Unit 3 (Chapter 9-12 [Module 6-8])

How does sibling relationships influence the children?

# of siblings in a family & spacing, birth order, gender often determine roles & relationships. *Larger # of siblings in nonindustrialized societies helps family carry on its work & provide for aging members. *industrialized societies, siblings tend to be fewer and farther apart in age, enabling parents to focus more resources and attention on each child *Siblings influence each other, not only directly, through their interactions with each other, but also indirectly *when the parent-child relationship was warm and affectionate, siblings tended to have positive relationships as well.

Individuation

(1) Adolescents' struggle for autonomy & personal identity. (2) Jung's term for emergence of the true self through balancing or integration of conflicting parts of the personality. *carving out boundaries of control b/w self & parents; process may entail family conflict.

Protective factors

(1) Influences that reduce the impact of potentially negative influences and tend to predict positive outcomes. (2) Influences that reduce the impact of early stress and tend to predict positive outcomes.

Define diabetes

(1) One of the most common diseases of childhood. Characterized by high lvls of glucose in blood as a result of defective insulin production, ineffective insulin action, or both. (2) Disease which body doesn't produce or properly use insulin (a hormone that converts sugar, starches, and other foods into energy needed for daily life)

Risk-taking appears to result from the interaction of 2 brain networks:

(1) Socio-emotional network that is sensitive to social and emotional stimuli, such as peer influence; more active at puberty (2) Cognitive-control network that regulates responses to stimuli; matures more gradually into early adulthood.

Pragmatics

(1) The practical knowledge needed to use language for communicative purposes. (2) The social context of language. *includes both conversational & narrative skills *Good conversationalists probe by asking questions before introducing a topic w/ which other person may not be familiar. They quickly recognize a breakdown in communication & do something to repair it. *gender differ -boys use more controlling statements & negative interruptions -girls phrased remarks in more tentative, conciliatory way

What is transitive inference?

(1) Understanding the relationship b/w 2 objects by knowing the relationship of each to a 3rd object. (2) involves ability to infer a relationship b/w 2 objects from the relationship b/w each of them & a 3rd object. ex: if a < b and b < c, then a < c

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services has promoted 3 Steps to Respect, a program for grades 3 to 6 that aims to...

(1) increase staff awareness and responsiveness to bullying, (2) teach students social and emotional skills, and (3) foster socially responsible beliefs

How to prevent & treat delinquency (young people who commited criminal acts)?

*Adolescents who have taken part in certain early childhood intervention programs are less likely to get in trouble than their equally underprivileged peers -exosystem, by creating supportive parent networks and linking parents with such community services as prenatal and postnatal care and educational and vocational counseling *focus on spotting troubled adolescents and preventing gang recruitment *boost parenting skills through better monitoring, behavioral management, and neighborhood social support *Participation in extracurricular school activities tends to cut down on dropout and criminal arrest rates among high-risk boys and girls * With love, guidance, and support, adolescents can avoid risks, build on their strengths, and explore their possibilities as they approach adult life.*

How does gray matter affect our brain?

*Changes in volume peak @ different times in different lobes. -Beneath cortex, gray matter volume in caudate (a part of basal ganglia involved in control of movement, muscle tone, & mediating higher cognitive functions, attention, & emotional states) peaks @ age 7 in girls & age 10 in boys. -Volume in parietal lobes (deal w/ spatial understanding) & in frontal lobes (handle higher-order functions) peaks @ age 11 in girls & age 12 for boys. @ age 16, volume peaks in temporal lobes (deal w/ language). Amount of gray matter in frontal cortex (largely genetic) likely linked w/ differences in IQ *matter in the gray pattern of development of prefrontal cortex. *In children of average intelligence, prefrontal cortex relatively thick @ age 7, peaks in thickness by age 8, & gradually thins as unneeded connections are pruned. Loss density of gray matter w/ age balanced by another change—a steady increase in white matter. *connections b/w neurons thicken & myelinate, begin w/ frontal lobes & move toward rear of brain. b/w ages 6 & 13, striking growth occurs in connections b/w temporal & parietal lobes. *White matter growth may not begin to drop off until well into adulthood. *Children's brains show changes in cortex's thickness b/w ages 5-11 in regions of temporal & frontal lobes. At same time, thinning occurs in rear portion of frontal & parietal cortex in brain's left hemisphere. This change correlates w/ improved performance on vocabulary portion of an intelligence test.

Information-processing researchers have identified two broad categories 2 measurable change in adolescent cognition:

*Difference b/w them: SC changes in the stuff that's in your brain. FC involve changes in how you use that stuff.* 1. structural change- (1) changes in working memory capacity and (2) the increasing amount of knowledge stored in long-term memory 2. functional change- (1) a continued increase in processing speed & (2) further development of executive function, which includes such skills as selective attention, decision making, inhibitory control of impulsive responses, and management of working memory *Processes for obtaining, handling, & retaining information are functional aspects of cognition (learning, remembering, & reasoning)

What does Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) display about the brain?

*Enables researchers to observe how brain changes over time & how these changes vary from one child to another *shows us that brain consists of both gray matter & white matter.

How might have Globalization & modernization changes the world?

*Lead to longer and healthier lives, reduced birthrates, and smaller families. *Earlier puberty and later marriage are increasingly common. *More women and fewer children work outside the home. *technologies made knowledge a prized resource. Thus, young people need more schooling and skills to enter the labor force.

How can ADHD are treated?

*Parents and teachers help them by breaking down tasks into small "chunks," providing frequent prompts about rules & time, giving frequent immediate rewards for small accomplishments *Often managed w/ drugs, sometimes combined w/ behavioral therapy, counseling, training in social skills, & special classroom placement.

How can obesity be treated & prevented?

*Parents watch children's eating, activity patterns, & address excessive weight gain before a child becomes severely overweight. *consume only 10% or under of saturated fat from total calories *make permanent changes in lifestyle: -Less time in front of television & computers -changes in food labeling & advertising, healthier school meals, education to help children make better food choices -spend more time in physical education & informal exercise such as walking & in unorganized sports

How does divorce influence on children?

*Stressful to children as they may not fully understand the context *family's standard of living drop & stress may increase when a parent remarriage after a remarriage renewing loss feeling *if relationship b/w parents is chronic, overt, or destructive, children may be better off after the divorce *child's adjustment to divorce depends in part on the child's age, maturity, gender, temperament, and psychosocial adjustment before the divorce -younger child- suffer behavioral problems -older children- @ higher risk w/ respect to academic & social outcomes *children show poor adjustment prior to parent's divorce worsen in long run but there are some show good adjustment *anxiety connected w/ parental divorce may surface as children enter adulthood & try to form intimate relationships of their own. Some young adults are afraid of making commitments that might end in disappointment

Nutritionists recommend how much calories & what kinds of diet schoolchildren need to intake?

*Varied diet: plenty whole grains, fruits, vegetables & complex carbohydrates

What causes asthma?

*a genetic predisposition or mutation *environmental factors: Particular antigens trigger muscle contractions that make it difficult to breathe. -tightly insulated houses intensify exposure to indoor air pollutants & allergens such as tobacco smoke, molds, cockroach droppings or in household pets all except smoke are inconclusive

What can obesity cause?

*behavior problems, depression, low self-esteem, falling behind in physical & social functioning *commonly have medical problems, including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, & high insulin lvls *an increase risk of hypertension (high blood pressure), heart disease, orthopedic problems, diabetes, & other problems.

How does living in a 1-parent family influence on children?

*children do fairly well overall but tend to lag socially & educationally behind peers in two-parent families *b/c single parents often lack resources needed for good parenting, potential risks to children might be reduced or eliminated through increased access to economic, social, educational, & parenting support

What are the 6 risk factors that may push for young people to commit violent acts?

*immature adolescent brain, particularly the prefrontal cortex, which is critical to judgment and impulse suppression. *Ready access to guns in a culture that "romanticizes gunplay" *presence of gangs at school *rejecting, coercive, or chaotic childhood home environment, which tends to produce aggressive behavior in children that is then exacerbated in their interactions with others *Living in unstable, inner-city neighborhoods with low community involvement and support (Tolan et al., 2003). *Having witnessed or having been victims of neighborhood violence, or having been exposed to media violence Others: substance abuse, conflict and/or abuse in the home, antisocial peers, and living in neighborhoods with high crime and drug use rates

What causes obesity?

*inherited tendency aggravated by too little exercise -inactivity *too much wrong kinds of food or Poor nutrition -eating outside of home (consume 200+ cal/day) *Children more likely be overweight if have overweight parents or other relatives. -30%+ children & adolescents reported eating fast foods high in fat, carbohydrates, & sugar additives -increase in organized sports, school-age children today spend less time than the children of 20 years ago in outdoor play and sports -Activity lvls decrease significantly as children get older, from an average level of approximately 180 minutes of activity per day for 9-year-olds to 40 minutes per day for 15-year-olds

Why is an adolescence's brain immature?

*steady increase in white matter (nerve fibers that connect distant portions of the brain); allows nerve impulses to be transmitted more rapidly & helps neurons synchronize their firing rate=> improving adolescents' information-processing abilities *increase in corpus callosum; band thickens=> better communication b/w hemispheres

How does living in adoptive families influence on children?

*take place through public/ private agencies. Agency adoptions are intended to be confidential, w/ no contact b/w birth mother & adoptive parents. However, independent adoptions, made by direct agreement b/w birth parents & adoptive parents, have become more common

How does living in a cohabiting family influence on children?

*traditionally have less income and education, report poorer relationships, and have more mental health problems *showed worse emotional, behavioral, and academic outcomes for 6- to 11-year-old children living with cohabiting biological parents than for those living with married biological parents. The difference in outcomes was due largely to differences in economic resources, parental well-being, and parenting effectiveness

What are Selman's 5 Stages of Friendship?

0. Momentary playmateship (age 3-9)- undifferentiated lvl of friendship, children think only about what they want from a relationship. Define their friends in terms of physical closeness & value them for material or physical attributes. *value friends on selfish, concrete criteria* ex: "She lives on my street." "He has the Power Rangers" 1. One-way assistance (4-9)- unilateral lvl, "good friend" does what child wants friend to do. *based on self-interest & what a friend can do for a child* ex: He's my friend b/c he always says yes when I want to borrow his eraser." 2. Two-way fair-weather cooperation (6-12)- Reciprocal lvl overlaps stage 1; involves give-and-take but still serves many separate self-interests, rather than common interests of the 2 friends. *engage in reciprocal friendships but still primarily concerned w/ their own interests* ex: "A friend is someone who plays w/ you when you don't have anybody else to play w/." 3. Intimate, mutually shared relationships (9-15)- Mutual lvl, children view friendship as ongoing, systematic, committed relationship incorporate more than doing things for each other. Friends become possessive & demand exclusivity. * true friendships include commitment & reciprocity begin* ex: "It takes a long time to make a close friend, so you really feel bad if you find out that your friend is trying to make other friends too." 4. Autonomous interdependence (begin @ 12)- interdependent stage, children respect friends' needs for both dependency and autonomy. * children depend on others but also respect their need for autonomy* ex: "A good friendship is a real commitment, a risk you have to take; you have to support, trust & give, but you have to be able to let go too."

What are the 2 types of mental disorders that commonly occur in middle childhood?

1) disruptive conduct disorders: aggression, defiance, or antisocial behavior. 2) anxiety or mood disorders: feeling sad, depressed, unloved, nervous, fearful, or lonely

Puberty can be broken down into 2 basic stages:

1. Adrenarche- occurs b/w ages 6 & 8. During this stage, adrenal glands secrete increasing levels of androgens, most notably dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)- influences the growth of pubic, axillary (underarm), and facial hair; contributes to faster body growth, oilier skin, & development of body odor *by the time a child is 10 years of age, the levels of DHEA are 10 times what they were between ages 1 and 4 2. gonadarche- is marked by maturing of the sex organs, which triggers a second burst of DHEA production *girls: ovaries increase their input of estrogen, which in turn stimulates the growth of female genitals, breasts, development of pubic & underarm hair *boys: testes increase the production of androgens, especially testosterone. Increase leads to the growth of male genitals, muscle mass, and body hair.

Piaget proposed that moral reasoning develops in 3 stages:

1. Age 2-7 correspond w/ preoperational stage based on rigid obedience to authority. *Young children are egocentric. They cannot imagine that there is more than one way of looking at a moral issue as they have rigid views. Believe rules cannot be bent or changed, behavior is either right or wrong, and any offense deserves punishment, regardless of intent. 2. Age 7/8 or 10/11 correspond w/ concrete operations characterized by increasing flexibility. *children grew older begin discard of a single, absolute standard of right & wrong, & develop own sense of justice based on fairness/equal treatment for all. B/c they can consider more than one aspect of a situation, they can make more subtle moral judgments. 3. Age 11-12 capable of formal reasoning where moral development arrives & belief of ideal equity/ treated alike. Focus on the event that has happened & the intentions of the actor.

Parenting style influential:

1. Authoritative parents urge adolescents to look at both sides of issues, welcome their participation in family decisions, and admit that children sometimes know more than parents. 2. Authoritarian parents, in contrast, tell adolescents not to argue with or question adults and tell them they will "know better when they are grown up." 3. Permissive parents seem indifferent to grades, make no rules about watching television, do not attend school functions, and neither help with nor check their children's homework.

What are the 4 types of influences on Intelligence (IQ)?

1. Brain Development- Brain imaging research shows a moderate correlation b/w brain size or amount of gray matter & general intelligence, especially reasoning & problem-solving abilities. *Amount of gray matter in frontal cortex largely inherited, varies widely among individuals, & linked w/ differences in IQ. However, key isn't amount of gray matter a child has at a certain age, but rather pattern of development of the prefrontal cortex that peaks thickness by age 8 children who have an average IQ. *Prefrontal cortex linked w/ reasoning, problem solving, & executive function & so does reliability of transmission of messages in the brain *heritability of intelligence (degree which individual differences in intelligence are genetically caused) dramatically increases w/ age as children select or create environments that fit their genetic tendencies 2. Schooling- increase tested intelligence *IQ scores also drop during summer vacation *language, spatial, and conceptual scores improved during school activation 3. Race/Ethnicity & Socioeconomic Status on IQ- Average test scores vary among groups, inspiring claims tests are unfair to minorities. *There's no direct evidence that IQ differences among ethnic, cultural, or racial groups are hereditary. Ethnic differences in IQ attribute to inequalities in environment (income, nutrition, living conditions, health, parenting practices, early child care, intellectual stimulation, schooling, culture, or other circumstances [effects of oppression & discrimination] can affect self-esteem, motivation, and academic performance). *early intervention programs have had success in raising disadvantaged children's IQs *strength of genetic influence itself appears to vary with socioeconomic status (high SES strengthens genetic influence, whereas low SES tends to override it) -Asian American children's strong scholastic achievement best explained by their culture's emphasis on obedience and respect for elders 4. Culture- people of different ethnic groups have different cultures. Intelligence & culture are inextricably linked, & behavior seen as intelligent in one culture may be viewed as foolish in another *Intelligence better defined as skills & knowledge needed for success within a particular social & cultural context. Mental processes that underlie intelligence may be same across cultures, but products may be different so should be the means of assessing performance *arguments led to assertions that ethnic differences in IQ aren't reflecting intelligence, but rather are an artifact of cultural bias since these intelligence tests are built around the dominant thinking style & language of white people (European ancestry) resulting minority children @ a disadvantage

According to Erikson, identity is formed after young people resolve 3 major issues:

1. Choice of an occupation 2. Adoption of values to live by 3. Development of a satisfying sexual identity *man is not capable of real intimacy until he has achieved a stable identity *women define themselves through marriage and motherhood; develop identity through intimacy, not before it.

J. P. Guilford distinguished what 2 kinds of thinking?

1. Convergent- Thinking aimed at finding the one right answer to a problem. *kind IQ tests measure—seeks a single correct answer. ex: when solving an arithmetic problem, there's one right answer 2. Divergent- Thinking that produces a variety of fresh, diverse possibilities. *there's no right answers ex: children are asked to list how many different uses there might be for a paper clip or to write down what a sound brings to mind.

Structural change of knowledge stored in long-term memory can be...

1. Declarative knowledge (knowing that)- Acquired factual knowledge stored in long-term memory. ex: 2+2=4, George Washington was U.S 1st president 2. Procedural knowledge (knowing how to...)- Acquired skills stored in long-term memory. ex: able to multiply, divide, & drive a car 3. Conceptual knowledge (knowing why)- Acquired interpretive understandings stored in long-term memory. ex: algebraic equation remains true if same amount is added/ subtracted from both sides

Bullying reflected aggressiveness from..

1. Genetic 2. Environmental influences *coercive parents & antisocial friends *gender often bully same sex -male bullies tend to use overt, physical aggression -female bullies use relational aggression

What causes ADHD?

1. Genetic- *brain development -grow in a normal pattern, but process delayed by 3 yrs in certain regions of the brain, particularly frontal cortex (enable a person to control movement, suppress inappropriate thoughts and actions, focus attention, remember from moment to moment, and work for rewards) -motor cortex only area matures faster than normal may account for the restlessness & fidgeting characteristic of the disorder -a gene for dopamine (a brain chemical essential for attention & cognition), low lvls *Herritability -substantial genetic basis about 80% 2. Environmental Influences- *Birth complications, Prematurity, a prospective mother's alcohol or tobacco use, & oxygen deprivation

What are the causes of LDs?

1. Genetic- heritability of LDs; tends to run in families resulting a neurological defect that disrupts recognition of speech sounds 2. Environmental Influences- complications of pregnancy or birth, injuries after birth, nutritional deprivation, & exposure to lead

5 Social and cultural forces that influence gender differences:

1. Home influences: Across cultures, parents' educational level correlates w/ their children's math achievement. amount of parental involvement in children's education affects math performance. Parents' gender attitudes & expectations also have an effect. 2. School influences: Subtle differences in the way teachers treat boys & girls, especially in math & science classes, have been documented. 3. Neighborhood influences: Boys benefit more from enriched neighborhoods and are hurt more by deprived neighborhoods. 4. Women's and men's roles in society help shape girls' and boys' choices of courses and occupations. 5. Cultural influences: Cross-cultural studies show that the size of gender differences in math performance varies among nations and becomes greater by the end of secondary school. These differences correlate with the degree of gender equality in the society.

What are the 7 types of therapy for mental health in middle childhood?

1. Individual psychotherapy 2. Family Therapy 3. Behavior therapy/ behavior modification 4. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy 5. Art Therapy 6. Play Therapy 7. Drug Therapy

What are the Characteristics of Resilient Children & Adolescents 3 sources?

1. Individual- Good intellectual functioning, appealing, sociable, self-efficacy, self-confidence, high self-esteem, talents, faith 2. Family- close relationship to caring parent figures, authoritative parenting, socioeconomic advantages, connections to extended supportive family network 3. Extrafamilial context- bonds to prosocial adults outside family, connections to prosocial organizations, attend effective schools

What are the 3 types of learning problems?

1. Intellectual Disability 2. Dyslexia 3. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Children exposed to family conflict show a variety of responses that can include what 2 kinds of behaviors?

1. Internalizing behaviors- Behaviors by which emotional problems are turned inward; for example, anxiety or depression. 2. Externalizing behaviors- Behaviors by which a child acts out emotional difficulties; for example, aggression, fighting, disobedience, and hostility—anger turned outward

Gander's Theory of 8 Intelligences (#4-8 not reflected on IQ scores): ABILITY TO...

1. Linguistic- use, understand words & nuances of meaning *Fields/ Occupations used in Writing, editing, translating 2. Logical-Mathematical- manipulate numbers & solve logical problems *F/O used in Science, business, medicine 3. Spatial- find one's way around in an environment & judge relationships b/w objects in space *F/O used in Architecture, carpentry, city planning 4. Musical- perceive & create patterns of pitch & rhythm *F/O used in Musical composition, conducting 5. Bodily-kinesthetic- move w/ precision *F/O used in Dancing, athletics, surgery 6. Interpersonal- understand & communicate w/ others *F/O used in Teaching, acting, politics 7. Intrapersonal- understand self *F/O used in Counseling, pschiatry, spiritual leadership 8. Naturalist- distinguish species and their characteristics *F/O used in hunting, fishing, farming, gardening, cooking

3 Tip when discussing w/ child about terrorism & war:

1. Listen to children- create time & place for children to ask questions & help them express themselves. 2. Answer their questions- Be honest when answering tough questions about violence; use words child can understand, & try not to overload him/her w/ too much info. You may have to repeat yourself. Be consistent & reassuring. 3. Provide support- Children most comfortable w/ structure & familiarity. Try to establish a predictable routine. Avoid exposure to violent images on TV & video games. Watch for physical signs of stress (trouble sleeping/separation anxiety, & seek professional help if symptoms are persistent and/or pronounced)

What are the 3 brain structures & its functions?

1. Motor & sensory systems involved in vision, motor response, audition (age 5) 2. Parietal & temporal association cortices support basic language skills & spatial attention (age 7.5) 3. Prefrontal & lateral temporal cortices integrate primary sensorimotor processes & modulate attention/language processes (age 20)

Kohlberg's 6 Stages of Moral Reasoning:

1. Orientation toward punishment & obedience: Obey rules to avoid punishment. Ignore motives of an act & focus on its physical form (size of a lie) or consequences (amount of physical damage). [age 4-10] 2. Instrumental purpose & exchange: "you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours" Children conform to rules out of self-interest and consideration for what others can do for them. Differentiate value from act's physical form & consequences. [age 4-10] 3. Maintaining mutual relations approval of others, golden rule: "Am I a good boy/girl?" Children want to please & help others, can judge intentions of others, develop own ideas what a good person is. Evaluate an act according to the motive behind it or the person performing it, & they take circumstances into account. [age 10-13] 4. Social concern & conscience: "what if everybody did it?" People concerned w/ doing their duty, showing respect for higher authority, & maintain social order. Consider an act always wrong, regardless of motive or circumstances, if it violates a rule and harms others. [age 10-13] 5. Morality of contract, of individual rights, & of democratically accepted law: People think in rational terms, valuing will of majority and welfare of society. Generally see these values as best supported by adherence to law. Recognize there are times when human need & law conflict, believe better for society in the long run if they obey the law. [age early adolescences or not til young adulthood or never] 6. Morality of universal ethical principles: People do what they as individuals think is right, regardless of legal restrictions or the opinions of others. Act in accordance w/ internalized standards, knowing that they would condemn themselves if they did not. [age early adolescences or not til young adulthood or never]

Children can learn identify a printed word in 2 contrasting ways:

1. Phonetic (code-emphasis) approach (traditional) 2. Whole-language approach

What are the 6 health concerns regard to the adolescents?

1. Physical fitness- regular exercise include improved strength and endurance, healthier bones and muscles, weight control, and reduced anxiety and stress, as well as increased self-esteem, school grades, and well-being 2. Sleep needs- Sleep deprivation called an epidemic; can sap motivation, cause irritability, concentration & school performance can suffer, deadly during driving *pattern of late bedtimes and oversleeping in the mornings can contribute to insomnia 3. Eating disorders- Good nutrition is important to support the rapid growth of adolescence and to establish healthy eating habits that will last through adulthood *obesity- poorer health than their peers and are more likely to have difficulty attending school or engaging in strenuous activity or personal care *concern w/ body image=> anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, or binge eating disorder 4. Drug abuse-dangerous because they stimulate parts of the brain that are still developing in adolescence=> substance abuse (Repeated, harmful use of a substance, usually alcohol or other drugs.) & dependence (Addiction [physical, or psychological, or both] to a harmful substance.) *LSD, ecstacy, and psychoactive drugs such as vicodin have held steady, and use of marijuana and anabolic steroids have shown signs of increased usage *Binge drinking (consume 5+ drinks one 1 occasion) affect affect thinking & memory by damaging sensitive "white matter" in the brain 5. Depression- does not necessarily appear as sadness but as irritability, boredom, or inability to experience pleasure can lead to suicide *risk factors: anxiety, fear of social contact, stressful life events, chronic illnesses (diabetes/epilepsy), parent-child conflict, abuse or neglect, alcohol & drug use, sexual activity, & having a parent w/ a history of depression. *effective treatment through combination of fluoxetine & cognitive behavioral therapy 6. Causes of Death in Adolescence- majority among adolescents result from motor vehicle crashes (1st), other unintentional injuries, homicide, and suicide (4th) *Protective factors: sense of connectedness to family & school, emotional well-being, & academic achievement

What are the 4 positive outcomes in family mealtimes?

1. Promotion of language development (vocab growth, increase literary skills) 2. Reduced risk for eating disorders & childhood obesity 3. Reduced risk for substance abuse 4. Increase awareness of cultural traditions 5. Fewer emotional problems *to optimize + outcomes parents need to consider climate of mealtime experience (interactions, location, presence of technology, climate support or discourage health & well-being)*

What is the 3 step process to read: A child must...

1. Remember distinctive features of letters ("c" curved half-circule & "o" is closed circle) 2. Be able to recongize different phonemes (word dog composed of 3 differ sounds "d" "o" "g") 3. Be able to match visual features of letters & phonemes & remember which ones go together

What are the 5 Bioecological influences on school achievement?

1. Self-Efficacy Beliefs- Our attitude can be described as involving a construct. *High: believe they can master schoolwork & regulate their own learning (try hard, persist despite difficulties, & seek help when necessary). More likely to succeed. *Low: Don't believe in their ability to succeed become frustrated & depressed—feelings that make success more elusive (difficult to find) 2. Gender *Girls -Do better in school than boys (receive better grades in every subject) are less likely to repeat grades, have fewer school problems, and outperform boys in national reading & writing assessments. Also, do better than male on timed tests *Boys -Do significantly better than girls on science & math tests that aren't related to material taught in school. *Gender differences become more prominent in high school due to combination of several factors (experience, biological differences [differ in brain size & structure], & cultural expectations) 3. Parenting Practices- *Parents of high-achieving children create an environment for learning (provide a place to study and keep books & supplies; set times for meals, sleep, & homework; monitor how much television their children watch & what their children do after school) and they show interest in their children's lives by talking w/ them about school & being involved in school activities. *Parenting styles affect motivation & school success. -Children w/ Authoritative parents were curious and interested in learning; liked challenging tasks & enjoyed solving problems by themselves. -Authoritarian parents who kept children to do their homework, supervised closely, & relied on extrinsic motivation, tend to have lower-achieving children. Same w/ children of permissive parents, who were uninvolved & did not seem to care how well the children did in school. *Child temperament interacts w/ parenting style influence outcome. -temperamentally difficult children respond both more positively to sensitive parenting & more negatively to poor parenting. 4. Socioeconomic Status- influence on family atmosphere, choice of neighborhood, parenting practices & on parents' expectations for children *working-poor parents received wage supplements & subsidies for child care & health insurance, their school-age children's academic achievement & behavior improved. 5. Peer Acceptance- *Well-liked & Accepted: Children do better in school. *Unlike & Unaccepted: Children had poorer academic self-concepts, more symptoms of anxiety or depression, & lower reading and math grades in sixth grade. -Early teacher identification of children who exhibit social problems could lead to interventions that would improve such children's academic as well as emotional & social outcomes.

What are the 6 types of family structures?

1. Single Parent (custody from one parent only) 2. Co-parenting (after divorce (joint-legal custody) 3. Cohabiting Family (parents live together but not married legally) 4. Step Family (divorced/ single parent remarried an outside person) 5. Gay/ Lesbian Family (Same-sex parents) 6. Adoptive Parents (not blood-related parents)

What are the 7 Advances in Selected Cognitive Abilities during Middle Childhood?

1. Spatial Thinking- understand spatial relationships which allows her to interpret a map, find their way to and from school, estimate the time it would take to go from one place to another, remember routes & landmarks. Experience plays a role b/c children easily able to navigate physical environment due to their experience. 2. Cause & effect- know which physical attributes of objects affect the result but doesn't know which spatial factors make the difference. (ex: Child know # of object matters in the balance scale while color doesn't influence it. However, child is unaware how the position & placement of object would affect it). 3. Categorization- Child can sort objects in categories (shape, color) & knows that subclass has fewer memer than class of which it's part of. Also, where ability of seriation, transitive inference, & class inclusion emerge. 4. Seriation & transitive inference- Child can arrange group of sticks in order (shortest to longest) & use comparison to insert intermediate-size stick to its proper place. 5. Inductive & Deductive reasoning- Child aware inductive conclusions (based particular premises) are less certain than deductive conclusion (based general premises) 6. Conservation- Where the child begin their 3 primary achievements to solve the conservation problem: identity, reversibility, decenter (look @ more than 1 aspect of 2 objects at once; ex: Thus, although the ball is shorter than the snake, it is also thicker) 7. Number & Mathematics- Learn to count on, more adept @ solving simple story problems. However only few can solve math problem doesn't indicate the operation (+/-) to solve it ("Pedro went to the store, spent $2 and had $3 left. How much did he start out with?"). Child tend not to think about quantity a fraction represents; instead, focus on numerals that make it up.

2 Signs of Sexual Maturity:

1. Spermarche- Boy's first ejaculation result of a nocturnal emission (involuntary ejaculation of semen/ wet dream). Occurs @ age of 13. Sometimes connected w/ an erotic dream. 2. Menarche- Girl's first menstruation. Mormal timing can vary from age 10 to 16½. 12.5 yrs old on average.

What are the 2 types of diabetes?

1. Type 1 Diabetes- result of insulin deficiency occurs when insulin producing cells in the pancreas are destroyed. *accounts 5-10% of all diabetes cases & almost all diabetes in children under 10 yrs of age. *Symptoms: increased thirst & urination, hunger, weight loss, blurred vision, & fatigue. T *Treatment: insulin administration, nutrition management, & physical activity 2. Type 2 Diabetes- characterized by insulin resistance; found mainly in overweight & older adults. *Increase in childhood obesity=> more likely diagnosed with T2 diabetes *Each yr. bout 3,700 children diagnosed *incidence occur among African Americans, American Indians, & Latin Americans. *Symptoms similar T1 diabetes *Treatment: Nutrition management & increased physical activity, glucose-lowering medication or insulin may be needed for resistant cases.

What are the 3 primary achievements that allow children in stage of concrete operations work out answers in their heads while solving the conservation problems?

1. Understand principle of identity ex: understands clay still the same clay even though it has a different shape b/c nothing was added or taken away from it. Able to reason that it must still be the same amount of clay for both shapes 2. Understand principle of reversibility ex: can picture what would happen if he/she went backward in time & rolled snake back into a ball. Can reason snake must still be the same amount of clay. 3. Decenter ex: -When she looked @ snake, they focused only on its length, ignoring that it was thinner and flatter than the ball of clay. They centered on one dimension (length) while excluding the other (thickness). -However, he look at more than one aspect of the two objects at once. Although ball is shorter than the snake, it is also thicker.

What are the 3 types of eating disorders?

1. anorexia nervosa- self-starvation. (deliberate & involuntary) *0.3-0.5% adolescent girls & young women known to be affected *have distorted body image, through severely underweight they think they're too fat; afraid of losing control & becoming overweight *Early warning signs: determined, secret dieting; dissatisfaction after losing weight; setting new, lower weight goals after reaching an initial desired weight; excessive exercising; & interruption of regular menstruation 2. bulimia nervosa- a person regularly eats huge quantities of food & then purges body by laxatives, induced vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise. *affects 1-2% of international populations *attempt to purge high caloric intake through self-induced vomiting, strict dieting or fasting, laxatives episodes occur @ least 2x a week for @ least 3 mths *obsessed w/ weight & shape; has low self-esteem & may be overwhelmed w/ shame, self-contempt, & depressioin *best treated w/ cognitive behavioral therapy 3. binge eating disorder- Frequent binging but w/o subsequent fasting, exercise, or vomiting. Tend to be overweight, experience emotional distress, other medical & psychological disorders. *3% of the population are binge eaters

In number & estimation, how does school-age children improve in 4 types of estimation?

1. computational estimation- estimating the sum in an addition problem 2. numerosity estimation- estimating the number of candies in a jar 3. measurement estimation estimating the length of a line 4. Number line estimation- estimate distances b/w low numbers & high numbers -kindergartners exaggerate distances b/w low # & minimize distances b/w high #. Most 2nd graders produce # lines that are more evenly spaced

3 primary disagreement w/ Piaget's belief regarding adolescent thought:

1. disagreement about the timing 2. too little attention paid to individual and cultural differences 3. failure to address other, related cognitive advances that influence formal operations reasoning

Researchers have identified 2 types of antisocial behavior:

1. early-onset type- beginning by age 11, which tends to lead to chronic juvenile delinquency in adolescence * interacting factors ranging from microsystem influences, such as parent-child hostility, poor parenting practices, and peer deviance, to macrosystem influences, such as community structure and neighborhood social support 2. milder, late-onset type, beginning after puberty, which tends to arise temporarily in response to the changes of adolescence

What are 2 (+3) most important protective factors help children & adolescents overcome stress & contribute to resilience?

1. good family relationships 2. cognitive functioning 3. child's temperament/ personality- adaptable, friendly, well liked, independent, & sensitive to others. When under stress, can regulate their emotions by shifting attention to something else 4. Compensating experiences- supportive school environment, successful experiences in studies, sports, or music, w/ other children or adults can help make up for a destructive home life. 5. Reduced risk- Children exposed to only 1 of a number of factors for psychiatric disorder (parental discord, a disturbed mother, a criminal father, & experience in foster care) often better able to overcome stress than children who have been exposed to more than one risk factor.

Marcia distinguished 4 types of identity status:

1. identity achievement (crisis leading to commitment)- characterized by commitment to choices made following a crisis, a period spent in exploring alternatives. Resolved identity crisis *during crisis period, devoted much though & some emotional struggle to major issues in life *parents encouraged self decisions & listened to adolescent ideas & give their opinions w/o pressuring *individual in this category are more mature & socially competent *ex: Has spent good deal of time thinking about who they are & what their ethnicity means within that context. Now understands & accepts their ethnicity* 2. foreclosure (commitment w/o crisis)- a person who has not spent time considering alternatives (that is, has not been in crisis) is committed to other people's plans for his or her life. Avoid expressing differences & has low lvl of anxiety. *has not considered whether adolescent believes in their commitments and has uncritically accepted others' opinions. *feel happy & self-assured, but becomes dogmatic when their opinions are questioned. *has close family ties, is obedient, & tends to follow a powerful leader, like her mother, who accepts no disagreement. *ex: Has strong feelings about their identity, but those feelings aren't based on any serious exploration of their identity. Rather, they absorbed attitudes of other important people in his life. These feelings may be positive/negative.* 3. moratorium (crisis w/o commitment yet)- a person is currently considering alternatives (in crisis) and seems headed for commitment. *actively grappling w/ self identity & trying to decide for them self who he/she wants to be & life path *lively, talkative, self-confident, & scrupulous but also anxious & fearful pf success; high lvl of ego development, moral reasoning & self-esteem *Close to mother but resists her authority. Struggle w/ parental authority *Will probably come out of crisis eventually w/ ability to make commitments & achieve identity. *ex: Has begun to think about their ethnicity means to them but still confused about it Ask questions of others, talks about it w/ parents, & thinks great deal about it.* 4. identity diffusion (no commitment & no crisis)-characterized by absence of commitment and lack of serious consideration of alternatives. *unsure of themself & tends to be uncooperative; low lvls of ego development, moral reasoning, cognitive complexity, & self-certainty, poor cooperative abilities *Parents do not discuss future w/ adolescents; they say it's up to them; are rejecting or unavailable to children *People in this category tend to be unhappy & often lonely *ex: Hasn't really thought about their own identity. Done little or no exploration of what their heritage means or what they think about it.* *adolescents were more likely to be in moratorium (42%). 25% of adolescents were in foreclosure.*

What are the 6 types of bullying?

1. physical- hitting, punching, kicking, or damaging or taking of personal belongings 2. verbal- name-calling or threatening 3. Relational/ Emotional- isolating and gossiping, often behind the victim's back 4. Proactive- done to show dominance, bolster power, or win admiration 5. Reactive- responding to a real or imagined attack 6. Cyberbullying- posting negative comments or derogatory photos of the victim on a Web site (become increasingly common)

Parents use inductive reasoning by what 4 tactics?

1. pointing out how child's action affect others ex- "Hitting Jermaine hurts him & makes him feel bad." 2. appealing to self-esteem ex- "What happen to the helpful boy who was here yesterday?" 3. moral values ex- "A big, strong boy like you shouldn't sit on the train & let an old person stand" 4. letting child know they must bear the consequences of their behavior ex- "No wonder you missed school bus today--you stayed up too late last night! Now you'll have to walk to school."

Kohlberg described 3 lvls of moral reasoning, each divided into 2 stages

1. preconventional morality- 1st lvl control is external & rules are obeyed in order to gain rewards or avoid punishment or out of self-interest. Age 4-10, stage 1-2 of moral reasoning. 2. conventional morality (or morality of conventional role conformity)- 2nd lvl standards of authority figures are internalized, stage 3-4 of moral reasoning. *concerned about being "good," pleasing others, & maintaining social order. *after age 10; many people never move beyond it, even in adulthood. 3. postconventional morality (or morality of autonomous moral principles)- 3rd lvl people follow internally held moral principles & can decide among conflicting moral standards, stage 5-6 of moral reasoning. *make own judgments on basis of principles of right, fairness, & justice. *reach in early adolescence, or more commonly in young adulthood

What are the 4 common mnemonic devices? Mnemonic strategy...

1. rehearsal- keep an item in working memory through conscious repetition. ex: Saying a telephone number over & over after looking it up, so as not to forget it before dialing 2. organization- (1) Piaget's term for the creation of categories or systems of knowledge. (2) Categorizing material to be remembered. ex: mentally placing info into categories (animals, furniture, vehicles, clothing) to make it easier to recall 3. elaboration- Making mental associations involving items to be remembered. *children associate items w/ something else, such as an imagined scene or story. ex: To remember to buy lemons, ketchup, and napkins a child might visualize a ketchup bottle balanced on a lemon, with a pile of napkins handy to wipe up any spills. 4. external memory aids (used by adults & children)- Using something outside the person. ex: Writing down a telephone number, making a list, setting a timer, and putting a library book by the front door

What does the National Association of State Boards of Education recommends for the # of mintues of physical education each week for elementary students?

150 minutes of physical education each week, but the average school offers only 85 to 98 minutes

Children's responses to a traumatic event typically occur in 2 stages:

1st: fright, disbelief, denial, grief, and relief if their loved ones are unharmed 2nd: several days or weeks later, developmental regression & signs of emotional distress—anxiety, fear, withdrawal, sleep disturbances, pessimism about the future, or play related to themes of the event. If symptoms last for more than a month, the child should receive counseling

What is concrete operations?

3rd stage of Piagetian cognitive development (ages 7-12), during which children develop logical but not abstract thinking. *children can use mental operations like reasoning to solve concrete (actual) problems & think logically b/c they take multiple aspects of a situation into account. However, their thinking is still limited to real situations in the here and now.

What is Psychometrics?

A branch of psychology involved in quantitative measurement of psychological variables, & psychometric techniques been used extensively in the development of ways to measure intelligence.

Define asthma

A chronic respiratory disease characterized by sudden attacks of coughing, wheezing, and difficulty in breathing. *13%+ U.S. children & adolescents up to age 17 been diagnosed with this condition *30% more likely diagnosed in boys than in girls *20 percent more likely to be diagnosed in black children than in white children

Define seriation

Ability to order items along a dimension. *arranging objects in a series according to 1+ dimensions. *Children become better at seriation for dimensions such as time (earliest to latest), length (shortest to longest), or color (lightest to darkest)

Define creativity

Ability to see situations in a new way, to produce innovations, or to discern previously unidentified problems and find novel solutions. *produce something never seen before or to discern problems others fail to recognize and find new & unusual solutions. *Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking 1 of the most widely known tests of creativity

hypothetical-deductive reasoning

Ability, believed by Piaget, to accompany the stage of formal operations, to develop, consider, and test hypotheses. *considers all relationships he/she can imagine & tests them systematically, one by one, to eliminate the false & arrive at the true

What is the leading cause of death among school-age U.S children? So, what are the protective factors needed to be taken considered?

Accidental injuries w/ majority resulting from traffic accidents, drowning, or burns *Protective headgear also is vital for baseball and softball, football, roller skating, in-line skating, skateboarding, scooter riding, horseback riding, hockey, speed sledding, snowmobiling, and tobogganing

Identity

According to Erikson, a coherent conception of the self, made up of goals, values, and beliefs to which a person is solidly committed.

How does living in a step-family influence on children?

Adjusting to a new stepparent may be stressful. A child's loyalties to an absent or dead parent may interfere w/ forming ties to a stepparent *boys—often have more trouble than girls in adjusting to divorce and living with a single mother—benefit from a stepfather. *girls may find the new man in the house a threat to her independence & to her close relationship w/ her mother

Drug Therapy

Administration of drugs (antidepressants, stimulants, tranquilizers, antipsychotic medications) to treat emotional disorders. *controversial to treat childhood emotional disorders *use of SSRIs to treat obsessive-compulsive, depressive, and anxiety disorders increased rapidly in 1990s but decline *moderate risks of suicidal thought & behavior for children and adolescents taking antidepressants

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

Anxiety aroused by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses, often leading to compulsive ritual behaviors. *Children obsessed by repetitive, intrusive thoughts, images, or impulses (often involving irrational fears) or may show compulsive behaviors (constant hand-washing); or contain both conditions

generalized anxiety disorder

Anxiety not focused on any single target. *worry about just about everything* ex: school grades, storms, earthquakes, & hurting themselves on the playground *tend to be self-conscious, self-doubting, & excessively concerned w/ meeting expectations of others. Seek approval & need constant reassurance, but their worry seems independent of performance or of how they are regarded by others

two-way (dual-language) learning

Approach to 2nd-language education which English speakers & non-English-speakers learn together in their own & each other's languages. *approach avoids any need to place minority children in separate classes. By valuing both languages equally, reinforces self-esteem & improves school performance. Also, English speakers learn a foreign language at an early age, when they can acquire it most easily

English-immersion approach (ESL)

Approach to teaching English as a second language in which instruction is presented only in English. *claim that the sooner children are exposed to English and the more time they spend speaking it, the better they learn it.

phonetic (code-emphasis) approach

Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes decoding of unfamiliar words. *child sounds out word, translating it from print to speech before retrieving it from long-term memory. Child must master the phonetic code that matches the printed alphabet to spoken sounds (as described above). Instruction generally involves rigorous, teacher-directed tasks focused on memorizing sound-letter correspondences.

whole-language approach

Approach to teaching reading that emphasizes visual retrieval & use of contextual clues. *based on the belief that children can learn to read & write naturally, much as they learn to understand & use speech *assert children learn to read w/ better comprehension & more enjoyment if they experience written language from outset to gain info & express ideas & feelings, not as a system of isolated sounds & syllables to be learned by memorization & drill. *tend to feature real literature, open-ended, student-initiated activities

Carol Gilligan's critique of Kohlberg's theory

Asserted Kohlberg's theory was sexist and oriented toward values more important to men than to women *Women held a different set of values, however, that placed caring and avoiding harm as higher goals than justice.

What causes intellectual disability & how can it be preventable?

Caused by: genetic disorders, traumatic accidents, prenatal exposure to infection or alcohol, and environmental exposure to lead or high levels of mercury Preventable through genetic counseling, prenatal care, amniocentesis, routine screening & health care for newborns, & nutritional services for pregnant women & infants.

Romantic relationships in adolescence

Central part of most adolescents' social worlds. With the onset of puberty, most heterosexual boys & girls begin to think about & interact more w/ members of the other sex. Typically, they move from mixed groups or group dates to one-on-one romantic relationships that, unlike other-sex friendships, they describe as involving passion & a sense of commitment

How does peers relationships influence the children?

Child develop skills needed for sociability and intimacy, and they gain a sense of belonging. Motivated to achieve, attain a sense of identity. learn leadership and communication skills, cooperation, roles, & rules *conformity to group standards may occur *

The impact of a mother's work depends on many other factors:

Child's age, sex, temperament, and personality; whether the mother works full-time or part-time; why she is working; whether she has a supportive or unsupportive partner, or none; the family's socioeconomic status; & the type of care the child receives before and/or after school *her working may hinge on how much time & energy she has left to spend w/ them & what sort of role model she is. *How well parents keep track of their children may be more important than whether the mother works for pay

Differences peers relationship in childhood & in adolescence:

Childhood- most peer interactions are dyadic, or one-to-one Adolescence- peer social system becomes more diverse. Cliques (structured groups of friends who do things together) which later a larger group called, "crowd" doesn't normally exist before adolescence, is based not on personal interactions but on reputation, image, or identity. Crowd membership is a social construction

Why is there a shift of power during the child's period of its middlehood?

Children grow & become more autonomous. Control of behavior gradually shifts from parents to child & children begin to request certain types of experiences, demand particular foods, negotiate for desired objects, & communicate their shifting needs to parents.

How does friendship influence the children?

Children look for friends who are like them in age, sex, and interests. *strongest friendships involve equal commitment & mutual give-and-take. Though children tend to choose friends w/ similar ethnic backgrounds, cross-racial/ethnic friendships are associated w/ positive developmental outcomes *Preschool friends play together, but friendship among school-age children is deeper and more stable. *Children this age typically have 3-5 best friends but usually play with only 1 or 2 at a time *School-age children distinguish among "best friends," "good friends," and "casual friends" on the basis of intimacy and time spent together *Children cannot be or have true friends until they achieve cognitive maturity to consider other people's views & needs as well as their own*

Resilient children

Children who weather adverse circumstances, maintain their composure & competence, function well despite challenges or threats, or bounce back from traumatic events.

How does media violence lead to long-term aggressiveness?

Children's exposure increases their risk for long-term effects based on observational learning, desensitization, & enactive learning that occur automatically in human children *Media provides visceral thrills without showing the human cost and leads children to view aggression as acceptable *Classic social learning research suggests children imitate filmed models even more than live ones

Marcia application of identity status can be apply to the 3 stages of ethnic identity development:

Connectedness to one's own racial/ethnic group, awareness of racism, and embedded achievement, the belief that academic achievement is a part of group identity. *Protective factors: nurturant, involved parenting; prosocial friends & strong academic perfromance

What is the executive function?

Conscious control of thoughts, emotions, and actions to accomplish goals or solve problems. *allow children be more thoughtful in their cognition & behavior. *capacity to make good decisions and monitor whether goals are being met becoming more independent *develops gradually from infancy to adolescence. As might be expected, it is accompanied by brain development, most notably in the prefrontal cortex *as children's knowledge expands, they become more aware of what kinds of info are important to pay attention to & remember. School-age children understand more about how memory works, enables them to plan, use strategies, or deliberate techniques to help them remember*

Crisis & Commitment

Crisis: Marcia's term for period of conscious decision making related to identity formation. *Erikson's theories-crisis does not refer to a stressful event such as losing your job or not being able to pay your bills. It refers to the process of grappling with what to believe and who to be. Commitment: Marcia's term for personal investment in an occupation or system of beliefs.

hurried child

David Elkind warns pressures of modern life are forcing children to grow up too soon & are making their childhood too stressful. Today's children are expected to succeed in school, to compete in sports, and to meet parents' emotional needs. Children are exposed to many adult problems on television and in real life before they have mastered the problems of childhood

Define body image

Descriptive and evaluative beliefs about one's appearance. *important in middle childhood, especially girls who may develop eating disorders in adolescence.

Dyslexia

Developmental disorder in which reading achievement is substantially lower than predicted by IQ or age. *hinders development of oral, written language skills & cause problems w/ writing, spelling, grammar, & understanding speech & reading -Often fail to develop phonological awareness & have difficulty breaking speech sounds into their constituent parts *more frequent in boys than in girls *NOT an issue of intelligence *can be taught to read through systematic phonological training, but process does not become automatic, as it does w/ most readers

Adolescence

Developmental transition b/w childhood & adulthood entailing major physical, cognitive, emotional, & psychosocial changes. *not a clearly defined physical or biological category—it is a social construction

Learning Disabilities (LDs)

Disorders that interfere with specific aspects of learning and school achievement (listening, speaking, reading, writing, or mathematics, resulting in performance substantially lower than expected given a child's age, intelligence, & amount of schooling). *Often have near-average to higher-than-average intelligence, normal vision & hearing, but have trouble processing sensory info

U.S. Elementary and Secondary Education Act

Encompasses children who show high intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity or ability in specific academic fields & who need special educational services & activities to fully develop those capabilities

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act

Ensures a free, appropriate public education for all children with disabilities (in learning, speech, or language impairments *An individualized program must be designed for each child, w/ parental involvement. Children must be educated in the "least restrictive environment" appropriate to their needs—which means, whenever possible, the regular classroom

Industry vs. Inferiority

Erikson's 4th stage of psychosocial development, in which children must learn the productive skills their culture requires or else face feelings of inferiority. *major determinant of self-esteem is children's view of their capacity for productive work *Children must learn skills valued in their society & developed responsibility & motivation to succeed

identity vs identity confusion/ role confusion

Erikson's 5th stage of psychosocial development, in which an adolescent seeks to develop a coherent sense of self, including the role she or he is to play in society.

social phobia/ social anxiety

Extreme fear and/or avoidance of social situations. ex: speaking in class or meeting an acquaintance on the street *5% children has it & runs in families there may be a genetic component. *triggered by traumatic experiences (child's mind going blank when child called on in class *Social anxiety tends to increase w/ age, whereas separation anxiety decreases*

Social Capital

Family & community resources on which a person can draw. *the networks of community resources children & families can draw on

What is the theory of multiple intelligences?

Gardner's theory that each person has several distinct forms of intelligence. *argued these intelligences are distinct from each other & that high intelligence in one area doesn't necessarily accompany high intelligence in any of the others. *purpose is to not to compare individuals, but reveal strengths & weaknesses to help people realize their potential *critics: accurately labeled as talents/abilities & intelligence more associated w/ skills lead to academic achievement. Question his criteria for defining separate intelligences that largely overlap (like mathematical & spatial intelligence)

What is the growth difference b/w the genders?

Girls: Retain somewhat more fatty tissue than boys (persist through adulthood)

What does the gray matter and white matter composed of? Why do these matters are necessary?

Gray: composed of closely packed neurons in the cerebral cortex. White: made of glial cells (provide support for neurons) & of myelinated axons (transmit information across neurons) *Both types of matters are necessary for effective cognition*

What is the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test?

Group intelligence test for kindergarten through 12th grade. *Children asked to classify items, show an understanding of verbal & numerical concepts, display general information, follow directions. *Separate scores for verbal comprehension, verbal reasoning, pictorial reasoning, figural reasoning, & quantitative reasoning can identify specific strengths and weaknesses.

How have intervention programs helped mildly or moderately disabled?

Helped to hold jobs, live in the community, and function in society. Constant care & supervision, usually in institutions. For some, day care centers, hostels for intellectually disabled adults, and homemaking services for caregivers can be less costly and more humane alternatives.

What is the environmental influence on executive skills?

Home environment -factors include available resources, cognitive stimulation, & maternal sensitivity -parenting practices and culture affect ]pace at which children are given the opportunity to practice these skills

Define chronic medical conditions

Illnesses (or physical, developmental, behavioral, or emotional conditions) or impairments that persist for at least 3 months.

Define acute medical conditions

Illnesses that last a short time. *infections & warts are common. *6-7 yrs old about a year w/ colds, flu, viruses are typical as germs pass among children at school or play

Representational Systems

In neo-Piagetian terminology, 3rd stage in development of self-definition, characterized by breadth, balance, more conscious, realistic, comprehensive & the integration & assessment of various aspects of the self. [age 7-8] ex: she recognizes she can be "smart" in certain subjects and "dumb" in others. Can verbalize her self-concept better, & can weigh different aspects of it. Can compare her real self (who she is) w/ her ideal self (who she wants to be) & can judge how well she measures up to social standards in comparison w/ others.

What is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC-IV)?

Individual intelligence test for school-age children, which yields verbal and performance scores as well as a combined score. *test ages 6-16 measures verbal & performance abilities, yielding separate scores for each as well as a total score. *Has a separate subtest scores pinpoint child's strengths & help diagnose specific problems. ex: if child does well on verbal tests (general information & basic arithmetic operations) but poorly on performance tests (doing a puzzle or drawing missing part of a picture), child => slow in perceptual or motor development. A child who does well on performance tests but poorly on verbal tests=> language problem

Authoritative parents

Insist on important rules, norms, and values but are willing to listen, explain, and negotiate. *exercise appropriate control over a child's conduct (behavioral control) but not over the child's feelings, beliefs, and sense of self (psychological control) & responsive to children's growing need for psychological autonomy (right to their own thoughts & feelings)

What kinds of challenges comes w/ adopting a child?

Integrating adopted child into the family, explaining the adoption to the child, helping the child develop a healthy sense of self, and perhaps eventually helping the child find and contact the biological parents

What is culture-fair tests?

Intelligence tests that deal w/ experiences common to various cultures, in an attempt to avoid cultural bias.

What is culture-free tests?

Intelligence tests that, if they were possible to design, would have no culturally linked content. *posing tasks that don't require language, such as tracing mazes, putting the right shapes in the right holes, and completing pictures; but they have been unable to eliminate all cultural influences

What is the working memory?

Involves short-term storage of information that is being actively processed, like a mental workspace. ex: if you are asked to compute what 42 × 60 is, you would use your working memory to hold part of the answer while you solved the rest of it. *difficulties most apparent when there are lengthy instructions b/c children need to retain multiple items in working memory to be able to follow the instructions*

extended contact

Knowing that an ingroup member has a close relationship with an outgroup member

special needs education

Likely to thought it is focused on those children who have learning or behavioral disorders, but it also include a focus on children who are gifted, talented, or creative, as they have different educational needs than the typical child

What is conventional IQ tests?

Mainly measure componential ability, & b/c this ability is the kind most school tasks require, it's not surprising that the tests predict academic success. *are relatively good at predicting school performance but are less useful at predicting success in the real world *failure to measure experiential (insightful or creative) & contextual (practical) intelligence may explain why they have less utility predicting outcomes in real world.

Identity Statuses

Marcia's term for states of ego development that depend on the presence or absence of crisis and commitment.

childhood depression

Mood disorder characterized by such symptoms as a prolonged sense of friendlessness, inability to have fun or concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, feelings of worthlessness, weight change, physical complaints, and thoughts of death or suicide. *Symptoms: inability to have fun/ concentrate, fatigue, extreme activity or apathy, crying, sleep problems, weight change, physical complaints, feelings of worthlessness, a prolonged sense of friendlessness, or frequent thoughts about death or suicide. *may signal the beginning of a recurrent problem likely to persist into adulthood

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children (K-ABC-II)

Nontraditional individual intelligence test designed to provide fair assessments of minority children & children w/ disabilities. *an individual test ages 3-18, designed to evaluate cognitive abilities in children w/ diverse needs (autism, hearing impairments, & language disorders) & from varying cultural & linguistic backgrounds. Has subtests designed to minimize verbal instructions & responses as well as items w/ limited cultural content.

Primary sex characteristics

Organs directly related to reproduction, which enlarge and mature during adolescence. *Female's sex organs: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, clitoris, & vagina *Male's sex organs: testes, penis, scrotum, seminal vesicles, & prostate gland.

Cultural socialization

Parental practices that teach children about their racial/ethnic heritage and promote cultural practices, pride, & traditions that is part of the cultural socialization. ex: celebrate holidays (Christmas, thanksgiving, Easter) *Adolescents who have experienced cultural socialization tend to have stronger & more positive ethnic identities than those who have not

oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

Pattern of behavior, persisting into middle childhood, marked by negativity, hostility, disobedience, & defiance toward adult authority figures lasting @ least 6 months & beyond bounds of normal childhood behavior. *constantly fight, argue, lose their temper, snatch things, blame others, angry & resentful; have few friends, in constant trouble in school, & test limits of adults' patience.

adolescent rebellion

Pattern of emotional turmoil, characteristic of a minority of adolescents, that may involve conflict with family, alienation from adult society, reckless behavior, and rejection of adult values. *Arguments often concern control over everyday personal matters—chores, schoolwork, dress, money, curfews, dating, & friends—rather than issues of health & safety or right & wrong

What are the 3 common forms of dating violence?

Physical—when a partner is hit, pinched, shoved, or kicked Emotional—when a partner is threatened or verbally abused Sexual—when a partner is forced to engage in a nonconsensual sex act

Secondary sex characteristics

Physiological signs of sexual maturation (such as breast development, growth of body hair, changes in voice & skin texture, muscular development) that do not involve the sex organs.

What does Piaget maintained about the influences of neurological development in culture & schooling?

Piaget maintained shift from rigid, illogical thinking of younger children to the flexible, logical thinking of older children depends on both neurological development & experience in adapting to environment. *abilities such as conservation depend in part on familiarity w/ materials being manipulated *understand conservation may come, not only from new patterns of mental organization but also from culturally defined experience w/ physical world.

Formal Operations

Piaget's final stage of cognitive development, characterized by the ability to think abstractly. *move away from their reliance on concrete, real-world stimuli & develop the capacity for abstract thought. *occur @ age 11, gives them new, more flexible way to manipulate information by using symbols to represent other symbols (x stand for unknown numeral) & thus learn algebra & calculus; better appreciate hidden messages in metaphor & allegory allows them find richer meanings in literature; canimagine possibilities, form & test hypotheses

Puberty

Process by which a person attains sexual maturity and the ability to reproduce. Encompass 11-19/20 yrs old.

decoding

Process of phonetic analysis by which a printed word is converted to spoken form before retrieval from long-term memory.

Visually based retrieval

Process of retrieving the sound of a printed word when seeing the word as a whole.

enrichment programs

Programs for educating the gifted that broaden and deepen knowledge and skills through extra activities, projects, field trips, or mentoring.

acceleration programs

Programs for educating the gifted that move them through the curriculum at an unusually rapid pace. *speed up education through early school entrance, grade skipping, placement in fast-paced classes, or advanced courses.

Individual psychotherapy

Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees a troubled person one-on-one to gain insights into his/her personality, relationships, interpret feelings & behavior. *helpful at a time of stress (death of a parent or parental divorce) *Child psychotherapy more effective when combined w/ counseling for parents.

Family Therapy

Psychological treatment in which a therapist sees the whole family together to analyze patterns of family functioning. Observes how members interact, points out both growth-producing & growth-inhibiting or destructive patterns of family functioning. *Help parents confront their conflicts & begin to resolve them. *Often 1st step toward resolving child's problems

conduct disorder (CD)

Repetitive, persistent pattern of aggressive, antisocial behavior violating societal norms or the rights of others. *truancy, setting fires, habitual lying, fighting, bullying, theft, vandalism, assaults, and drug and alcohol use

What sleep problems does schoolchildren usually experience & why does this occur?

Resistance to going to bed, insomnia, & daytime sleepiness *Common in U.S b/c many children, as they grow older, are allowed to set their own bedtimes*

What are the 2 steps for puberty to occur?

Results from a cascade of hormonal responses 1st: hypothalamus releases elevated levels of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH). 2nd: increased GnRH then triggers a rise in lutenizing hormone (LH) & follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH); occurs in the pituitary gland 3rd: LH/FSH triggers the Gonad leading to the development of both genders -girls: increased levels of FSH lead to the onset of menstruation -boys: LH initiates the release of two additional hormones (testosterone & androstendione)

In 1st graders, what are the risks lead to school failure & how could support prevent it?

Risk of school failure include: low SES or academic, attentional, or behavioral problems Support: frequent literacy instruction, evaluative feedback, engaging students in discussions, responding to their emotional needs, encouraging responsibility, and creating a positive classroom atmosphere

2 Major concerns about adolescent sexual activity: *what causes this & how can it be prevented?

Risks of contracting sexually transmitted infections (STIs) [infections & diseases spread by sexual contact: most common HPV or genital warts while chlamydia & gonorrhea are curable] & for heterosexual activity, of pregnancy *Causes: early puberty, poverty, poor school performance, lack of goals, a history of sexual abuse or parental neglect, and cultural or family patterns of early sexual experience *Prevented: reducing poverty, school failure, behavioral & family problems, expanding employment, skills training, & family life education

adolescent growth spurt

Sharp increase in height, weight, muscle & bone growth that occurs during puberty; precedes sexual maturity. *typically lasts 2 yrs; growth hormone & sex hormones (androgens & estrogen) contribute to normal pubertal growth pattern* *Girls: 9.5- 14.5 yrs old *Boys: 10.5-16 yrs old

intellectual disability

Significantly subnormal cognitive functioning. Also referred to as cognitive disability or mental retardation. *An IQ of 70 or less, coupled w/ a deficiency in age-appropriate adaptive behavior (communication, social skills, & self-care), appearing before age 18

What is the growth rate during middle childhood?

Slows considerably & day-to-day changes may not be obvious

Tacit Knowledge

Sternberg's term for information that is not formally taught but is necessary to get ahead. *children in many cultures have to learn practical skills to succeed (medicinal herbs, hunting, fishing, and preserving plants) necessary for survival

Componential element

Sternberg's term for the analytic aspect of intelligence. *Determines how efficiently people process information. It helps people solve problems, monitor solutions, & evaluate the results. Some people are more effective information processors than others.

Experiential element

Sternberg's term for the insightful or creative aspect of intelligence. *Determines how people approach novel/familiar tasks. Enables people to compare new info w/ what they already know & to come up w/ new ways of putting facts together—to think originally.

Contextual element

Sternberg's term for the practical aspect of intelligence. *helps people deal w/ their environment. The ability to size up a situation & decide what to do. What actions are most appropriate for a given situation depend on the context; a person might decide to adapt to a situation, change it, or get out of it.

What is the triarchic theory of intelligence?

Sternberg's theory describing 3 elements of intelligence: componential, experiential, and contextual. *argues everyone has these 3 abilities to a greater or lesser extent. A person may be strong in 1, 2, or all 3. *measured by the Sternberg Triarchic Abilities Test (STAT) which focused on processes rather than content that predict intelligent behavior across domains of knowledge, -3 domains of intelligence are assessed: verbal, quantitative, & figural (or spatial).

What is mnemonic device?

Strategy to aid memory. *spelling bee constants do better when they use this tactic. *young children have difficulty learning mnemonic strategies b/c they aren't ready for them, but once they have the necessary capacities in place, they can benefit from instruction.

Fidelity

Sustained loyalty, faith, or sense of belonging to a loved one, friends, or companions that results from the successful resolution of Erikson's identity vs identity confusion. *can mean identification with a set of values, an ideology, a religion, a political movement, or an ethnic group *Individuals who do not develop a firm sense of their own identity and do not develop fidelity=> unstable sense of self, be insecure, fail to plan for themselves & future

attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Syndrome characterized by persistent inattention and distractibility, impulsivity, low tolerance for frustration, & inappropriate overactivity. *Has 2 different but sometimes overlap symptoms: Some children are inattentive but not hyperactive; others show reverse pattern

Bilingual Education

System of teaching non-English-speaking children in their native language while they learn English, & later switching to all-English instruction. *children taught in 2 languages, 1st learning their native language w/ others who speak it then switching to regular classes in English when they become more proficient in it

Hostile attribution base

Tendency to perceive others as trying to hurt one and to strike out in retaliation or self-defense.

Dynamic Tests

Tests based on Vygotsky's theory that emphasize potential rather than past learning. *contain items up to 2 years above a child's current level of competence. Examiners help the child when necessary by asking leading questions, giving examples or demonstrations, and offering feedback; thus the test itself is a learning situation *contrast w/ traditional static tests that measure a child's current abilities by measuring learning processes directly rather than through products of past learning* *focused on interaction as context development occurred, includes ability to learn via scaffolded interactions. - difference b/w items a child can answer alone & items the child can answer w/ help is child's zone of proximal development (ZPD) *critic: labor-intensive, & ZPD difficult to measure precisely

What is class inclusion?

The ability to understand of the relationship b/w a whole & its parts (categories within a whole) ex: *Piaget (1964) showed preoperational children 10 flowers—7 roses & 3 carnations—asked them whether there were more roses or more flowers, & children say more roses b/c they were comparing roses w/ carnations rather than whole bunch of flowers. *Age 7-8, concrete operation stage children understand roses are a subcategory of flowers, thus they stated more flowers than there are roses

Social promotion

The practice of promoting children to keep them w/ their age-mates even when they do not meet academic standards

Art Therapy

Therapeutic approach that allows a person to express troubled feelings without words, using a variety of art materials and media. *Effective for children who have limited verbal & conceptual skills or suffered emotional trauma *may express deep emotions through his/her choice of colors & subjects to depict

Play Therapy

Therapeutic approach that uses play to help a child cope with emotional distress. Where a child plays freely while therapist occasionally comments, asks questions, or makes suggestions. *effective w/ a variety of emotional, cognitive, & social problems, especially when consultation w/ parents or other close family members is part of the process

Behavior therapy/ behavior modification

Therapeutic approach using principles of learning theory to encourage desired behaviors or eliminate undesired ones. *more effective w/ children & adolescents than nonbehavioral methods *Positive outcomes occur when treatment targeted to specific problems

How does living w/ Gay/Lesbian Parents influence on children?

There is no consistent difference b/w homosexual & heterosexual parents in emotional health or parenting skills, attitudes; & where there are differences, they tend to favor gay and lesbian parents *usually have positive relationships with their children

Metacognition

Thinking about thinking, or awareness of one's own mental processes. *help children monitor their understanding of what they read & develop strategies to address challenges. *Metacognitive abilities encouraged by having students recall, summarize, & ask questions about what they read ex: children w/ good metacognitive skills use strategies read more slowly, rereading difficult passages, trying to visualize info, or thinking of additional examples when trying to learn info in a challenging written passage.

Define Metamemory

Thinking or understanding processes of memory. Involves knowledge & reflection about memory processes. *age 5-7, brain's frontal lobes undergo development & reorganization -Kindergarters & 1st graders aware remember better if study longer, people forget over time, relearning is easier than learning for 1st time -3rd grade, aware people remember better than others & some things are easier to remember than others

Why there might be a loss in the density of gray matter during maturational change>

This loss reflects pruning of unused dendrites. Those connections that are used remain active; unused connections eventually disappear. Result brain to become "tuned" child's experiences.

Coregulation

Transitional stage in the control of behavior in which parents exercise general supervision and children exercise moment-to-moment self-regulation. (where social power become equal b/w parent & child) *parents rely less on direct intervention & more on discussion w/ child *Children more apt follow parents' wishes when believe parents are fair & concerned about child's welfare & they may "know better" b/c of experience. *shift from inductive techniques (@ early childhood) to coregulation affects way parents handle discipline

Secular trend

Trend seen only by observing several generations, such as the trend toward earlier attainment of adult height & sexual maturity, which began a century ago in some countries.

Define deductive reasoning

Type of logical reasoning moves from a general premise about a class to a conclusion about a particular member or members of the class. *moves from generalized principles known to be true-> a true & specific conclusion* ex: believe all dogs bark, & a new dog comes along, reasonable to conclude new dog will also bark

Define Inductive reasoning

Type of logical reasoning that moves from particular observations about members of a class (people, animals, objects, or events) to a general conclusion about that class as a whole. *moves from specific instances-> a generalized conclusion* ex: If 1 neighbor's dog barks & another neighbor's dog barks, then conclusion might be that all dogs bark. Inductive reasoning must be tentative, however, b/c it's always possible to come across new info, such as a dog that does not bark.

Prejudice

Unfavorable attitude toward members of certain groups outside one's own, especially racial or ethnic groups.

school phobia/ separation anxiety disorder

Unrealistic fear of going to school ex: a sarcastic teacher, overly demanding work, or a bully to avoid

What does Piaget believed children in concrete operations stage of cognitive development use which reasoning?

Use inductive reasoning & deductive reasoning didn't develop til adolescence. *But research suggest Piaget underestimate abilities of children as evidence of both reasoning were presented earlier than Piaget predicted.

Why would instrumental/ proactive aggressors commit to aggression behaviors?

View force & coercion as effective ways to get what they want. They act deliberately, not out of anger. *In social learning terms, they are aggressive because they expect to be rewarded for it

Define rough-and-tumble play.

Vigorous play involving wrestling, hitting, and chasing, often accompanied by laughing and screaming. *10% of schoolchildren's free play *peaks in middle childhood seems to be universal, & boys engage higher lvls than girls, perhaps b/c of hormonal differences & socialization -Girls: favor games include verbal expression/ counting aloud (hopscotch & jump rope) -Boys: physically active games *evolutionary standpoint: important adaptive benefits sharpens (skeletal & muscle development) -offers safe practice for hunting & fighting skills -channels aggression & competition. -by age 11 establish dominance within peer group -promote growth in agility & social competence & foster adjustment to school

Joint legal custody

a custody agreement in which noncustodial parents (usually fathers) retain their legal rights to share the right and responsibility to make decisions regarding the child's welfare *child lives part time w/ each parent *children in either legal or physical joint custody were better adjusted and had higher self-esteem and better family relationships

Collective efficacy

a neighborhood-level influence involving the willingness of individuals in a neighborhood to work together to achieve a common goal, intervene if a problem is apparent, and help each other out in times of need

Cooperative Parenting

an arrangement whereby divorced parents coordinate their activities and cooperate with each other in raising their children; an active consultation b/w a mother & a nonresident father on parenting decisions *led to more frequent contact b/w father & child led to better father-child relationships & more responsive fathering

Two chronic conditions that have become increasingly common are...

asthma and diabetes

Open adoptions

both parties share information or have direct contact with the child; presumed risks of open adoption, such as fear that a birth mother who knows her child's whereabouts will try to reclaim the child, are overstated

Self-care

children who are unsupervised and taking care of themselves *A minority of school-age children and early adolescents are reported

What factors contribute to moral behavior?

emotions, specific situations, conceptions of virtue, and concern for others

Structure of brain's structure depends on...

interaction b/w genetic, epigenetic, & environment factors

Define body dissatisfaction

negative thoughts about their bodies, leading to low self-esteem

What are the 2 types of nomination measured as tally in sociometric popularity?

positive: children can easily say who they like to play with, who they like the most, or who they think other kids like the most Negative: Children can also easily describe which children they don't like to play with, like the least, or think other kids don't like

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

seeks to change negative thoughts through gradual exposure, modeling, rewards, or talking to oneself *proven most effective treatment for anxiety disorders in children & adolescents

Pubilect

social dialect of puberty; serves to strengthen group identity & to shut outsiders (adults) out.

Define Selective Attention

the ability to deliberately direct one's attention and shut out distractions *School-age children can concentrate longer than younger children and can focus on the information they need and want while screening out irrelevant information.*

Emotional Self-Regulation:

the capability to adjust emotions to a desired state and level of intensity *Low- children become visibly angry/ frustrated when interrupted or prevented from doing something they want to do; cannot easily hide these signals. @ higher risk for later behavior problems *High- can stifle (repress) the impulse to show negative emotion at inappropriate times

Sexuality

the complex range of desires, beliefs, and behaviors that are related to erotic physical contact and the cultural arena within which people debate about what kinds of physical desires and behaviors are right, appropriate, and natural

Define inhibitory control

the voluntary suppression of unwanted responses

How does language improve in middle childhood?

understand more, interpret oral & written communication, make themselves understood, vocab grows, use increase precise verbs, figures of speech (simile & metaphore) which a word/ phrase designates 1 thing is compared or applied to another *syntax (deep understanding structure of language organize words into understandable phrases & sentences) *use more subordinate clauses "The boy who delivers the newspapers rang the doorbell" *can retell plot of a short book, movie, or tv shows

How does regular physical activity promote long-term health benefits?

weight control, lower blood pressure, improved cardiorespiratory functioning, enhanced self-esteem & well-being. *Active children=> active adults. Organized athletic programs should include many children as possible & focus on building skills rather than winning games

Define negligence

whether or not people who commit a wrongdoing ought to have foreseen the consequences of their actions *younger children are more likely to focus on intentions, and their judgments about punishment look much more like those of adults which conflicts w/ Piaget's claim of moral reasoning by that it's more nuanced @ younger ages