unit 4: ap practice test

Vesalius and other sixteenth-century physicians, who made important contributions to medical knowledge, had which of the following in common?

A willingness to challenge Greco-Roman medical authority

"Among the various species or modifications of liberty, of which on different occasions we have heard so much in England, I do not recollect ever seeing any thing yet offered on behalf of the liberty of making one's own terms in money lending....No man of ripe years and of sound mind, acting freely, and with his eyes open, ought to be hindered, with a view to his advantage, from making such bargain, in the way of obtaining money, as he thinks fit: nor, (what is a necessary consequence) any body hindered from supplying him, upon any terms he thinks proper to accede to.... You, who fetter contracts; you, who lay restraints on the liberty of man, it is for you to assign a reason for your doing so." Jeremy Bentham, Defence of Usury [Charging of Interest], 1787 Which of the following economic thinkers would most likely agree with Bentham's argument?

Adam Smith

The Scientific Revolution overturned the accepted ideas of which of the following?

Aristotle

Which of the following activities did Adam Smith believe was most appropriate for a national government?

Defending the state against foreign invasion

Which of the following is most characteristic of Voltaire's ideas?

Empiricism and religious toleration are to be celebrated.

"The law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have a right to concur either personally or by their representatives in its formation. The law should be the same for all, whether it protects or whether it punishes." The quotation above is a formulation of the ideas of

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The individual who first provided mathematical formulas supporting the Copernican theory and explaining planetary motion was

Johannes Kepler

Which of the following pairs of European rulers is generally identified as "enlightened" monarchs?

Joseph II and Catherine the Great

"I will allow that bodily strength seems to give man a natural superiority over woman; and this is the only solid basis on which the superiority of men over women can be built."

Mary Wollstonecraft

Which of the following best explains why Enlightenment thinkers were interested in applying principles from the natural sciences to the interpretation and improvement of social and political institutions?

Natural scientists had developed predictive laws and rigorous methods for understanding natural phenomena.

The group most severely criticized in the works of Voltaire, the French philosophe, was the

Roman Catholic clergy

The engraving above illustrates the interests and values of the

Scientific revolution

"Peter the Great was allowed to engage several English engineers into his service, as he had done in Holland; but, over and above engineers, he engaged likewise some mathematicians, which he would not so easily have found in Amsterdam. Ferguson, a Scotchman, an excellent geometrician, entered into his service, and was the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer in Russia, where before that time, they made use only of the Tartarian method of reckoning, with balls strung upon a wire [an abacus]....He took with him two young students from a mathematical school, and this was the beginning of the marine academy.... Peter made himself proficient in astronomy, [and] he perfectly well understood the motions of the heavenly bodies, as well as the laws of gravitation, by which they are directed. This force, now so evidently demonstrated, and before the time of the great Newton so little known, by which all the planets gravitate towards each other, and which retain them in their orbits, had already become familiar to a sovereign of Russia, while other countries amused themselves with imaginary theories, and, in Galileo's nation, one set of ignorant persons ordered others, as ignorant, to believe the earth to be immovable." Voltaire, History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great, 1759, discussing Tsar Peter I's Grand Embassy, which traveled to western Europeat the end of the seventeenth century Voltaire's discussion of Peter the Great's acceptance of Newtonian physics is best understood as a critique of which of the following?

The efforts of religious and secular authorities to suppress scientific development

"The philosophy of the eighteenth century takes up . . . the methodological pattern of Newton's physics, though it immediately begins to generalize from it. It is not content to look upon analysis as the great intellectual tool of mathematical and physical knowledge; eighteenth-century thought sees analysis rather as the necessary and indispensable instrument of all thinking in general. This view triumphs in the middle of the [eighteenth] century. However much individual thinkers and schools differed in their results, they agreed in this methodological premise." Ernst Cassirer, German historian, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 1932 The worldview described in the passage became dominant most likely as a result of which of the following developments?

The spread of printed materials that popularized the ideas of the Enlightenment

"The philosophy of the eighteenth century takes up . . . the methodological pattern of Newton's physics, though it immediately begins to generalize from it. It is not content to look upon analysis as the great intellectual tool of mathematical and physical knowledge; eighteenth-century thought sees analysis rather as the necessary and indispensable instrument of all thinking in general. This view triumphs in the middle of the [eighteenth] century. However much individual thinkers and schools differed in their results, they agreed in this methodological premise." Ernst Cassirer, German historian, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 1932 The influence of Newton's methodology described in the passage is best understood in the context of which of the following?

The spreading influence of thought associated with the Scientific Revolution

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage. Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear. So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero* that Hicetas* had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion." Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Motions of the Heavenly Orbs, dedication to Pope Paul III, 1543 Which of the following would most directly undermine Copernicus' hope that the papacy would be receptive to his arguments?

The trial of Galileo for publishing heretical works

Which of the following is true regarding the salons of the eighteenth century?

They discussed social questions as well as literary works.

The next questions refer to the following illustration from René Descartes' Treatise of Man, written circa 1630, published posthumously in 1662. The illustration shows the physical response to a painful stimulus (fire). The sensation of heat at the foot sends a signal to the brain, which causes the arm to move to brush away the fire. The image demonstrates which of the following regarding scientific advances in early modern Europe?

They used information obtained through dissection to reconceptualize the body as an integrated system.

The painting above depicts the Austrian Emperor Joseph II (1780-1790) as

an Enlightened monarch interested in methods of improving productivity

Rene Descartes and Francis Bacon contributed to scientific development in the seventeenth century by

articulating theories of the scientific method

The eighteenth-century Enlightenment philosophes were primarily concerned with

critical and inquiring approaches to knowledge

Adam Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations advocated a system of

free trade

Galileo was found guilty of heresy and condemned by the Inquisition on the grounds that he

publicly advocated Copernicus' heliocentric system

According to Adam Smith, the "invisible hand" would

reconcile selfish individual interests with general economic benefits

"I asked him to tell me in what true religion consisted. 'Have I not told you?' [he answered] 'Love God and your neighbor as yourself.'" Voltaire, Philosophical Dictionary In the excerpt above, Voltaire was supporting

religious toleration

"Since my accession to the throne, I have ever been anxious to conquer prejudices and to gain the confidence of my people. I granted toleration, and removed the yoke which had oppressed Protestants for centuries. Tolerance is a convincing proof of the improvement of the human mind." The author of the quotation above was most likely a

ruler influenced by Enlightenment precepts

"The philosophy of the eighteenth century takes up . . . the methodological pattern of Newton's physics, though it immediately begins to generalize from it. It is not content to look upon analysis as the great intellectual tool of mathematical and physical knowledge; eighteenth-century thought sees analysis rather as the necessary and indispensable instrument of all thinking in general. This view triumphs in the middle of the [eighteenth] century. However much individual thinkers and schools differed in their results, they agreed in this methodological premise." Ernst Cassirer, German historian, The Philosophy of the Enlightenment, 1932 The change in eighteenth-century thought described in the passage is best understood in the context of

the application of reason and empiricism to human institutions

The development of new political theories in the Enlightenment, such as those of Locke and Rousseau, can be explained as a reaction to

the growth of absolutist forms of government across much of Europe (During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many nations in Europe had consolidated state power, and absolutist governments had become the norm in European politics. Therefore, the Enlightenment could be interpreted most directly as a response to absolutism. This is because Enlightenment thinkers began to advocate for increased political rights and for more democratic forms of government, such as constitutional monarchies and representative democracies.)

"If the [Catholic clergy], so long paid and honored for abusing the human species, ordered us today to believe that...the world is immovable on its foundations,... that the tides are not a natural effect of gravitation, that the rainbow is not formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light, and so on, and if they based their [arguments] on passages poorly understood from the Holy Bible, how would educated men regard these commands? And if they used force and persecution to enforce their insolent stupidity, would the term 'wild beasts' seem too extreme [to describe them]?... This little globe of ours, which is no more than a point, rolls, together with many other globes, in that immensity of space in which we are lost. Man, who is an animal about five feet high, is certainly a very inconsiderable part of the creation; but one of those hardly visible beings says to another of the same kind who inhabits another spot on the globe: 'Listen to me, for the God of all these worlds has enlightened me. There are about nine hundred millions of us little insects who inhabit the earth, but my ant-hill alone is cherished by God who holds all the rest in horror for all eternity; those who live with me upon my spot will alone be happy, and all the rest eternally wretched.' . . . What madman could have made so ridiculous a speech?" Voltaire, A Treatise on Toleration, 1763 In addition to being informed by general principles, Voltaire's concern with promoting religious toleration was primarily relevant to supporters of the Enlightenment in eighteenth-century France because

the revocation of the Edict of Nantes by King Louis XIV in 1685 had led to the persecution of members of the Protestant minority

"The 9th [of June, 1789]. The business going forward at present in the pamphlet shops of Paris is incredible. I went to the Palais Royal [where many pamphleteers' shops were located] to see what new things were published and to procure a catalogue of all. Every hour produces something new. Thirteen came out today, sixteen yesterday, and ninety-two last week.... The spirit of reading political tracts, they say, spread into the provinces, so that all the presses of France are equally employed. Nineteen out of twenty of these productions are in favor of liberty, and commonly violent against the clergy and nobility;... but enquiring for such as had appeared on the other side of the question, to my astonishment I find that there are but two or three that have merit enough to be known. Is it not [surprising], that while the press teems with the most leveling and seditious principles, that if put in execution would overturn the monarchy, nothing in reply appears, and not the least step is taken by the court to restrain these publications?" Arthur Young, English writer, account of travels in France, published 1792 In addition to the political pamphlets described in the passage, which of the following did the most to turn public opinion against the Old Regime?

Discussions in French salons and coffeehouses

"Foreign trade can bring great wealth, but it also exposes us to great risks. The domestic economy of a state is its real treasure. For Spain, foreign trade has become a great chain binding us to vast overseas territories. Rather than worry daily about their preservation, we must pay greater attention to those certain sources of wealth in our domestic economy. We lost Flanders, we lost Italy, so why could we not lose Mexico and Peru? Little Prussia has given the world a surprising example of what a medium-sized kingdom can do on its own. . . . It is necessary to inform the people of the motives for a law, and of the evils the law seeks to avoid or the benefits it seeks to provide. This is especially true in monarchies in which the people have no part of legislative authority. The true measure of good laws is the extent to which they apply equally to all citizens. Happy is the kingdom whose ruler is governed by the maxims of justice and who can balance sovereign authority with civil liberty. Happy the king who realizes that political oppression is bad for the longevity of the state and that mutual confidence and unity between citizens cannot be established if the relationship between rulers and the ruled is akin to that between masters and slaves." Letter by an anonymous Spanish government official to the Count of Llerena, Spain's minister of finance, 1789 Based on the second paragraph, the author can best be described as advocating for Spain to adopt the principles of

Enlightened absolutism

"If the [Catholic clergy], so long paid and honored for abusing the human species, ordered us today to believe that...the world is immovable on its foundations,... that the tides are not a natural effect of gravitation, that the rainbow is not formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light, and so on, and if they based their [arguments] on passages poorly understood from the Holy Bible, how would educated men regard these commands? And if they used force and persecution to enforce their insolent stupidity, would the term 'wild beasts' seem too extreme [to describe them]?... This little globe of ours, which is no more than a point, rolls, together with many other globes, in that immensity of space in which we are lost. Man, who is an animal about five feet high, is certainly a very inconsiderable part of the creation; but one of those hardly visible beings says to another of the same kind who inhabits another spot on the globe: 'Listen to me, for the God of all these worlds has enlightened me. There are about nine hundred millions of us little insects who inhabit the earth, but my ant-hill alone is cherished by God who holds all the rest in horror for all eternity; those who live with me upon my spot will alone be happy, and all the rest eternally wretched.' . . . What madman could have made so ridiculous a speech?" Voltaire, A Treatise on Toleration, 1763 Voltaire's mockery of the notion of one true religion in the second paragraph of the passage is most directly influenced by which of the following?

Europeans' deeper awareness of the world's cultural diversity, gained through scientific exploration and travelers' accounts

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage. Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear. So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero* that Hicetas* had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion." Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Motions of the Heavenly Orbs, dedication to Pope Paul III, 1543 Which of the following later developments would best support Copernicus' claim regarding the motion of the spheres?

Kepler's formulation of the laws of planetary motion

The events shown on the maps best illustrate which of the following principles of international diplomacy in early modern Europe?

Maintenance of the balance of power

The next questions refer to the following illustration from René Descartes' Treatise of Man, written circa 1630, published posthumously in 1662. The illustration shows the physical response to a painful stimulus (fire). The sensation of heat at the foot sends a signal to the brain, which causes the arm to move to brush away the fire. Descartes' understanding of the human body, as shown in the image, is most similar to which of the following?

Newton's notion of a mechanistic universe

Which of the following best expresses Voltaire's views concerning religion?

Organized religion perpetuates superstition and ignorance.

"Foreign trade can bring great wealth, but it also exposes us to great risks. The domestic economy of a state is its real treasure. For Spain, foreign trade has become a great chain binding us to vast overseas territories. Rather than worry daily about their preservation, we must pay greater attention to those certain sources of wealth in our domestic economy. We lost Flanders, we lost Italy, so why could we not lose Mexico and Peru? Little Prussia has given the world a surprising example of what a medium-sized kingdom can do on its own. . . . It is necessary to inform the people of the motives for a law, and of the evils the law seeks to avoid or the benefits it seeks to provide. This is especially true in monarchies in which the people have no part of legislative authority. The true measure of good laws is the extent to which they apply equally to all citizens. Happy is the kingdom whose ruler is governed by the maxims of justice and who can balance sovereign authority with civil liberty. Happy the king who realizes that political oppression is bad for the longevity of the state and that mutual confidence and unity between citizens cannot be established if the relationship between rulers and the ruled is akin to that between masters and slaves." Letter by an anonymous Spanish government official to the Count of Llerena, Spain's minister of finance, 1789 The author's mention of Prussia as an example for Spain most likely refers to which of the following?

Prussia's success in eighteenth-century conflicts such as the Seven Years' War, which occurred despite Prussia's lack of significant overseas colonies

"If the [Catholic clergy], so long paid and honored for abusing the human species, ordered us today to believe that...the world is immovable on its foundations,... that the tides are not a natural effect of gravitation, that the rainbow is not formed by the refraction and the reflection of rays of light, and so on, and if they based their [arguments] on passages poorly understood from the Holy Bible, how would educated men regard these commands? And if they used force and persecution to enforce their insolent stupidity, would the term 'wild beasts' seem too extreme [to describe them]?... This little globe of ours, which is no more than a point, rolls, together with many other globes, in that immensity of space in which we are lost. Man, who is an animal about five feet high, is certainly a very inconsiderable part of the creation; but one of those hardly visible beings says to another of the same kind who inhabits another spot on the globe: 'Listen to me, for the God of all these worlds has enlightened me. There are about nine hundred millions of us little insects who inhabit the earth, but my ant-hill alone is cherished by God who holds all the rest in horror for all eternity; those who live with me upon my spot will alone be happy, and all the rest eternally wretched.' . . . What madman could have made so ridiculous a speech?" Voltaire, A Treatise on Toleration, 1763 The ideas expressed in the passage best illustrate which of the following about Enlightenment intellectuals?

Some of them believed that the discoveries of new science warranted new approaches to social and cultural issues.

"I may well presume, most Holy Father, that certain people, as soon as they hear that in this book I assert the Earth moves, will cry out that, holding such views, I should at once be hissed off the stage. Many centuries have consented to the establishment of the contrary judgment, namely that the Earth is placed immovably as the central point in the middle of the universe . . . How I came to dare to conceive such motion of the Earth, contrary to the received opinion of the mathematicians and indeed contrary to the impression of the senses, is what your Holiness will expect to hear. So I should like your Holiness to know that I was led to think of a method of computing the motions of the spheres by nothing else than the knowledge that the mathematicians are inconsistent in these investigations. . . . I therefore took pains to read again the works of all the philosophers whose works I could find to seek out whether any of them had ever supposed that the motions of the spheres were other than those demanded by the mathematical schools. I found first in Cicero* that Hicetas* had realized that the Earth moved. Afterwards I found in Plutarch* that certain others had held the same opinion." Nicolaus Copernicus, On the Motions of the Heavenly Orbs, dedication to Pope Paul III, 1543 Copernicus' citation of Cicero and Plutarch was likely intended to counter which of the following ideas?

The use of classical authorities to support traditional views of the natural world

"The most important period in our history is that of the revolution under King William. Then our constitution, after many fluctuations, and frequent struggles for power by different members of it (several of them attended with vast effusions of blood), was finally settled. A revolution so remarkable, and attended with such happy consequences, had perhaps no parallel in the history of the world, till the still more remarkable revolutions that have taken place lately in America and France. [The revolution under King William], as Mr. Hume says, cut off all pretensions to power founded on hereditary right; when a prince was chosen who received the crown on express conditions, and found his authority established on the same foundation with the privileges of the people." Joseph Priestley, English natural scientist and liberal political theorist, Lectures on History and General Policy, 1790s Which of the following best explains why Priestley had a positive view of the revolutions referenced in the passage?

They reflected Enlightenment principles of popular sovereignty.

"The Making of Needles," from the Encyclopedia, or a Systematic Dictionary of the Sciences, Arts, and Crafts, published in France between 1751 and 1772 Which of the following was the likely purpose of the publication the image appeared in?

To spread Enlightenment principles

"Peter the Great was allowed to engage several English engineers into his service, as he had done in Holland; but, over and above engineers, he engaged likewise some mathematicians, which he would not so easily have found in Amsterdam. Ferguson, a Scotchman, an excellent geometrician, entered into his service, and was the first person who brought arithmetic into use in the exchequer in Russia, where before that time, they made use only of the Tartarian method of reckoning, with balls strung upon a wire [an abacus]....He took with him two young students from a mathematical school, and this was the beginning of the marine academy.... Peter made himself proficient in astronomy, [and] he perfectly well understood the motions of the heavenly bodies, as well as the laws of gravitation, by which they are directed. This force, now so evidently demonstrated, and before the time of the great Newton so little known, by which all the planets gravitate towards each other, and which retain them in their orbits, had already become familiar to a sovereign of Russia, while other countries amused themselves with imaginary theories, and, in Galileo's nation, one set of ignorant persons ordered others, as ignorant, to believe the earth to be immovable." Voltaire, History of the Russian Empire Under Peter the Great, 1759, discussing Tsar Peter I's Grand Embassy, which traveled to western Europeat the end of the seventeenth century Which of the following best explains the point of view toward Peter the Great that Voltaire expresses in the passage?

Voltaire admired rulers who governed through principles of enlightened absolutism.

"The 9th [of June, 1789]. The business going forward at present in the pamphlet shops of Paris is incredible. I went to the Palais Royal [where many pamphleteers' shops were located] to see what new things were published and to procure a catalogue of all. Every hour produces something new. Thirteen came out today, sixteen yesterday, and ninety-two last week.... The spirit of reading political tracts, they say, spread into the provinces, so that all the presses of France are equally employed. Nineteen out of twenty of these productions are in favor of liberty, and commonly violent against the clergy and nobility;... but enquiring for such as had appeared on the other side of the question, to my astonishment I find that there are but two or three that have merit enough to be known. Is it not [surprising], that while the press teems with the most leveling and seditious principles, that if put in execution would overturn the monarchy, nothing in reply appears, and not the least step is taken by the court to restrain these publications?" Arthur Young, English writer, account of travels in France, published 1792 Since 1699 all printed materials in France had been subject to the approval of royal censors. Young's account most likely implies that

by 1789 the system of royal censorship in France had largely ceased to function as originally intended

Just as the reign of Louis XIV of France is often cited as an example of absolutism, the reign of Joseph II of Austria is often cited as an example of

enlightened monarchy

Hobbes and Rousseau would have agreed that

the state is based on a social contract

The great scientific discoveries of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries led European scholars to believe that

the universe was orderly and operated according to fixed rules