companies are now obliged to provide services in Welsh - Welsh road signs - BBC produces Welsh television and radio programs - Knowledge of Welsh required in many jobs, especially in public service, media, culture, and sports

Ethnic Religions

- appeal primarily to one groups of people living in one place - principles are likely to be based on the physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated - unknown origins - do not typically diffuse far from their place of origin - The biggest one is Hinduism

Sustainability

- folk culture derived from local natural elements may be more sustainable than pop culture, which is likely to modify the environment in accordance with global values (golf courses) - For folk culture, the challenge is to maintain unique local landscape, for pop culture, the challenges derive from the sustainability of practices designed to promote uniform landscapes Folk: - living in rural and frontier settlements relatively isolated from other groups, Amish communities retained their traditional customs, even as other immigrants adopted new ones. Recently, Amish families in Lancaster County, Penn - the oldest and once largest Amish community in the US - have migrated to other counties in southwestern Kentucky to get cheaper land and avoid tourists - In India, dowries were historically a gift given from the groom's family to the brides, as a sign of respect. In the 20th century, the custom reversed, and the family of the bride was expected to give a substantial dowry. Anti-Dowry laws created in 1961 have been largely ignored, and violence, even death have been caused by disagreements over dowries Pop Culture: - pop culture requires the landscape to be modified with little regard for local factors. Golf courses, for example, consume large quantities of land and water, introduce non-native grass, and use fertilizers and pesticides - Pop culture generates a high level of waste, of all three forms, but the most visible is solid, in shape of cans, plastics, papers, and other objects that are usually discarded instead of recycled. - (However, it is important to note that despite popular belief, folk culture can also be damaging to the environment, especially when natural process are ignored. Very high rates of soil erosion have been documented in Central America from the practices of folk culture like burning grasslands, cutting intensive forests, and overhunting some species) - Though both folk and pop culture require demand certain products, the increased popularity of pop culture is often much more harmful. The want for animal skins for clothing, such as that of the mink, lynx, jaguar, kangaroo, and whale have caused those animals to become endangered - The increased popularity of meat for consumption has lead to an increased production of cattle and poultry, but meat is 90% less efficient than eating grain. To produce 1 kilo of beef, nearly 10 kilos of grain are consumed by the animal. For every kilo of chicken, nearly 3 kilos are consumed. With such a large percentage of the world malnourished, some people wonder why we don't eat grain directly. - Paper is the principle source of solid waste before recycling, but plastics and food waste are the leading sources after

Sedentary Farmer Hypothesis

- lived 2,000 years before the Kurgans, in eastern Antolia, part of present-day Turkey - Some support that location but claim that lived even earlier, around 6700 B.C. - They diffused westward to Greece, from there to Italy, Sicily, Corsica, the Mediterranean coast of France, Spain, and Portugal. From there, they migrated northward toward central and northern France and onto the British Isles - It is said to have diffused to Europe and South Asia along with agricultural practices. because speakers of the language became more numerous and prosperous bu relying on their own food and not hunting, the language triumphed.

Distribution of Sino-Tibetan languages

- predominant language family of East Asia - China (not all) and surrounding countries of southeast Asia - Chinese languages typically belong to Sinitic Branch

Distribution of Indo-European languages

- predominant language family of Europe, Latin America, North America, South Asia, and South Pacific

Creole Language

- the form of language spoken by colonized people, a mix of there language and the language of their colonizers - A language that results from the mixing of a colonizer's language with the indigenous language of the people being dominated - it forms when the colonized group adopts the language of the dominant group but makes some changes, such as simplifying the grammar and adding words from the former language - the creolized versions of certain romance languages can be considered separate languages because they differ from the original substantially

Distribution of golf courses

- the greatest number of golf courses per person is in north-central states/upper midwest because these regions have a long tradition of playing golf, and social clubs with golf courses are important institutions in their popular customs - Golf courses are limited in the South and California because of rapid population growth - they are limited in the heavily urbanized mid atlantic region from NY to DC because of lack of land - Certain southern and western areas, such as coastal South Carolina, southern Florida, and central Arizona, have high concentrations because of arrival of large numbers of golf-playing northerners, either as vacationers or as permanent residents

Function of a church

- they are considered expressions of religious principles, an environment in the image of God. - attendance at collective services and worship is considered very important - though no longer true for large cities, churches were traditionally placed in important and prominent locations, and were the largest and tallest building. - There is no dominant style of church, and they vary with region and branch of Christianity.

Function of a mosque

- unlike churches, mosques are seen not as sanctifies places but rather as a location for the community to gather together for worship. Not only for praying, they may also have room for schools and nonreligious activities.

The calendar in universalizing and ethnic religions

Ethnic: - base calendar off physical features and changing of seasons - knowledge of calendar is important to know the annual cycle of variations in climatic conditions, which are essential to the success of agriculture, whether for farmers or nomadic animal herders - Judaism, being an ethnic religion, has holidays based off events in the agricultural calendar. However, these were later reinterpreted to also commemorate the events in the Exodus of Jews from Egypt. This was especially important to Jews in different regions of the world, who weren't familiar with the agricultural calendar of Southwest Asia. Most of the world uses the Solar Calendar, but Israel, the only country with a Jewish majority, uses a lunar calendar. Universalizing: -based off of important events in the founder's life - Islam also uses the lunar calendar, but instead of adding an extra month every few years to match the agricultural and solar calendar, Islam follows a strict one, which means holidays arrive at different times each year. - Protestants and Catholics use the Gregorian Calendar, while the orthodox church uses the Julian Calendar. They may associate holidays with seasonal variations, but climate and agriculture are not central.

Diffusion of Islam

Islam, a universalizing religion, spread well beyond its hearth in Southwest Asia through relocation diffusion of missionaries to portions of sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia. Muhammad's successors organized followers who extended the region of Muslims control over an extensive area of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Within a century of of Muhammad's death, they controlled Palestine, the Persian Empire, and much of India. Many converted to Islam, mainly through intermarriage. To the west, they diffused across North Africa, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar, and retained part of Western Europe, particularly much of present day Spain, until 1492. In the century which Christians reclaimed all of Western Europe, Muslims took control of much of southeastern Europe and Turkey. Indonesia, the world's 4th most populous country, is predominantly Muslim because Arab traders brought the religion there in the 13th century.

Branches of Buddhism

Mahayana: - account for 53% of Buddhists, primarily in China, Japan, and Korea - split from Theravada 2,000 years ago - name means "the great vehicle", indicating how they believe their approach helps more people b/c it is less demanding - Emphasize Buddha's later years of teaching and helping others, cite his compassion Theravada: - comprise about 38% of Buddhists, especially in Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand - name means "the way of the elders", indicating how they believe they are closer to Buddha's original approach - Buddhism is a full-time occupation, and a good Buddhist must renounce worldly goods and become a monk - emphasize life of self-help and years of solitary introspection, cite his wisdom Vajrayana: - comprise about 6% and are found in primarily Tibet and Mongolia - emphasize practice of rituals known as Tantras - believe that Buddha began to practice them during his lifetime, though others regard it as an approach evolved from Mahayana several centuries earlier

Origin of Islam

Muhammad, a descendant of Ishmael, was born in Makkah about 570. At age 40, during a meditative retreat, he received his first revelation from god through the Angel Gabriel, who reveal to him the contents of the Quran. As Muhammad began to preach the truth that God had revealed to him, he suffered persecution, as was commanded by god to emigrate in 622. His migration from Makkah to the city of Yathrib (known as the Hirja) marks the beginning of the Muslim calendar. Yathrib was renamed Madinah, Arabic for "city of the prophet". Many years later, Muhammad and his followers returned to Makkah and established Islam as the city's religion. By Muhammad's death, in 632 at about the age 63, Islam had spread through most of Saudi Arabia.

Origin of Christianity

Raised as a Jew, Jesus gathered a small band of disciples and preached the coming of the Kingdom of God. The 4 Gospels of the Bible - Matthew, Mark, Luke and John - documented miracles and extraordinary deeds that Jesus performed. He was referred to as Christ, from the Greek word for the Hebrew word messiah, which means "anointed". In the 3rd year of his mission, Jesus was betrayed to the authorities by one of his companions, Judas Iscariot. After sharing the Last Supper with his disciples in Jerusalem, Jesus was arrested and put to death as an agitator. On the 3rd day after his death, his tomb was found empty. Christians believe that Jesus died to atone for humans sins, that he was raised from the dead by God, and that his Resurrection from the dead provides people with the hope for salvation.

Function of a Hindu Temple

Rather than seen as places for congregational worship, they are places to house shrines for particular gods. They are maintained by wealthy individuals or groups, and size and number are decided by local circumstances rather than religious doctrine.

Origin of Buddhism

Siddhartha Gautama led a life of privileged existence as the son of a lord in Nepal. According to legend, he went on 4 trips, on the first three, he saw humans through various stages of pain and suffering, and no longer felt comfortable with his life. On the 4th trip, he met a monk who taught him about withdrawal. At 29, he left to meditate in a forest for 6 years, and emerged as the Buddha. He spent the rest of his life preaching his views, training monks, and establishing orders.

Diffusion of Judaism

Unlike most ethnic religions, Judaism is practiced in many countries. Many Jews have not lived in the Eastern Mediterraneans since A.D 70, when the Romans crushed an attempt by Jews to rebel against Roman rule, and forced diaspora. Most Jews migrated to Europe, thought some went to North Africa and Asia. They lived among other nationalities, adopting cultural characteristics other than religion. Historically, Jews in many European countries were forced to live in ghettos, the term originating in Venice Italy as a reference to the city's foundry/metal-casting district where Jews were forced to live. After the Holocaust, less than 15% of Jews live in Europe, compared to the 90% a century ago. Many migrated to Israel after its creation in 1948, the first time a significant portion of Jews has lived in the Eastern Medditerranean since diaspora.

Distribution of Austronesian languages

- Spoken by 6% of the world's people - mostly in Indonesia, the world's 4th most populous country - Javanese, spoken by 85 million people, is the first most commonly spoken language in Indonesia, mostly on Java, where 2/3 of the population is clustered - Malagasy is also Austronesian because of migration from Indonesia to Madagascar 2,000 years ago

Hearth

A Hearth Is A Center Of Innovation Folk Culture: - often has anonymous hearths - unknown dates - unidentified originators - might have multiple hearths, originating separately in isolated locations Popular Culture: - Most often a product of developed countries, mainly in North America and Europe - traceable to a specific person/corporation at a particular place Developments that have produced many elements of Pop Culture are: 1) Industrial Technology: production of identical products in large quantities 2) Increased Leisure Time: a shift from predominantly agricultural society to predominantly service and manufacturing

Language families

- A collection of languages related to each other through a common ancestor long before recorded history - Language families are further divided into branches and groups - 2/3 of the world speaks a language that belongs to the Indo-European or Sino-Tibetan language, the 2 biggest language families - 2% - 6% of the world use 7 other language families: Niger-Congo, Afro- Asiatic, Austronesian, Dravidian, Altaic, Japanese, and Austro - Asiatic (in that order) - 5% uses one of the 100 smaller families - Some linguists speculate that language families were joined into superfamilies tens of thousands of years ago, but superfamilies are controversial and speculative

Lingua Francas

- A lingua franca is a language of international communication; A language mutually understood and commonly used in facilitating trade by people who have different languages - Created by mixing elements of the two languages into a simple common language - term means language of the Franks, originally applied by Arab traders during the Middle Ages to describe the language they used to communicate with Europeans who they called Franks.

Universalizing Religions

- A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location or of a particular culture - originate with a single historical individual - diffused from place of origin to other regions of the world - The 3 biggest ones are Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism

Reviving Extinct Languages: Hebrew

- Most of the Jewish bible is written in Hebrew. It was a language of daily activity in biblical times, but diminished in use duringing the 4th cent, and only used during Jewish religious services - When Israel was established as an independent country in 1948, its Jewish population consisted of refugees and migrants with varying backgrounds, and Hebrew was the only language that could so symbolically unify the cultural groups of the new country. They made it an official language along with Arabic - Words had to be created for thousands of new objects that didn't exist in biblical times like "telephone" or "car" - New words, when possible, were realted to ancient ones - Eliezer Ben-Yehuda lived in Palestine before creation of Israel and refused to speak any language other than Hebrew. He is credited the invention of 4,000 new words and the first modern Hebrew dictionary

Cosmogony

- A set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of the universe Ethnic: - a variety of events in the physical environment are more likely to be incorporated into the principles of an ethnic religion - Chinese Ethnic religion, such as Confucianism and Taoism believe that everything in the universe is made up of the forces of Yin and Yang, who interact ti achieve balance and harmony, but are in a constant state of change. An imbalance results in disorder and chaos. the principle of Yin and Yang applies to the creation and transformation of all features Universalizing: - consider that God created the universe, and is more powerful than any force of nature, and if in conflict, the laws of God take precedence over the force of nature. - a religious person can serve god by cultivation the land, building new settlements, and generally making productive use of natural features. Some religious developers advocate that it is a way to serve god - Roman Catholic catechism states that earth was given to humanity to finish the task of creating and obeying God means independence from the Tyranny of natural forces - Muslims regard humans as representatives of God on Earth, reflecting in attributes, but not partners. - Christians are more likely to consider natural disasters as punishments for human sins

Animism

- Belief that objects, such as pants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life - Practiced by 100 million Africans, or 12% of the continent - based on monotheistic concepts, although below the supreme god their is a hierarchy of divinities, who many be assistants to the supreme god or personifications of natural phenomena, such as trees or rivers

Characteristics of Popular Culture

- Definition: Found in Large heterogeneous societies that share certain habits despite differences in other personal characteristics - Product of developed countries: traceable to a person/organization, typically in developed countries, especially North America and Europe (Pop music as we know it today originated in 1900, when variety shows, known as music halls in the UK and vaudeville in US were the main popular musical entertainment in North America and Europe. To provide songs for them, a music industry was developed in a district of NY that came to be known as Tin Pan alley) - arise from a combination of advances in industrial tech and increased leisure time - hierarchical structure: diffusing rapidly and extensively from hearths with modern communication (American music as pop culture began with the Armed Forces Radio Network broadcasting music to the countries American soldiers were stationed or fighting in during WWII) - Distributed widely across many continents with little regard to physical factors. The distribution is influenced by ability to access pop culture, to which lack of income is the biggest obstacle - Varies from time to time at a given place

Characteristics of Folk Culture

- Definition: Traditionally practiced primarily by small, homogeneous groups living in isolated rural areas - Anonymous hearth(s): time(s), location(s), creator(s) virtually unknown - Is diffused slowly and at a smaller scale, primarily through relocation diffusion due to migration - Varies from place to place at a given time - combination of local physical and cultural factors influence distribution, such as religion, climate, landforms and vegetation: In the Himalayas, different cultural groups have developed different folk practices due to isolation, even despite spatial proximity. These differences are highlighted in the subjects of there paintings - Buddhists: In the northern region, they paint idealized divine figures, like monks and saints. Some of these figures are bizarre or terrifying possibly reflecting the inhospitable environment Hindus: In the Southern region, they create scenes from everyday life and familiar scenes. They sometimes portray a deity in a domestic scene and frequently represent the region's violent and extreme climatic conditions Muslims: In the western portions, their art shows beautiful plants and flowers of the region, because Islam prohibits displaying animate figures in art. In contrast with other art styles in the region, they do not display harsh or violent scenes. Animists: Having migrated from Myanmar and other places in Southeast Asia to the eastern part of the region, paint symbols and designs that represent their religion, not the local environment

External Threats

- Dominance of pop culture threatens folk culture. External Threats: - Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States are the major exporters of tv programs, and dominate the tv industry in developing countries - the leaders of developing countries see this dominance of developed countries as a new form of imperialism, especially by the US. American programs present characteristically American beliefs, which may conflict with or offend folk culture. - Many satellite and cable providers in developing countries replace offending networks or shows (such as MTV) with programs that avoid controversial content (This isn't really an External Threat) - News media in developing countries is dominated by the government's new agencies, or foreign major news organizations, because sufficient funds for establishing independent news service. Many broadcasters buy the right to use dispatched of the major news organization, which is dominated by the American and British Companies Associated Press (AP) and Reuters. The world's 25 largest media companies are all based in developing countries (15 in US, 4 in UK, 2 in each France, Germany, and Japan) - African and Asian governments believe that American news organizations reflect American values and don't provide balanced understandings of other countries. They also focus on sensationalizing news (ex: natural disasters) than meaningful ones (birth control programs, healthcare innovations, and construction of new roads)

Diffusion of soccer in the 19th and 20th centuries

- Earliest documented contest took place in England after the Danish Invasion of England between 1018 and 1042, when workers excavating a building site encountered a Danish soldier's head and began to kick it. "Kick the Dane's head" became a game imitated by boys using an inflated cow bladder. - Early football games represented mob scenes. They were contests between two villages, and the winning side was the one that kicked the ball to the center of the rival village. - In the 12th century, the game - then commonly called football - was confined to smaller areas, and the rules were standardized. - The game disrupted daily life, so King Henry II banned it in the late 12th century, not to be legalized until 1603 by King James I. - Football clubs were founded in the UK, frequently by churches, to provide factory workers organized recreation during leisure hours. Sport became a subject taught in school - Increasing leisure time also allowed people to view sporting events, and spectators with higher incomes payed to see first-class events. to meet demand, clubs began hiring professionals - Several British football clubs formed an association in 1863 to standardize rules and organize pro leagues. Organization marks a transition from folk to pop culture - Dutch students returning from studies in UK were first to play football in continental Europe in the late 1870s - Miners in Bilbao, Spain adopted the sport after seeing it played by British engineers working there - An English textile factory manager near Moscow organized a factory team in 1887 and advertised in London for workers who could play football. After the revolution in 1917, both the workers and the team were absorbed into the Soviet Electric trade union, and renamed the Moscow Dynamo, the country's most famous football team. - Spread through British Empire - Spread through radio and tv in 20th century

Origins and Diffusion of English

- English is a Germanic branch language because German-speaking tribes invaded England more than 1,500 years ago. Modern English evolved primarily from the language spoken by Angles, Jutes and Saxons. - Other groups, such as the vikings also invaded the British Isles later, adding new words to the language Romance branch words entered English after French-speaking Normans invaded England nearly 1,000 years ago - Normans invaded England in 1066, and established French as the official language. the leaders, such as royals, judges, and clergy spoke it, but the majority of the people did not know it, so they spoke English to each other. - England lost control of Normandy in 1204, and entered a long period of conflict with France, which made less people want to speak the language. Recognizing that English was the primary means of communications, parliament enacted the Statue of Pleading in 1362 to change the official language. Yet, Parliament continued to conducted business in French until 1489. - During that 300-year period of French's officialism, germanic and french mingled to create a new language. words such as sky, horse, woman have germanic roots, while celestial, equestrian, masculine - Language spread with colonization and conquest by England, and lately, the United States

Distribution of Uralic languages

- Every Europeans country is dominated by Indo-European languages except for Estonia, Finland, and Hungary, who speak languages in the Uralic family. - they are traceable to Proto-Uralic, first used 7,000 years ago by people living the the Ural mountains of Russia, north of the Kurgan homeland

origins and diffusion of Romance language branch

- Evolved from Latin spoken by the Romans 2,000 years ago. - The 4 most widely used contemporary Romance languages are Spanish, Portuguese, French, and Italian. Romanian is the 5th most widely used. - The areas which those languages are used correspond roughly to where the country's borders are (ex: Italian spoken in Italy, French in France, etc) along with their (former) colonies - When the Roman Empire took over a region, they suppressed the native language in favor of Latin. However, the growth of the empire took place over several hundred years, and the Latin spoken in each province was based on the version spoken by the army at time of occupation. They would also integrate words from the language formerly spoken in the area. - When the Empire collapsed, communication between former provinces declined, and by 8th century, they had been isolated long enough for distinct languages to evolve.

Fast Food

- Fast food restaurants take advantage of uniform landscapes, and are usually organizes as franchise that have the same name, symbol, menu, etc. This means that people who move recognize a familiar place, newcomers know what to expect because it does not reflect unfamiliar local customs. - there is also convenience of the product and and use of a low-cost socializing location for teenagers or families with children

Diffusion and Controversy of Folk Clothing

- Folk clothing is more likely to respond to environmental conditions and cultural values; in response to distinctive agricultural practices and climatic conditions - Increased travel and diffusion of media have introduced North American and Europeans to other forms of dress, just as others have been introduced to Western dressing. - The Poncho from South America, the dashiki of the Yoruba people of Nigeria, and Aleut parka have been adopted by people elsewhere in the world - The continued use of folk clothing does not persist necessarily because of distinctive environmental conditions or traditional cultural values but to preserve past memories or to attract tourists - The wearing of traditional clothing in countries dominated by pop culture can be controversial, especially the burqa, which is worn by women in Southwest Asia and North Africa. European countries, including France and Belgium, have prohibited women from wearing burqas in public, arguing that it represents treatment of women as second class citizens

Branches of Christianity in Europe

- Has 3 main Branches: - Roman Catholic (51%): predominates in southwest and east Europe and Latin America - comprise 93% of Christians in Latin America - 40% in North America, clustered in southwestern and northeastern US and Quebec - Protestant (24%): northwestern Europe and North America - 82 million members, about 28% of the US population - Orthodox (11%): Eastern and Southeastern Europe - is a collection of 14 self - governing churches, of which the Russian Orthodox is biggest, the church of 40% of all Orthodox Christians. - Other (14%): - Roman Catholics and Protestants often have sharp boundaries, even when in the same country. In Switzerland and the Netherlands, Roman Catholics are in the south and Protestants in the north. - Catholics accept the teachings of the Bible, and their interpretation by the Pope, who posses a universal primacy or authority. The believe the church is infallible in resolving disputes. Thy believe god conveys his grace through the 7 sacraments - Orthodox and Roman churches split as the result of the rivalry between the Pope and the Patriarchy of Constantinople, and the split was finalized when Pope Leo IX condemned the Patriarch. They accept 7 sacraments but reject doctrines added by the Catholics since the 8th century. - Protestantism originated with the Reformation Movement, initiated when Martin Luther posted 95 theses on the door of a Church. According to him, grace is achieved through faith rather than sacraments performed by the church

Diffusion of Popular Clothing

- Instead of reflecting physical characteristics of a place, pop clothing styles reflect occupation and income - improved communications and transportation have permitted rapid diffusion of clothing styles around the world. Original designs can be created in Paris, Milan, London, or New York, mass produced in Asia, and cold in retail stores around the world, while the piece is still in fashion - In the past, the years could pass between inexpensive reproductions of a popular dress were available in stores, but now that is only a few weeks

Religious Fundamentalism

- Literal interpretation and strict and intense adherence to basic principles of a religion - In a world dominated by global culture, it is one of the most important way in which a group scan maintain its cultural identity. - This can be the cause of many local conflicts, as one group that is convinced that its religious view is the only correct one may intrude on territory controlled by other groups - Religious groups may resist development, new government policies, or social change

Distribution Niger-Congo languages

- More than 95% of the people in sub-Saharan Africa speak a language in this family - Swahili is the 1st language of only 800,000 and the official language of only Tanzania, but is spoken as a second language by appox. 30 million African, and is used a lingua franca. - Swahili originally developed through interaction among African groups and Arab traders, so has strong Arabic influences - One of the few African languages with extensive literature

Popular Music: origins, nature and globalization

- written for the purpose of being sold to or performed in a large number of people - Frequently displays a high degree of technical skill through manipulation of sophisticated electronic equipment - pop musicians have more connections with performer of similar styles, regardless of where they live, than with performers of different styles in the same community - In the past musicians clustered in particular communities according to shared interest in specific styles, such as Tin Pan Alley in New York, Dixieland jazz in New Orleans, country in Nashville, and Motown in Detroit. - Due to globalization of pop, musicians are less tied to the culture of particular places and instead increasingly cluster in communities where other creative artists reside, regardless of particular style. NY and LA attract the largest number of musicians because they want to be near sources of of employment and cultural activities that attract a wide variety of artists. Nashville is also a leading center for musicians, especially those performing country and gospel, it has the largest concentration of musicians, though the overall number is smaller than NY and LA - attracted to a handful of large clusters in order to have better access to agencies that book live performances, which have become increasingly important compared to recordings - nearly all of the music festivals that attract the highest attendance are in Europe and the United States

Internal Threats: the 4 types of internet content that are commonly blocked

1) Political Content: expresses views regarding human rights, freedom of expression, minority rights, religious expression, etc 2) Social Content: socially sensitive topics such as sexuality, gambling, and illegal drugs and alcohol 3) Security Content: related to armed conflicts, border disputes, separatist movements, and militant groups 4) Internet tools: e-mail, Internet hosting, and searching

Hierarchical vs. autonomous religions

Hierarchical Religion - there is a central authority which exercises a high degree of control - have well-defined geographic structure and organize territory into local administrative units Latter-Day Saints: The territory occupied by Mormons is organized into wards, with about 750 people. Wards are organized into Stakes, with about 5,000 people. The highest authority of the Church - the board and president - redraw these boundaries as populations shift and change. Roman Catholics: Diocese, which is the basic unit of division. They are lead by Bishops. Each diocese is broken into Parishes, headed by priests who report to Bishops. Bishops report to Archbishops, who control a province. The Pope is the highest authority, and is the bishop of Rome. The size of parishes depends on the concentration of Catholics in the area, In parts of Europe, where the concentration is high, parishes are small. In Latin America, they can be several hundred kilometers. As concentrations grow in the US southwest or suburbs of some large NA and European cities, the church must readjust its organization, along with when populations decline in inner cities and rural areas. However, readjusting boundaries and services offered can be expensive and complicated. Autonomous Religion: - do not have central authority but share ideas and cooperate informally Islam: Does not have a hierarchy. A mosque is a place of group worship, but everyone is expected to participate equally. Some organization may come in the form of religious bureaucracy, who administer Islamic institution, interpret Islamic law and run welfare programs. Unity is maintained through pilgrimages to Makkah and a relatively high degree of communication. Uniformity is maintained because Islamic doctrine is much more explicit in its commands then other religions. Protestants: Denominations vary in structure. Some, like Episcopalian, Lutheran, and most Methodist churches have structures comparable to that of Catholics. Presbyterian churches are intermediate, individual churches organized into presbytery, several of which are governed by a synod, with a general assembly as ultimate authority over all churches. Individual ones are governed by an elected board of members. Very autonomous ones like Baptists and United Church of Christ are organized into self-governing congregations, which establish the precise form on worship and select leadership.

Diffusion of Christianity

Hierarchical: - The Roman emperor Constantine adopted Christianity in 313, and Emperor Theodosius proclaimed it the official religion in 380, which assured Christianity's dominance in the Empire. -In subsequent centuries, Eastern Europe's elite figures were also converted. - European colonizers brought Christianity with them all over the world (also relocation), such as with the Latin Americans, who are predominantly Roman Catholic because their territory was colonized by the Spanish and Portuguese. Relocation: - Missionaries moved along the Roman Empire's sea and trade routes to carry teachings of Jesus. People in commercial settlements near the routes directly received the messages through missionaries such as Paul, and spread it to those in the surrounding countryside through contagious diffusion.

Origins of Hinduism

Hinduism existed prior to recorded history. The earliest surviving Hindu documents are from around 1500 B.C, also archaeological discoveries have found objects pertaining to the religion from around 2500 B.C. The word Hinduism originated in the 6th century B.C to refer to the people living in what is now India. Aryan tribes from central Asia invaded India about 1400 B.C, and brought with them Indo-European languages and religion. The Aryans first settled in the area now called Punjab in Northwestern India and later migrated east to the Ganges River Valley, as far as Bengal. Centuries of intermingling with the Dravidians already living in the area modified their religious beliefs.

Dialects

Starting page 158 - A regional variety of a language distinguished by vocabulary, spelling, and pronunciations - speakers of different dialects can understand speakers of another dialect - dialects reflect distinctive features of the environments in which the groups live - their distribution is documented through the study of particular words that are not used nationally. Every such word has boundaries, known as an isogloss, which are constructed by collecting data directly from people, typically natives of rural areas. People are shown pictures to identify or are given sentences to complete with a particular word

Branches of Islam

Sunni: - The names comes form Arabic for "people following the example of Muhammad" - comprise 83% of Muslims and are the largest branch in most Muslim countries in Southwest Asia and North Africa Shiite: - comes from Arabic for "sectarian" - comprise of 16% of Muslims, and are clustered in a handful of countries - 30% live in Iran, 15% in Pakistan, and 10% in Iraq - comprise nearly 90% in Iran and more than half in Azerbaijan, Iraq, and the less populous countries of Oman and Bahrain Shiites believe that full understanding of the Qu'ran can only be gained through the guidance of a leader, who should be a descendant of Muhammad. Sunnis believe that after Muhammad's death, the power lies in the Qu'ran as it is interpreted by the community and its religious experts.

Food Taboos

Taboos Are A Restriction On behavior Imposed By Social Custom. Folk Cultures May Establish Them Because: 1) Concern for the natural environment: May want to protect endangered species or scarce natural resources. Only a particular high ranking group may be permitted to eat particular meat (Hindu taboo against cows can be explained in part by the fact that oxen are the primary source of pulling plows and carts. A large supply is needed when fields are plowed at monsoon season) 2) May not be suitable to lifestyle/climate: Pig is prohibited in Jewish Kosher laws because it is more suited to sedentary farming than pastoral nomadism and because its meat spoils quickly in hot Mediterranean climates. It is prohibited in Islam because pigs are unsuited to the dry lands of the Arabian Peninsula, where they would compete with humans for resources such as food and water without offering compensating benefits such as milk, wool, or physical labor 3) In part because of social reasons because people in similar climates with similar levels of income consume different foods. The Jewish biblical taboos were established in part to distinguish Jews from others, further explaining Christianity's desire to separate itself. As a universalizing religion, Christianity is less tied to food restrictions originated in the Middle East.

Terroir

This French term describes the contribution of a location's distinctive physical features to the way food tastes. It is the sum of the affects of soil, climate, and other features of the local environment.

Proto-Indo-European

This is the common ancestor all Indo-European languages. Though it is generally accepted that is exists, it cannot be proved because it would have existed thousands of years before the invention of writing or recorded history. Rather, the evidence is internal, derived from the physical attributes of the words. Because individual Indo-Europeans languages share common root words for winter and snow but not for oceans, linguists conclude that they must have lived in a cold climate, or at least one with a winter season, but did not come in contact with the ocean. There are two possible theories for the spread of this language: Sedentary farmer and Nomadic warrior

Nomadic Warrior Hypothesis

pg. 156 - espoused by Mirija Gimbutas - the first speakers were Kurganss who lived in the stepes near the border between Russia and Kazakhstan. Their earliest archaeological evidence dates to around 4300 B.C. - they were nomadic herders, among the first people to domesticate horses and cattle - In their search for grassland for their animals, they went westward through Europe, eastward to Siberia, and Southeast to Iran and South Asia - Between 3500 and 2500 B.C. Kurgan Warriors conquered much of that area using domesticated horses

Standard Language

pg. 160 - In a language with many dialects, it is the form of a language used for official government business, education, and mass communications

Received Pronunciation (RP)

pg. 160 Mine: the standard language of English in Britain, originally spoken by high-society London - The dialect of English associated with upper-class Britons living in London and now considered standard language in the United Kingdom - I was spoken in London, Cambridge, and Oxford. When the Printing press was introduced to England in 1476, grammar books and dictionaries printed in the 18th century rules based on the London dialect. Schools throughout the country taught these rules - Despite dominance of RP, regional differences still persist, especially in regional areas. The 3 main dialects are Northern, Midland, and Southern - The isoglosses between English dialects have been moving, indicating patterns of migration. Emergence of subdialect in London indicates influx of immigrants, and northern expansion of the southeastern sub-dialect reflects the outmigration of Londoners