Unit 5: Political Participation (Linkage Institutions) (KHAN)

interest group

-A formal or informal association of people seeking to influence governmental policy in favor of their interests; interest groups may represent social causes, economic and corporate interests, or religious and ideological interests (one specific issue or a larger social movement) -Functions: education, lobbying, draft legislation (in the room where its happening), mobilization, a part of iron triangles -Goal: influence policy by getting voters to the polls (GOTV- get out the vote), endorsing a specific candidate for their goals, using social media/phone/email/main/town halls, educating voters, giving information from constituents to officeholders, providing expert information to govt. officials based on goals, drafting legislation (supporting/suggesting, testifying, writing bills that can be introduced to House of Reps.), creating PACs, lobbying (putting pressure to persuade leaders/threatening fundraising support) -Has the greatest influence on narrow issues, only a few interest groups, and technical information -There are many competing interest groups, and they can take a variety of forms, but all seek to influence public policy in favor of the needs of their constituents. Not all interest groups have an equal impact on policy, however, as some have more funds, greater access to decision-makers, and more committed members. -Not all interest groups have the same economic resources, giving some groups more access to decision makers. -A common criticism of interest groups is that some interest groups have more power than others (SOME HAVE MORE $ OR ACCESS, STRATEGIES DIFFER BASED ON HOW MANY MEMBERS (endorsement) OR MONEY (lobbying, campaign advertising (citizens decision))). Interest groups with more resources can leverage them to persuade decision makers to adopt their policy stances. -Although some interest groups donate the majority of the money they raise directly to candidates' campaigns, many choose to spend their funds on mailers, TV commercials, and other advertisements to spread awareness about an issue. Others focus on recruiting future candidates or passing ballot measures at the state level. -Interest groups may also choose to mobilize their resources in different steps of the policy process. Some groups may work to identify and frame problems, while others may direct their resources toward blocking the implementation of a policy. -Have an advantage over the people regarding policymaking as they can rely on their resources to persuade policymakers to adopt their policy goals. -A main linkage function of interest groups is to influence the development and enforcement of policies affecting their membership which can be done through attending hearings for policy as well as sharing information and preferences of the constituents

issue network

-A group of individuals, public officials, and interest groups that form around a particular issue, usually a proposed public policy that they wish to support or defeat. -Issue networks are coalitions of experts inside and outside of the government who want to influence particular areas of public policy. They don't work together as they all have different ideas about policies. -Issue networks are both larger and more complex than iron triangles and more open and fluid. This is because issue networks are coalitions made up of citizens (lobbyists, White House and congressional staff members, academics, and journalists) concerned about a particular issue. Iron triangles, by contrast, are alliances comprising three groups: the bureaucracy, interest groups, and Congress. -Iron triangles operate for long periods of time and focus on broad areas of public policy, like Social Security. Issue networks operate for short periods of time to address a specific policy issue, like how both pro-gun control and anti-gun control groups are concerned about gun control policy. Actors in issue networks are committed to the issue and not each other.

realignment

-A major change in the composition of party coalitions, often brought on by a new or pressing issue (often economic trouble or war). For example, the Great Depression led many African Americans to leave the Republican Party and join the Democratic Party in the 1932 election, permanently changing each party's base of supporters. -Not to be confused with a recalibration or change in party control of the White House and/or Congress, a realignment is a fundamental and long-lasting change in coalitions of voters.

citizen journalist

-A person who reports on current events who is not trained in journalism or affiliated with a news outlet. Social media and smartphones have facilitated the rise of citizen journalists. -There are two parallel transformations happening in American news media in the twenty-first century. On one hand, news sources are becoming more diverse and varied than ever before. Anyone can be a citizen journalist, filming breaking events from their smartphone, bringing news to the public without going through the traditional channels of corporate news outlets. Anyone can start a blog or YouTube channel devoted to reporting and commenting on current events. Likewise, it's easier than ever for Americans to access news stories from a range of sources and a range of devices. -Although anyone can be a reporter in today's media landscape, untrained journalists may not undertake the rigorous fact-checking that characterizes traditional news media. And although it's beneficial for democracy that American media is run by private companies rather than the government itself, critics worry that these large companies care more about generating revenue and pleasing sponsors than presenting factual information. Given these concerns, it's no surprise that the majority of Americans say they don't trust the media to present accurate information, and debates about the effects of media bias on public opinion flourish.

third party

-Also called a minor party, a third party is a US political party other than the two major parties (the Republican Party and the Democratic Party). Third parties rarely win elections in the United States, but frequently influence national politics by drawing attention to issues previously neglected by the major parties. -Although the Constitution doesn't make any rules about political parties, US government has a two-party system in which candidates from the two major political parties win nearly all elected offices. Many third parties have emerged over time, but two major barriers have prevented third parties from electing many candidates. First, most US elections operate by the winner-take-all system, which awards seats only to the candidate or party who wins the most votes in an election; independent or third-party candidates, who have neither the name recognition nor the organizational support provided by the major parties, rarely win the majority of votes. -Second, the two major parties frequently incorporate the platforms of third parties into their own platforms; voters who identified with a third-party issue will often vote for a major party candidate who has adopted that issue because major parties are more likely to succeed. -Third parties often play the role of spoilers, particularly at the national level, leading to the defeat of one of the national parties -By avoiding high-profile federal elections and building its base from the grass roots, third parties can influence public policy and potentially evolve into a major party.

super PAC

-Also called an "independent expenditure-only committee," a super PAC may raise unlimited funds in support of a candidate or party as long as they do not coordinate in any way with the candidate or party or donate directly to the candidate. -An independent expenditure, in elections in the United States, is a political campaign communication that expressly advocates for the election or defeat of a clearly identified candidate that is not made in cooperation, consultation or concert with; or at the request or suggestion of a candidate -Super PACs are highly-funded PACs, whose numbers have grown following a Supreme Court ruling permitting unlimited spending by corporations and labor unions in federal elections -Super PACs are made up of corporations, unions, associations, and individuals; they do not have the same contribution limits as regular PACs and can raise and spend unlimited funds to support or oppose a political candidate, provided they do not give directly to the candidate or coordinate strategically with their campaign. Super PACs did not exist before 2010, and their role in financing political campaigns has been at the core of recent debates over campaign finance legislation.F

winner-take-all system

-An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded only to the party who received the most votes in an election. This is the most common system in the United States, and it does not benefit minor political parties, since third-party candidates rarely win the majority of votes in an election. -an electoral system in which the candidate with the most votes is elected or, in the case of the U.S. Electoral College, gains all the votes of a state or district's electors (all the electors that favor that candidate are chosen for the electoral college) -Even though Bill Clinton only won 43% of the popular vote, he was awarded 69% of total electoral votes. States use a winner-take-all system that gives the candidate who wins the most popular votes in that state. For example, Bill Clinton won the electoral votes in Louisiana despite only winning 45.6% of the popular vote. -This system assures that the candidate obtaining a plurality will receive all the electoral votes, making it extremely difficult for third parties to win in enough states to acquire a majority of electoral votes. -In all states except Maine and Nebraska, the person who wins the popular vote in that state wins all of the Electoral College votes for that state, even if they win by a close margin.

political party

-An organization of people with similar political ideologies that seeks to influence public policy by getting its candidates elected. -The primary function of political parties is to link people to the government and its policies. Political parties are made up of three semi-independent teams: the party organization, the party in government, and the party in the electorate. -The party organization is the structure of national, state, and local parties that creates a platform, recruits candidates, and helps to manage candidates' campaigns by providing a fundraising and media strategy. The party organization is also responsible for educating and mobilizing voters to support candidates. -The party in government consists of the elected officials who belong to the party. These politicians are responsible for proposing, debating, voting on, and signing legislation that meets the party's platform goals. -The party in the electorate is made up of all citizens who identify with that party; it supports the party organization and its candidates by mobilizing voter support and turnout, and by donating to candidate campaigns.

political action committee (PAC)

-An organization, usually representing an interest group or corporation, that raises money with the goal of supporting or defeating candidates, parties, or legislation. There are limits to the amount of money a PAC can donate to a candidate or party in each election. -Make campaign contributions to gain access to legislators (aren't a part of political party organizations, can contribute to as many candidates as they want in a given contest, don't control presidential campaigns, -Registered fundraising committees that donate money on behalf of interest groups, and aren't limited to operating only at the state level) -Political action committees, or PACs, are organizations (often affiliated with interest groups) that raise money for political campaigns and spend it to influence both elections and policymaking. While individuals may only contribute $2,700 directly to a candidate, they can contribute up to $5,000 per PAC and give to as many PACs as they want. -Corporations and unions cannot contribute to PACS, only Super PACS

Against electoral college

-Anti-democratic, ignores popular vote -Voters have enough info to make informed decisions -Gives too much power to voters in swing states, small states are over represented

campaign finance

-Funds raised to promote candidates, political parties, or policy initiatives. There are complex laws regulating who can contribute to campaigns and how much they can contribute. -The fundraising to support a candidate in their run for political office -Citizens united led to a dramatic increase in political spending w/super PACS; candidates are now less reliant on party funding

linkage institutions

-Groups in society that connect people to the government and facilitate turning the people's concerns into political issues on the government's policy agenda. -Political parties, the media, interest groups, and elections are examples of linkage institutions.

social movements

-Groups that work to bring about change in society, such as the Civil Rights Movement or the Environmental Movement; these groups support policies and elected officials that align with their beliefs. -Social movements can get issues on the government's radar by using protest tactics and the media. It can lead to the government setting issues on the policy agenda to solve in the coming year.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

-In 2008, Citizens United, a non-profit organization funded partially by corporate donations, produced Hillary: The Movie, a film created to persuade voters not to vote for Hillary Clinton as the 2008 Democratic presidential nominee. Citizens United wanted to make the movie available to cable subscribers through video-on-demand services and wanted to broadcast TV advertisements for the movie in advance. The Federal Election Commission said that Hillary: The Movie was intended to influence voters, and, therefore, the BCRA applied. That meant that the organization was not allowed to advertise the film or pay to air it within 30 days of a primary election. Citizens United sued the FEC in federal court, asking to be allowed to show the film. The district court heard the case and decided that even though it was a full length movie and not a traditional television ad, the film was definitely an appeal to vote against Hillary Clinton. This meant that the bans in the BCRA applied: corporations and organizations could not pay to air this sort of direct appeal to voters so close to an election. -It is now legal for super PACs to make any size contribution from any group as an INDEPENDENT expenditure for political purposes, based on the Supreme Court rulings in both Citizens United and Speechnow.org v. FEC. -A Supreme Court case which ruled that political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of protected speech under the First Amendment -At different times, the federal government has acted to limit the amount of money contributed to political campaigns and political parties. The Federal Elections Commission was created in 1974 to regulate money in elections. -Politicians are divided on the role money should play in politics; some argue that spending money on political campaigns is a part of freedom of speech and should be unlimited. Others say that unlimited campaign contributions give an unfair advantage to the wealthy individuals, as well as powerful groups such as corporations and labor unions, who buy advertising time that can change election outcomes in favor of candidates who support their interests. -Impact of Citizens United decision— The decision in Citizens United held that political spending by corporations, associations, and labor unions is a form of free speech and therefore protected under the First Amendment. The Supreme Court's ruling in Citizens United and similar cases have reduced the limits on campaign contributions, encouraged the creation of Super PACs, and increased debate over the role money can and should play in elections. -It allows corporations and unions to spend unlimited amounts of money on political activities that are independent of a party or candidate -The Court's ruling said such donations are protected under the First Amendment as long as they are used for "party-building," which means "anything not used directly in support of a candidate."

policy process

-Interest groups have the most influence in the agenda setting stage? -Cabinet departments have the most influence when executive branch agencies submit budgets for review before the president's proposal is submitted to Congress

"horse race" journalism

-Journalism that focuses on -who is winning or ahead in the polls rather than on candidates' policy agenda or debates. -The ups and downs of political contests between candidates are often more dramatic than policy debates, so the media focuses more on the former than the latter. Critics argue that this devalues politics by reducing the importance of policy. Others contend that raising awareness of the contest between candidates can increase transparency and political participation, particularly during parties' candidate selection process. -"attack journalism" poses to political participation by treating government officials and candidates as targets to be stalked in pursuit of scandal, attack journalists create the impression that all politicians are ineffective and untrustworthy

Regional realignment

-Long lasting regional shift of party loyalty -South was Democratic, is now strongly Republican

soft money

-Money spent in support of a candidate without directly donating to their campaign, such as paying for ads or campaign events, or giving to the candidate's party. -Super PACs can donate unlimited soft money as long as such funding is not used to solicit votes for a particular candidate; "party-building" activities funded by soft money may include funding ads, or voter registration and mobilization efforts. -Hard money goes directly towards campaigns -Because the ad purports to "educate" people on an issue and does not tell them to vote for a particular candidate, it is considered party-building, and can be paid for by unlimited soft money contributions from anonymous sources based on current legal precedents.

Political consultants

-People who promote the election of candidates for political office by helping advise candidates on how best to present their ideas to the public. -Campaign costs have risen significantly since the 1970s, and today candidates rely heavily on individual donors as well as corporations to fund their campaigns. In the wake of longer cycles and increased costs, professional political consultants have become a staple of modern campaigns. Consultants often have responsibility for overall campaign management, conducting polls, and crafting messaging both for the media and for the public through ads and social media. -In the twenty-first century, social media has become a hugely important medium for communicating campaign goals, mobilizing voters, and fundraising. Because many voters spend so much time online, social media is an effective way to reach them. Social media also allows candidates to communicate directly with the electorate rather than going through broadcast or print media, giving them greater control over messaging. -One common criticism of the prevalence of social media is that candidates don't use it to talk about issues, but to respond to political scandals or to "troll" or start conflicts with politicians or other celebrities.

candidate-centered campaigns

-Political campaigns that focus on the candidates for office—their personalities and issues—rather than the parties they represent. Since the 1930s, candidate-centered campaigns have predominated in American politics. -Political parties have traditionally kept candidates loyal to the party platform through contributions and assistance in mobilizing voters; by soliciting contributions independently, a candidate has greater freedom to define their own positions and policy agenda. (parties = weakening) -In party-centered campaigns, candidates had to rely on the party to raise campaign funds, and thus were more obligated to the party. As elections have shifted towards candidate-centered campaigns, candidates can use media to appeal to the public and PACs directly to raise funds.

Federal elections

-Run by state govt. -Through constitutional amendments and legislation, the federal government has become increasingly involved in elections

change in democratic system

-Since the emergence of candidate-centered campaigns in the 1930s, the power of party "bosses" and political machines to decide candidates for state and national office has declined. -Direct primaries make the process of choosing candidates more democratic, but it has also placed the burden of running for office on candidates themselves. In response, candidates must develop sophisticated and expensive campaigns for office, which has increased the importance of fundraising and voter targeting. -The party is no longer the sole entity responsible for nominating candidates, though they can formally announce the candidate they support.

Structural barriers to voting

-State voter registration laws -Procedures on how, when, and where to vote -State voter photo ID laws, access to early voting, mail in ballots, absentee ballots -Plurality system (winner-take-all) single-member districts, electoral college, ballot fees -Major parties include popular portions

For electoral college

-States retain importance in choosing the president (federalism) -Ensures geographic balance, can't focus only on densely populated areas -Guards against mob rule by uninformed voters

Political efficacy

-The belief that one's political participation really matters: that one's vote can actually make a difference

direct primary

-The current process by which voters choose their party's candidate for national office. Direct primaries have replaced party-controlled mechanisms for choosing candidates. -Though some scholars argue that direct primaries lessen the chance of getting experienced, talented candidates on the ballot, many still believe voters should be able to pick whoever they want to represent them in the election.

micro-targeting

-The growing practice of using computer models to identify voters who might support a candidate. Campaigns pay firms to mine consumer data, census records, and voting behavior in order to supply them with names of potential voters. -Data and analytics are used to improve efficiency of voter contacts and compare the results of various communication strategies. -Purchasing social media data enables campaigns to micro-target voters with more individualized messages designed to persuade or engage them based on their online behavior.

partisan news sites

-Websites and blogs that cater to audiences with a particular ideological perspective. -American media is less diverse than ever. Today, giant media conglomerates own nearly all of the commercial news sources, reducing the diversity of opinions that once characterized independent newspapers across the country. As the range of television channels has expanded beyond a handful of major networks, which attempted to present a non-partisan perspective to avoid alienating any portion of their audiences, it has become possible for Americans to choose news sources aligned with their politics. Cable news programs and partisan news sites tailor their reporting to audiences that agree with their ideological perspectives, permitting citizens who already strongly identify with left- or right-wing politics only to engage with stories that confirm their existing views.

General election

-Winner takes office -an election that decides which candidate will fill an elective office. General elections usually pit candidates from opposing parties against one another. -The two-year election rotation for senators was implemented to protect the Senate from a rapid turnover in ideas, providing stability after major elections and during other periods of national uncertainty.

Caucus

-a meeting in a voting precinct at which party members choose nominees for political office after hours of speeches and debates; caucuses tend to promote the views of dedicated party members since participating requires a large time commitment (used for presidential and congressional elections)

Open primary

-a primary election that is not limited to registered party members. For example, in a state with open primaries, independent voters or Republicans can vote in the Democratic primary to choose candidates for local, state, and national office (used for presidential and congressional elections) -Although "open primaries" are more democratic in allowing voters of any affiliation to vote in the primary of any party, closed primaries tend to nominate the strongest presidential candidate who supports the party platform and ideology.

Primary election

-an election that decides which candidate a party will send on to a general election; primary elections pit candidates from the same party against one another -Decisions made at the local and state level concerning the form that primaries will take, which nominees for office proceed to general elections, and which party controls Congress have far-reaching consequences for the composition of US government. -Before the 1970s, presidential candidates were chosen by party leaders (sometimes in secret), and the election process was usually much shorter. Primaries and caucuses were relatively unimportant—party leaders could freely ignore the results and choose a different candidate—and many states did not hold a vote at all. -Since the 1976 election, however, both Republicans and Democrats have used state primaries as the principal way of selecting presidential candidates, with every state (as well as the District of Columbia and some overseas territories) holding a vote. An unintended consequence of the increased importance of state-level votes is that the presidential election cycle has become longer, with candidates starting to campaign as many as three years ahead of election day. -As the length of election cycles is much longer in the United States, candidates for the presidency tend to spend more than candidates in other countries to keep their campaign running and relevant with the American public

Voter choice

-party identification and ideology -candidate characteristics -current issues -religious beliefs, gender, race, ethnicity

Electoral college

-the group of electors chosen by each state (districts vote for their representative, the representatives vote in December) to formally vote for the next U.S. president based on the result of voting in the state -Elite democracy -The president and vice president are formally elected at the Electoral College in December following the general election. Electors from each state plus the District of Columbia cast votes; most states require all their electors to vote for the statewide popular vote winner. This "winner-takes-all" approach to distributing electors raises questions over the extent to which the Electoral College facilitates or impedes democracy. -Critics of the Electoral College highlight the potential for a candidate to lose the nationwide popular vote but win the presidency as in 2016 and 2000. The "winner-takes-all" allocation of most electors in the Electoral College also means that voters in "safe states"--those that have consistently voted for the same party in recent presidential elections, such as California and Texas--are often less engaged and less motivated to vote in a presidential election, compared to voters in more competitive "swing states" where both Democratic and Republican candidates have won recently, such as Florida and Ohio. -Candidates focus on states with the largest populations -On the other hand, defenders of the Electoral College argue that it incentivizes candidates to campaign in states of different sizes, rather than just the largest states and cities, and that it keeps a prominent role for the states in a federal election. -the president is chosen by the House selecting among the top three candidates with each state having only one vote, no matter how many members in the chamber (one vote per state for the top 3) represent that state if no candidate receives a majority of votes by the Electoral College -The Electoral College was a compromise that reflected the division of power in a federal system, ensuring presidents would respond to the interests of the states.

Incumbency advantage

-the tendency of incumbents (officials already holding a political office) to win reelection; incumbents have advantages in media exposure, fundraising, and staff -One major factor influencing the outcome of congressional elections is the advantage that incumbent candidates have over challengers; incumbents are typically much better funded and are better recognized by voters; plus, they participate in deciding the boundaries of voting districts. -Incumbents usually raise more campaign fund than their challengers, are better known to voters, use staff to perform services for constituents, and sit on committees that permit them to serve direct interests

independent candidate

A candidate for office who does not have a formal affiliation with a political party.

protest movement

A group that brings attention to a social problem through public demonstrations or other forms of direct action.

party platform

A list of goals outlining a party's positions on issues and political priorities.

iron triangle

A longstanding, mutually-beneficial relationship between an interest group, congressional committee, and bureaucratic agency devoted to similar issues; for example, the American Association of Retired Persons, the Congressional Subcommittee on Aging, and the Social Security Administration all work closely together on issues related to senior citizens.

political machine

A party organization with the goal of enriching party leaders, party workers, and citizen supporters through government contracts and jobs.

"free rider" problem

A problem of group behavior that occurs when an individual can receive a public benefit without making a personal contribution of money or effort. For example, a person might listen to public radio but never contribute to the station, assuming that other donors will pay to keep it operating.

"Stand by Your Ad" provision - BCRA

A provision of the Bipartisan Campaign Act of 2002 which requires ads used to support or oppose a candidate to include this line: "I'm [candidate's name] and I approve this message." -Banned corporations from contributing directly to a candidate

party platform

A set of goals supported by a political party. Parties design their platforms to appeal to the concerns of the public and to encourage voters to support the party.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002

Also known as the McCain-Feingold Act. Banned soft money and reduced attack ads.

critical election

An election that leads to a major party realignment. After a critical election, a number of key supporters of one party (for example, southern white voters) switch to the other party.

midterm election

An election that takes place in the middle of a presidential term. Midterm elections tend to have much lower voter turnout than presidential elections and often result in the loss of congressional seats for the president's party.

presidential election

An election where candidates vie for the office of President of the United States. Held every four years, presidential elections tend to have a much higher voter turnout than midterm elections.

proportional system

An electoral system in which legislative seats are awarded in proportion to the percentage of votes garnered by a party in an election. This system is common in Europe and benefits minor political parties, who may win a small number of legislative seats even if a mainstream party wins most seats.

two-party system

An electoral system in which two major parties dominate voting at all levels of government.

single-issue group

An interest group devoted to one particular issue rather than a larger category of interests; for example, EMILY's List supports pro-choice female candidates, and the National Rifle Association (NRA) opposes gun regulations.

investigative journalism

Deep, original investigation on a specific topic, often conducted over a long period of time and sometimes involving the exposure of secret information.

rational choice voting

Economic model of voting wherein citizens weigh the benefits of voting against the costs in order to take the most personally beneficial course of action

direct lobbying

Interest groups' attempts to influence policy by speaking directly with bureaucrats or elected officials.

inside strategies

Interest groups' attempts to influence policy by working within Washington DC. This includes strategies like direct lobbying, drafting pieces of legislation for elected officials, and suing the government.

outside strategies

Interest groups' attempts to influence policy outside of Washington DC, by using strategies like campaign contributions, media coverage, or encouraging constituents to contact their elected officials.

party-line voting

Process in which voters select candidates by their party affiliation

lobbying

Seeking to influence a public official on an issue; an interest group with a particular agenda may be known as its "lobby," for example "the tobacco lobby." (PEOPLE WHO ARE ALREADY IN CONGRESS)

ideologically-oriented programming

TV and radio news programs that cater to audiences with a particular ideological perspective.

salience

The degree to which the general public is aware of a policy issue. Policymakers are less likely to accommodate the demands of interest groups on issues with high salience, like gun rights or abortion rights, as they risk alienating voters.

"media as a gatekeeper"

The media's role in setting the political agenda by drawing public and government attention to certain issues. -In its "gatekeeper" role, the media has a significant influence on the issues that citizens know and care about, which may drive subsequent government action to address those issues through policy -By publishing polls, the media is telling the government who the public supports and indicating which policy stances might be important to voters.

media consolidation

The process by which a few large companies have acquired the majority of news sources in the United States. Today, six companies (CBS, Comcast, Disney, News Corporation, Time Warner, and Viacom) control 90% of American media outlets.

dealignment

The process by which an individual loses his or her loyalty to a political party without developing loyalty to another party.

framing

The way the media defines and portrays an issue, which affects public perception of that issue.

agenda-setting

The way the media influences what issues the public considers important enough to address through the government.

prospective voting

Voting for a candidate because you favor his or her ideas for handling issues

retrospective voting

Voting for a candidate because you like his or her past actions in office

Party convention

a meeting of delegates from one political parties to vote on policy and select party candidates for public office and adopt a party platform

Closed primary

a primary election limited to registered members of a political party; for example, in a state with closed primaries, only registered Democrats can vote in the Democratic primary to choose candidates for local, state, and national office (used for presidential and congressional elections)

Spring-summer before election year

most serious candidates declare their intention to run for president

Summer, election year

parties hold national conventions to formally nominate their presidential and vice presidential candidates, typically choosing the candidate with the most votes from state primaries and caucuses

January-June, election year

states hold primaries and caucuses to vote for party nominees

December, election year

the Electoral College takes place at which the president and vice president are formally elected

November, election year

the presidential election takes place on the Tuesday following the first Monday in November

Popular vote

the total or percentage of votes won by each candidate