Unit 7 Exam

The table best supports which of the following conclusions? A European powers did not provide financial support for the maintenance of their colonies. B European powers maintained colonies despite global war and economic depression. C Europeans migrated and established settler communities in Africa. D Revenue from cash crops accounted for the majority of "other income" in French African colonies.

European powers maintained colonies despite global war and economic depression.

Source 1 "German wartime propaganda [during the First World War] has been criticized on many different grounds, but its success in blaming the war on Russia was a masterstroke, mobilizing widespread Russophobia in the working classes, the people most opposed to armed conflict, and playing on the threat of invasion. As [a daily newspaper in Berlin] told its readers, 'the German people may honestly say once more in this hour that it did not want this war. . . . But it will not allow the soil of the Fatherland to be overrun and devastated by Russian regiments.' The brief occupation of East Prussian territory by Russian units at the end of August fanned fears of the so-called 'blood Tsar' and his 'Cossack hordes' further. Exaggerated atrocity stories appeared in the press and were given credibility by the letters of men serving [at the front]. Under such circumstances, it was hardly surprising that men of all classes decided that it was their patriotic duty to fight. . . . [I]n Germany, surrounded on all sides by enemies, the rush to volunteer was immediate and spontaneous. With no official encouragement, 260,672 enlistment requests were received in Prussia alone during the first week of mobilization. . . . Moreover, contrary to the usual claim [made by historians] that volunteers were 'war-enthused' students or schoolchildren, examination of muster rolls [lists of new recruits] and letters demonstrates that a broad cross-section of urban society enlisted, mainly for reasons of patriotic self-defense." Alexander Watson, British historian, Enduring the Great War, 2008 Source 2 "In Britain, the interpretation of what constituted sensitive military news and should therefore be suppressed was broad, but censorship was handled far less obtrusively [than in Germany]. Essentially, the British system consisted of a close control of news at the source by military authorities, combined with a tight-knit group of 'press lords' who . . . decided what was 'good for the country to know.' Important losses or battles often went completely unmentioned. When the [British] battleship Audacious was sunk by a mine on 27 October 1914 off the Irish coast, the loss was simply never announced. When the Battle of Jutland [a major naval engagement between British and German fleets] was under way, not one civilian knew about it. [Even when official censorship sometimes foundered], the press willingly censored itself. Why did British journalists cooperate so willingly in suppressing important news? The obvious answer is that they all belonged to the same club, whose membership also included the most powerful politicians. Publishing a casualty list (or a letter from a wounded corporal about military bungling) would have meant expulsion from the club; social ostracism apparently meant more to the newsmen than their professional duty to inform the public. The government also possessed positive incentives. In addition to breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, and golf weekends in the company of the powerful, knighthoods and lordships were generously distributed among the press and, finally, prestigious posts in government itself. Alice Goldfarb Marquis, United States historian, "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War," article published in an academic journal, 1978 Watson, in the first paragraph of Source 1, uses the newspaper quote to support the claim that

German propaganda portrayed the conflict with Russia as a defensive war

Which of the following twentieth-century developments most directly weakened European colonial states and contributed to the changes between the two maps?

Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia during the Second World War

A historian researching the motives of the perpetrators of the Holocaust would find which of the following sources most useful?

Letters and publications written by Nazi leaders before the Second World War

Source 1 "German wartime propaganda [during the First World War] has been criticized on many different grounds, but its success in blaming the war on Russia was a masterstroke, mobilizing widespread Russophobia in the working classes, the people most opposed to armed conflict, and playing on the threat of invasion. As [a daily newspaper in Berlin] told its readers, 'the German people may honestly say once more in this hour that it did not want this war. . . . But it will not allow the soil of the Fatherland to be overrun and devastated by Russian regiments.' The brief occupation of East Prussian territory by Russian units at the end of August fanned fears of the so-called 'blood Tsar' and his 'Cossack hordes' further. Exaggerated atrocity stories appeared in the press and were given credibility by the letters of men serving [at the front]. Under such circumstances, it was hardly surprising that men of all classes decided that it was their patriotic duty to fight. . . . [I]n Germany, surrounded on all sides by enemies, the rush to volunteer was immediate and spontaneous. With no official encouragement, 260,672 enlistment requests were received in Prussia alone during the first week of mobilization. . . . Moreover, contrary to the usual claim [made by historians] that volunteers were 'war-enthused' students or schoolchildren, examination of muster rolls [lists of new recruits] and letters demonstrates that a broad cross-section of urban society enlisted, mainly for reasons of patriotic self-defense." Alexander Watson, British historian, Enduring the Great War, 2008 Source 2 "In Britain, the interpretation of what constituted sensitive military news and should therefore be suppressed was broad, but censorship was handled far less obtrusively [than in Germany]. Essentially, the British system consisted of a close control of news at the source by military authorities, combined with a tight-knit group of 'press lords' who . . . decided what was 'good for the country to know.' Important losses or battles often went completely unmentioned. When the [British] battleship Audacious was sunk by a mine on 27 October 1914 off the Irish coast, the loss was simply never announced. When the Battle of Jutland [a major naval engagement between British and German fleets] was under way, not one civilian knew about it. [Even when official censorship sometimes foundered], the press willingly censored itself. Why did British journalists cooperate so willingly in suppressing important news? The obvious answer is that they all belonged to the same club, whose membership also included the most powerful politicians. Publishing a casualty list (or a letter from a wounded corporal about military bungling) would have meant expulsion from the club; social ostracism apparently meant more to the newsmen than their professional duty to inform the public. The government also possessed positive incentives. In addition to breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, and golf weekends in the company of the powerful, knighthoods and lordships were generously distributed among the press and, finally, prestigious posts in government itself. Alice Goldfarb Marquis, United States historian, "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War," article published in an academic journal, 1978 Goldfarb, in Source 2, most directly supports her claim that the British press during the First World War routinely suppressed important war news by citing

the case of the sinking of a battleship and the Battle of Jutland

Which of the following best supports the contention that the First World War was the first total war?

Governments mobilized large segments of their populations and economies and targeted their opponents' military and economic capabilities.

Which of the following contributed significantly to the decline of both the Qing and the Ottoman Empires?

Internal conflict with ethnic and religious minorities

"The way in which the nuclear weapons that we are now developing are first used will be of fateful importance. Our primary objective once the war is over should be to reach an international agreement on the total prevention of nuclear warfare. From this perspective, using nuclear weapons against Japan may easily destroy all our chances of success. A demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all nations, in a desert or on a barren island. Then America could argue, 'We are ready to renounce the use of these weapons in the future if other nations join us in this renunciation and agree to the establishment of an efficient system of international control.' If an international agreement is not concluded immediately after the first use of nuclear weapons, this will mean a flying start toward an unlimited armaments race. However, once an international peace agreement is achieved, then the technology and materials accumulated in the process of developing the weapon can be used for important peacetime developments, including power generation and mass production of radioactive materials. In this way, the money spent on wartime development of nuclear technology may benefit the peacetime development of the national economy." James Franck, German-born scientist developing nuclear weapons technology for the United States, report to the United States government, 1945 Which of the following developments during the Second World War would Franck most likely have cited as evidence to support his arguments in the passage? .

Allied firebombing in Germany and Japan had caused massive devastation and civilian casualties, and atomic weapons were vastly more powerful than those used in firebombing.

"In view of the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Turkey, which occurred because of the ill-advised, unprovoked, and deliberate action of the Ottoman government, His Majesty's government has made a public announcement regarding the holy places of Arabia, the holy shrines of Mesopotamia, and the port of Jeddah,* which is as follows. His Majesty's most loyal Muslim subjects should understand that His Majesty's government is not fighting this war because of religion. The British navy and its military forces will not attack the holy places of Arabia or Jeddah unless the Turks interfere with pilgrimages from India to the holy places and shrines in question. In that case, British military forces will intervene to keep the pilgrimage routes open. At the request of His Majesty's government, the governments of France and Russia have given similar assurances." *a city located on the western coast of Arabia along the Red Sea Pamphlet published by the British Indian War Department, 1915. The pamphlet was translated and distributed in cities and towns in India. The treaties that settled the conflict referred to in the passage most directly changed the geopolitical structure of the Middle East in which of the following ways?

Allied powers received territorial mandates from the League of Nations.

"Without a revolutionary theory there can be no revolutionary movement. The role of vanguard fighter can be fulfilled only by a party that is guided by the most advanced theory. We have said that there could not have been Social-Democratic consciousness among the workers. It could only be brought to them from without. The history of all countries shows that the working class, exclusively by its own effort, is able to develop only trade union consciousness, i.e., the conviction that it is necessary to combine in unions, fight the employers, and strive to compel the government to pass necessary labor legislation. The theory of socialism, however, grew out of the philosophic, historical, and economic theories elaborated by educated representatives of the propertied classes, the intellectuals. Our worst sin with regard to organization is that by our amateurishness we have lowered the prestige of revolutionaries in Russia." Vladimir Lenin, Russian exile in Switzerland, What Is to Be Done?, 1902 Which of the following best describes a similarity between the Russian Revolutions of 1917 and the Chinese Revolution of 1911 ? .

Both were able to gain support because of the ineffectiveness and corruption of the existing monarchies.

"In view of the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Turkey, which occurred because of the ill-advised, unprovoked, and deliberate action of the Ottoman government, His Majesty's government has made a public announcement regarding the holy places of Arabia, the holy shrines of Mesopotamia, and the port of Jeddah,* which is as follows. His Majesty's most loyal Muslim subjects should understand that His Majesty's government is not fighting this war because of religion. The British navy and its military forces will not attack the holy places of Arabia or Jeddah unless the Turks interfere with pilgrimages from India to the holy places and shrines in question. In that case, British military forces will intervene to keep the pilgrimage routes open. At the request of His Majesty's government, the governments of France and Russia have given similar assurances." *a city located on the western coast of Arabia along the Red Sea Pamphlet published by the British Indian War Department, 1915. The pamphlet was translated and distributed in cities and towns in India. Which of the following best explains why the British government felt the need to distribute the pamphlet? .

British authorities were concerned that going to war against a Muslim country could fuel anti-imperialist protests among India's large Muslim population.

The expenditures shown in the table most strongly illustrate which of the following? .

Despite some medical advances, the environment in Africa continued to present unique challenges to European imperialism.

In the mid-twentieth century, which of the following was a similarity between the approaches of China and the Soviet Union in managing their respective economies?

Direct intervention in their economies to speed the process of industrialization

Which of the following best explains the changes depicted in Map 2 ?

European imperialism and increasing ethnic nationalism

Source 1 "Under the present circumstances, if we were to find ourselves in a war with France, it will be a people's war that cannot be won in one decisive battle but will turn into a long and deadly struggle with a country that will not give up before the strength of its entire people has been broken. Our own people, too, will be utterly broken and exhausted, even if we emerge victorious at the end." Helmuth von Moltke, German general, letter to the German emperor Wilhelm II, 1905 Source 2 "The integrity of what remains of the Ottoman Empire is one of the principles upon which the world's balance of power is based. Therefore, I reject the idea that it is in our national interest to shatter one of the cornerstones of the international order. What if, after we have attacked Libya* and destabilized the Ottoman Empire, the Balkans begin to stir? And what if a Balkan war provokes a clash between the two power blocs and a European war? Italy must not be the country that bears the responsibility of putting a match to the powder keg." *Italy wanted to colonize Libya, which at the time was a province of the Ottoman Empire. Giovanni Giolitti, prime minister of Italy, speech before the Italian parliament as it debated whether to attack Ottoman Libya, 1911 Giolitti's concerns in Source 2 about the potential consequences of conflict in the Balkans are most directly explained by which of the following developments in Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries? .

European states entered into military alliances with each other that forced them to come to their allies' aid in the event of conflict with a nonallied state.

"We did not have a tractor industry. Now we have one. We did not have an automobile industry. Now we have one. In the output of electric power we were last on the list. Now we rank among the first. In the output of oil products and coal we were last on the list. Now we rank among the first.And as a result of all of this our country has been converted from an agrarian into an industrial country." Joseph Stalin, Soviet Union, 1933 The economic development Stalin describes above was achieved primarily through which of the following?

Government control of the national economy

As shown in the image, the deployment of soldiers by European powers most directly relates to which of the following causes of conflict during the early twentieth century?

Imperialist expansion and competition for resources

Which of the following factors contributed most significantly to the contraction of the Ottoman Empire in the nineteenth century?

Independence movements inspired by ethnic nationalism

Source 1: "The British . . . have for many decades had settled notions about India's future. Their concept of party government and parliamentary rule has become the ideal with them as the best form of government for every country. . . . It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. It is only a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve a common nationality. This misconception of one Indian nation will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims in India belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. . . . They have different epics and different heroes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority, must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be built up for the government of such a state." Muhammad Ali Jinnah, leader of the All-India Muslim League, an organization of Indian Muslims that had split from the Indian National Congress, address to a meeting of the League, March 1940 Source 2: "We, the inhabitants of India, have one thing in common and that is our India-ness, which we share despite our religious and cultural differences. Just as our different features and personalities do not affect our common humanity, so our religious and cultural differences should not interfere with our shared association with our homeland. Therefore, like other religious groups in India, we Muslims have a duty to struggle for the attainment of our common Indian interests and fight against the evils that hamper our common progress and prosperity. This is what I mean when I speak of a common nationhood of all Indians. The [Indian National] Congress, having the same position as ours, has made provisions for the protection of all religions, cultures, and languages in a future Indian state. On the other hand, the European concept of nationalism is unacceptable to our organization. We denounce it and are totally against it." Husain Ahmad Madani, leader of the Council of Indian Muslim Religious Scholars, address to the annual meeting of the organization, June 1940 Taken together, the two sources best support which of the following conclusions regarding the situation in British India in 1940? .

Indian opposition to British rule involved groups pursuing very different political goals.

"The way in which the nuclear weapons that we are now developing are first used will be of fateful importance. Our primary objective once the war is over should be to reach an international agreement on the total prevention of nuclear warfare. From this perspective, using nuclear weapons against Japan may easily destroy all our chances of success. A demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all nations, in a desert or on a barren island. Then America could argue, 'We are ready to renounce the use of these weapons in the future if other nations join us in this renunciation and agree to the establishment of an efficient system of international control.' If an international agreement is not concluded immediately after the first use of nuclear weapons, this will mean a flying start toward an unlimited armaments race. However, once an international peace agreement is achieved, then the technology and materials accumulated in the process of developing the weapon can be used for important peacetime developments, including power generation and mass production of radioactive materials. In this way, the money spent on wartime development of nuclear technology may benefit the peacetime development of the national economy." James Franck, German-born scientist developing nuclear weapons technology for the United States, report to the United States government, 1945 Which of the following arguments would a supporter of using nuclear weapons against Japan have most likely cited to explain the limitations of Franck's arguments in the first and second paragraphs?

Japanese government propaganda instilled fierce, suicidal nationalism in the Japanese population, making Japan unlikely to surrender unconditionally without experiencing the effects of nuclear weapons.

Which of the following most directly explains the Nazis' ability to carry out the policies of extermination shown in the image?

Local populations collaborated with the regime either out of racial prejudice, fear, or hopes for material gain.

Which of the following best describes an important difference between the theories of revolution of Mao Zedong and those of Lenin?

Mao placed emphasis on the revolutionary potential of peasants.

Source 1 "German wartime propaganda [during the First World War] has been criticized on many different grounds, but its success in blaming the war on Russia was a masterstroke, mobilizing widespread Russophobia in the working classes, the people most opposed to armed conflict, and playing on the threat of invasion. As [a daily newspaper in Berlin] told its readers, 'the German people may honestly say once more in this hour that it did not want this war. . . . But it will not allow the soil of the Fatherland to be overrun and devastated by Russian regiments.' The brief occupation of East Prussian territory by Russian units at the end of August fanned fears of the so-called 'blood Tsar' and his 'Cossack hordes' further. Exaggerated atrocity stories appeared in the press and were given credibility by the letters of men serving [at the front]. Under such circumstances, it was hardly surprising that men of all classes decided that it was their patriotic duty to fight. . . . [I]n Germany, surrounded on all sides by enemies, the rush to volunteer was immediate and spontaneous. With no official encouragement, 260,672 enlistment requests were received in Prussia alone during the first week of mobilization. . . . Moreover, contrary to the usual claim [made by historians] that volunteers were 'war-enthused' students or schoolchildren, examination of muster rolls [lists of new recruits] and letters demonstrates that a broad cross-section of urban society enlisted, mainly for reasons of patriotic self-defense." Alexander Watson, British historian, Enduring the Great War, 2008 Source 2 "In Britain, the interpretation of what constituted sensitive military news and should therefore be suppressed was broad, but censorship was handled far less obtrusively [than in Germany]. Essentially, the British system consisted of a close control of news at the source by military authorities, combined with a tight-knit group of 'press lords' who . . . decided what was 'good for the country to know.' Important losses or battles often went completely unmentioned. When the [British] battleship Audacious was sunk by a mine on 27 October 1914 off the Irish coast, the loss was simply never announced. When the Battle of Jutland [a major naval engagement between British and German fleets] was under way, not one civilian knew about it. [Even when official censorship sometimes foundered], the press willingly censored itself. Why did British journalists cooperate so willingly in suppressing important news? The obvious answer is that they all belonged to the same club, whose membership also included the most powerful politicians. Publishing a casualty list (or a letter from a wounded corporal about military bungling) would have meant expulsion from the club; social ostracism apparently meant more to the newsmen than their professional duty to inform the public. The government also possessed positive incentives. In addition to breakfast, lunch, tea, dinner, and golf weekends in the company of the powerful, knighthoods and lordships were generously distributed among the press and, finally, prestigious posts in government itself. Alice Goldfarb Marquis, United States historian, "Words as Weapons: Propaganda in Britain and Germany during the First World War," article published in an academic journal, 1978 Which of the following types of evidence does Watson (Source 1) cite to support his claim that early German support for the war was not limited to the young?

Muster rolls and letters

Which of the following most directly led to the start of the First World War?

Nationalist competition among industrialized powers for resources

The situation shown in the image is best understood in the context of which of the following aspects of twentieth-century warfare? .

States made full use of their populations and material resources to fight total wars.

Which of the following was a major similarity between the goals of leaders of the Chinese Communist Revolution, such as Mao Zedong, and the goals of leaders of the Mexican Revolution, such as Emiliano Zapata, in the early twentieth century?

Support for redistribution of land to poor peasants

"Are we prepared for so stubborn a fight as a future war involving the great powers of Europe will undoubtedly become? The answer, we must say without evasion, is no. In addition to the military considerations, there is also the political angle. It should not be forgotten that Russia and Germany are representatives of the conservative principle in the civilized world, as opposed to the democratic principle represented by England and France. From this point of view, a war between Russia and Germany, regardless of the specific issues over which it is fought, is profoundly undesirable to both sides. Such a conflict, however it ends, would entail the weakening of the conservative principle of which the two powers are the only reliable bulwarks. Moreover, one must realize that, under the precarious conditions that now exist, a general European war is mortally dangerous to both Russia and Germany, no matter who wins. It is my firm conviction, based on long and careful study of the multitude of subversive tendencies and movements that we are presently facing, that there must inevitably break out in the defeated country a social revolution that, by the very nature of these things, will inevitably spread to the country of the victor. In our country today, there are countless agitators telling the peasant that he should demand a gratuitous share of somebody else's land, or the worker that he should be getting hold of the entire capital and profits of the manufacturer. War with Germany will create exceptionally favorable conditions for such agitations." Pyotr Durnovo, Russian Minister of the Interior, memorandum to Tsar Nicholas II, February 1914 Which development during the first decade of the twentieth century can best be explained in the context of the "weakening of the conservative principle" mentioned in the first paragraph of the passage?

The Mexican Revolution, as middle classes and peasants united to oust longtime dictator Porfirio Díaz and establish a more equitable society

The image can best help explain which of the following differences between the Nazi program of genocide and other acts of genocide in the early twentieth century? .

The Nazis industrialized the killing process, allowing them to commit murder on a massive scale.

"The peace conditions imposed upon Germany are so hard, so humiliating, that those who had even the tiniest hope for a 'just peace' are bound to be deeply disappointed. Our condemnation of the lust of power and conquest that Germany displayed during the war is strong and unwavering. But a condemnation of wartime actions must not amount to a lasting condemnation of an entire nation. The question is not whether the Germans have been led astray by their leaders, or whether they have been willing accomplices in the misdeeds of those leaders—the question is, whether it is in the interest of mankind to punish the German people as the Entente governments seem to have decided to do. The Entente evidently desires the complete annihilation of Germany. Not only will its whole commercial fleet be confiscated, but its shipbuilding yards will be obliged to work for the foreigner for some time to come. Whole regions of Germany will be entirely deprived of their liberty; they will be under a committee of foreign domination, without adequate representation. The financial burden is so heavy that it is no exaggeration to say that Germany is reduced to economic bondage. The Germans will have to work hard and incessantly for foreign masters, without any chance of personal gain, or any prospect of regaining liberty or economic independence. This 'peace' offered to Germany is a mockery of President Wilson's principles. Trusting in these, Germany surrendered and accepted peace. That confidence has been betrayed in such a manner that all Germans must now feel that they wish to shake off the heavy yoke imposed on them by the cajoling Entente. And we fear very much that they will soon find the opportunity to do so. Chained and enslaved, Germany will always remain a menace to Europe." Algemeen Handelsblad, Dutch liberal newspaper, editorial on the Treaty of Versailles, June 1919 Which of the following true statements about the Netherlands best explains how the newspaper's national origin likely influenced the view of Germany expressed in the editorial?

The Netherlands, by remaining neutral during the war, profited significantly from helping Germany evade the Entente's naval blockade.

1. Scientists have reached general agreement in recognizing that mankind is one: that all men belong to the same species, Homo sapiens. . . . 10. The scientific material available to us at present does not justify the conclusion that inherited genetic differences are a major factor in producing differences between the cultures and cultural achievements of different peoples or groups. . . . 14. The biological fact of race and the myth of "race" should be distinguished. For all practical social purposes "race" is not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth. The myth of "race" has created an enormous amount of human and social damage. In recent years it has taken a heavy toll in human lives and caused untold suffering. A. According to present knowledge there is no proof that the groups of mankind differ in their innate mental characteristics, whether in respect of intelligence or temperament. B. There is no evidence that race mixture as such produces bad results from the biological point of view. C. All normal human beings are capable of learning to share in common life, to understand the nature of mutual service and reciprocity, and to respect social obligations and contracts. United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), statement about the "science of race," 1949 The declaration's mention of a "heavy toll" in the third paragraph was most likely a reference to which of the following?

The deaths that occurred during the Holocaust

"By the 1930s, many Europeans were ready to leave behind the liberal, democratic order created after 1918 by Britain, France, and the United States for a more authoritarian future. What they did not bargain for was the brutal reality of Nazi imperialism and the denial of all national aspirations apart from German ones. . . . No experience was more crucial to the development of Europe in the twentieth century. As both Hitler and Stalin were well aware, the Second World War involved something far more profound than a series of military engagements and diplomatic negotiations; it was a struggle for the social and political future of the continent itself. And such was the shock of being subjected to a regime of unprecedented and unremitting violence that in the space of eight years a sea-change took place in Europeans' political and social attitudes, and they rediscovered the virtues of democracy. . . . Hitler's war aimed at the complete racial reconstitution of Europe. There were no historical parallels for such a project. In Europe, neither Napoleon nor the Habsburgs had aimed at gaining such exclusive domination. In its violence and racism, Nazi imperialism drew more from European precedents in Asia, Africa, and—especially—the Americas. 'When we eat wheat from Canada,' remarked Hitler one evening during the war, 'we don't think about the despoiled Indians.' On another occasion he described the Ukraine as [Germany's] 'new Indian Empire.' But if Europeans would have resented being ruled as the British ruled India, they were shocked at being submitted to an experience closer to that inflicted upon the native populations of the Americas." Mark Mazower, British historian, Dark Continent: Europe's Twentieth Century,2000 Which of the following was the most important factor behind Europeans' readiness to embrace authoritarian political systems in the 1930s?

The economic crisis caused by the Great Depression

"Are we prepared for so stubborn a fight as a future war involving the great powers of Europe will undoubtedly become? The answer, we must say without evasion, is no. In addition to the military considerations, there is also the political angle. It should not be forgotten that Russia and Germany are representatives of the conservative principle in the civilized world, as opposed to the democratic principle represented by England and France. From this point of view, a war between Russia and Germany, regardless of the specific issues over which it is fought, is profoundly undesirable to both sides. Such a conflict, however it ends, would entail the weakening of the conservative principle of which the two powers are the only reliable bulwarks. Moreover, one must realize that, under the precarious conditions that now exist, a general European war is mortally dangerous to both Russia and Germany, no matter who wins. It is my firm conviction, based on long and careful study of the multitude of subversive tendencies and movements that we are presently facing, that there must inevitably break out in the defeated country a social revolution that, by the very nature of these things, will inevitably spread to the country of the victor. In our country today, there are countless agitators telling the peasant that he should demand a gratuitous share of somebody else's land, or the worker that he should be getting hold of the entire capital and profits of the manufacturer. War with Germany will create exceptionally favorable conditions for such agitations." Pyotr Durnovo, Russian Minister of the Interior, memorandum to Tsar Nicholas II, February 1914 The memorandum is best explained in the context of which of the following developments in the early twentieth century?

The emergence of external and internal challenges that threatened the stability of imperial states

"The way in which the nuclear weapons that we are now developing are first used will be of fateful importance. Our primary objective once the war is over should be to reach an international agreement on the total prevention of nuclear warfare. From this perspective, using nuclear weapons against Japan may easily destroy all our chances of success. A demonstration of the new weapon might best be made, before the eyes of representatives of all nations, in a desert or on a barren island. Then America could argue, 'We are ready to renounce the use of these weapons in the future if other nations join us in this renunciation and agree to the establishment of an efficient system of international control.' If an international agreement is not concluded immediately after the first use of nuclear weapons, this will mean a flying start toward an unlimited armaments race. However, once an international peace agreement is achieved, then the technology and materials accumulated in the process of developing the weapon can be used for important peacetime developments, including power generation and mass production of radioactive materials. In this way, the money spent on wartime development of nuclear technology may benefit the peacetime development of the national economy." James Franck, German-born scientist developing nuclear weapons technology for the United States, report to the United States government, 1945 Contemporaries who agreed with Franck's argument in the second and third paragraphs regarding the need for an international agreement would most likely have made which of the following arguments to support their position? .

The end of the war would probably lead to a new rivalry between the victorious states.

The implementation of the policies of extermination shown in the image is most directly explained by which of the following aspects of Nazi ideology?

The idea that minority populations within Germany were somehow responsible for its defeat during the First World War

"The peace conditions imposed upon Germany are so hard, so humiliating, that those who had even the tiniest hope for a 'just peace' are bound to be deeply disappointed. Our condemnation of the lust of power and conquest that Germany displayed during the war is strong and unwavering. But a condemnation of wartime actions must not amount to a lasting condemnation of an entire nation. The question is not whether the Germans have been led astray by their leaders, or whether they have been willing accomplices in the misdeeds of those leaders—the question is, whether it is in the interest of mankind to punish the German people as the Entente governments seem to have decided to do. The Entente evidently desires the complete annihilation of Germany. Not only will its whole commercial fleet be confiscated, but its shipbuilding yards will be obliged to work for the foreigner for some time to come. Whole regions of Germany will be entirely deprived of their liberty; they will be under a committee of foreign domination, without adequate representation. The financial burden is so heavy that it is no exaggeration to say that Germany is reduced to economic bondage. The Germans will have to work hard and incessantly for foreign masters, without any chance of personal gain, or any prospect of regaining liberty or economic independence. This 'peace' offered to Germany is a mockery of President Wilson's principles. Trusting in these, Germany surrendered and accepted peace. That confidence has been betrayed in such a manner that all Germans must now feel that they wish to shake off the heavy yoke imposed on them by the cajoling Entente. And we fear very much that they will soon find the opportunity to do so. Chained and enslaved, Germany will always remain a menace to Europe." Algemeen Handelsblad, Dutch liberal newspaper, editorial on the Treaty of Versailles, June 1919 Which of the following accurately explains the historical significance of the harsh conditions imposed on Germany that the editorial describes?

They encouraged the rise of political extremism in Germany.

"Since 1930, the Brazilian government has been undertaking a social policy whose main goal is to protect the working classes through the betterment of their working conditions, elevating their standard of life and extending the social security system. Indeed, the 1937 constitution proclaims that work is a social duty and establishes that it is the government's responsibility to guarantee the fulfillment of this duty by securing favorable conditions for workers and protecting them. In this way, the constitution guarantees the right of organization, recognizes the current unions as representatives of the workers, and authorizes the signing of collective-bargaining agreements. Salaries are protected and must provide a minimum standard of life. The workday is eight hours long, and there is one mandatory day of rest. Paid vacations are mandatory. Workers are protected against unjustified dismissal. Minors under 14 years old are not allowed to work, and women and men under 18 years old cannot work in unhealthy sites. The constitution establishes that the state must provide medical assistance to workers, and it must protect maternity and create insurance against old age and disability. The constitution also compels professional associations to assist its members. In order to enforce these principles, the constitution anticipates the creation of a Work Tribunal whose goal will be to arbitrate in all work-related litigation." Document produced by the Brazilian government of Getúlio Vargas circa 1940; Vargas had come to power in 1930 following a military coup. Which of the following best explains the historical significance of views such as those expressed in the passage? .

They show that, in response to the disruptions of the Great Depression, many political leaders saw it as their duty to take an active role in guiding economic life.

"Our country needs a large population to utilize and exploit its land and natural resources. In general, the way to increase a country's population is to increase the number of births and to decrease the number of deaths. Some European states adopt a number of methods to increase their birth rates: (1) additional government services are provided to people who are married and have many children; (2) discounts and tax rebates on expenses related to the education of children are provided; (3) awards are given to families with many children. In Iran, due to the special impact of our national morals and religious traditions, families have many children. Therefore, the best means to increase the Iranian population is to take measures to decrease the death rate. More governmental physicians and health officials are needed to prevent the wasting of the country's human capital. Due to the lack of literature on child rearing available to Iranian mothers, and due to the absence of sufficient means for the treatment of ill children, more than 50% of all children born to Iranian families die before the age of seven. Through instructions and acquainting people with the literature on child rearing, as well as by providing families with free medical treatment, at least 90% of children could live to reach adolescence. In this context, patriotic women's organizations must carry out serious and efficient actions to help invigorate the management of the country's health." Fereydun Keshavarz, Iranian pediatrician, article published in an Iranian newspaper, 1937 As described by Keshavarz in the first paragraph, which of the following would best explain why European countries were implementing policies to increase the size of their populations?

They wanted to address the effects of the First World War and mobilize for future conflicts.

"Are we prepared for so stubborn a fight as a future war involving the great powers of Europe will undoubtedly become? The answer, we must say without evasion, is no. In addition to the military considerations, there is also the political angle. It should not be forgotten that Russia and Germany are representatives of the conservative principle in the civilized world, as opposed to the democratic principle represented by England and France. From this point of view, a war between Russia and Germany, regardless of the specific issues over which it is fought, is profoundly undesirable to both sides. Such a conflict, however it ends, would entail the weakening of the conservative principle of which the two powers are the only reliable bulwarks. Moreover, one must realize that, under the precarious conditions that now exist, a general European war is mortally dangerous to both Russia and Germany, no matter who wins. It is my firm conviction, based on long and careful study of the multitude of subversive tendencies and movements that we are presently facing, that there must inevitably break out in the defeated country a social revolution that, by the very nature of these things, will inevitably spread to the country of the victor. In our country today, there are countless agitators telling the peasant that he should demand a gratuitous share of somebody else's land, or the worker that he should be getting hold of the entire capital and profits of the manufacturer. War with Germany will create exceptionally favorable conditions for such agitations." Pyotr Durnovo, Russian Minister of the Interior, memorandum to Tsar Nicholas II, February 1914 Durnovo's argument in the second paragraph regarding the effect of war between Germany and Russia on the two countries would prove to be

accurate in its prediction that a war with Germany would create the circumstances for a revolution in Russia

"When the proposal to proclaim the equality of races was rejected by the Peace Conference at Versailles, Viscount Makino, the Japanese representative, made it known that Japan would reintroduce the proposal. Obviously, Japan feels that this issue is momentous for the sake of humanity and the peace of the world. Of the non-white countries, Japan has taken the lead in adopting the best parts of European civilization. Japan codified her laws, and reformed her police and judicial systems, her military and naval forces, thus placing herself almost on an equal footing with that of the European countries. Some whites regard the development of Japan as an unjustifiable encroachment upon their own rights. It is, of course, true that there are still peoples in this world who are so backward in civilization that they cannot at once be admitted into the international family on an equal footing. What they need is proper guidance and direction. When they have reached a certain stage of civilization, they should be given an equal place and rank in the family of nations. Although most Asiatic nations are fully peers of European nations, yet they are discriminated against because of the color of the skin. The root of this discrimination lies in the perverted feeling of racial superiority entertained by the whites. If the present situation continues, there is every likelihood that the peace of the world will be endangered." Okuma Shigenobu, Japanese member of parliament and former prime minister, "Illusions of the White Race," article published in a Japanese journal, Tokyo, 1921 Shigenobu's criticism of European race-based discrimination against Japanese people is significant mostly because it shows that advocates of Japanese imperialism

adopted the European attitudes about a "civilizing mission" and used those attitudes to justify Japan's own imperial policies

"The peace conditions imposed upon Germany are so hard, so humiliating, that those who had even the tiniest hope for a 'just peace' are bound to be deeply disappointed. Our condemnation of the lust of power and conquest that Germany displayed during the war is strong and unwavering. But a condemnation of wartime actions must not amount to a lasting condemnation of an entire nation. The question is not whether the Germans have been led astray by their leaders, or whether they have been willing accomplices in the misdeeds of those leaders—the question is, whether it is in the interest of mankind to punish the German people as the Entente governments seem to have decided to do. The Entente evidently desires the complete annihilation of Germany. Not only will its whole commercial fleet be confiscated, but its shipbuilding yards will be obliged to work for the foreigner for some time to come. Whole regions of Germany will be entirely deprived of their liberty; they will be under a committee of foreign domination, without adequate representation. The financial burden is so heavy that it is no exaggeration to say that Germany is reduced to economic bondage. The Germans will have to work hard and incessantly for foreign masters, without any chance of personal gain, or any prospect of regaining liberty or economic independence. This 'peace' offered to Germany is a mockery of President Wilson's principles. Trusting in these, Germany surrendered and accepted peace. That confidence has been betrayed in such a manner that all Germans must now feel that they wish to shake off the heavy yoke imposed on them by the cajoling Entente. And we fear very much that they will soon find the opportunity to do so. Chained and enslaved, Germany will always remain a menace to Europe." Algemeen Handelsblad, Dutch liberal newspaper, editorial on the Treaty of Versailles, June 1919 The mention of "President Wilson's principles" is most directly significant to understanding the editorial's point of view about the Treaty of Versailles because of the United States president's commitment to

broker a peace agreement on liberal principles that would not be motivated by revenge

Source 1 "Under the present circumstances, if we were to find ourselves in a war with France, it will be a people's war that cannot be won in one decisive battle but will turn into a long and deadly struggle with a country that will not give up before the strength of its entire people has been broken. Our own people, too, will be utterly broken and exhausted, even if we emerge victorious at the end." Helmuth von Moltke, German general, letter to the German emperor Wilhelm II, 1905 Source 2 "The integrity of what remains of the Ottoman Empire is one of the principles upon which the world's balance of power is based. Therefore, I reject the idea that it is in our national interest to shatter one of the cornerstones of the international order. What if, after we have attacked Libya* and destabilized the Ottoman Empire, the Balkans begin to stir? And what if a Balkan war provokes a clash between the two power blocs and a European war? Italy must not be the country that bears the responsibility of putting a match to the powder keg." *Italy wanted to colonize Libya, which at the time was a province of the Ottoman Empire. Giovanni Giolitti, prime minister of Italy, speech before the Italian parliament as it debated whether to attack Ottoman Libya, 1911 In addition to the potential destabilization of the Ottoman Empire, Giolitti's argument in Source 2 regarding Italy's ambitions in Libya is likely explained by the concern that any attempt by a European state to acquire colonies in Africa could

dangerously intensify rivalries between European states seeking to acquire territories and resources

"Since 1930, the Brazilian government has been undertaking a social policy whose main goal is to protect the working classes through the betterment of their working conditions, elevating their standard of life and extending the social security system. Indeed, the 1937 constitution proclaims that work is a social duty and establishes that it is the government's responsibility to guarantee the fulfillment of this duty by securing favorable conditions for workers and protecting them. In this way, the constitution guarantees the right of organization, recognizes the current unions as representatives of the workers, and authorizes the signing of collective-bargaining agreements. Salaries are protected and must provide a minimum standard of life. The workday is eight hours long, and there is one mandatory day of rest. Paid vacations are mandatory. Workers are protected against unjustified dismissal. Minors under 14 years old are not allowed to work, and women and men under 18 years old cannot work in unhealthy sites. The constitution establishes that the state must provide medical assistance to workers, and it must protect maternity and create insurance against old age and disability. The constitution also compels professional associations to assist its members. In order to enforce these principles, the constitution anticipates the creation of a Work Tribunal whose goal will be to arbitrate in all work-related litigation." Document produced by the Brazilian government of Getúlio Vargas circa 1940; Vargas had come to power in 1930 following a military coup. The Brazilian government's pride in listing the extensive workers' rights guaranteed under the 1937 constitution is significant because it shows that

governments across the political spectrum were influenced by socialist economic and social policies

"When the proposal to proclaim the equality of races was rejected by the Peace Conference at Versailles, Viscount Makino, the Japanese representative, made it known that Japan would reintroduce the proposal. Obviously, Japan feels that this issue is momentous for the sake of humanity and the peace of the world. Of the non-white countries, Japan has taken the lead in adopting the best parts of European civilization. Japan codified her laws, and reformed her police and judicial systems, her military and naval forces, thus placing herself almost on an equal footing with that of the European countries. Some whites regard the development of Japan as an unjustifiable encroachment upon their own rights. It is, of course, true that there are still peoples in this world who are so backward in civilization that they cannot at once be admitted into the international family on an equal footing. What they need is proper guidance and direction. When they have reached a certain stage of civilization, they should be given an equal place and rank in the family of nations. Although most Asiatic nations are fully peers of European nations, yet they are discriminated against because of the color of the skin. The root of this discrimination lies in the perverted feeling of racial superiority entertained by the whites. If the present situation continues, there is every likelihood that the peace of the world will be endangered." Okuma Shigenobu, Japanese member of parliament and former prime minister, "Illusions of the White Race," article published in a Japanese journal, Tokyo, 1921 Asian reactions to Western claims of racial and cultural superiority, such as the reaction by Shigenobu in the passage, were also instrumental in the period 1918-1945 in the

intensification of anti-imperial resistance activities and independence movements

"In view of the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Turkey, which occurred because of the ill-advised, unprovoked, and deliberate action of the Ottoman government, His Majesty's government has made a public announcement regarding the holy places of Arabia, the holy shrines of Mesopotamia, and the port of Jeddah,* which is as follows. His Majesty's most loyal Muslim subjects should understand that His Majesty's government is not fighting this war because of religion. The British navy and its military forces will not attack the holy places of Arabia or Jeddah unless the Turks interfere with pilgrimages from India to the holy places and shrines in question. In that case, British military forces will intervene to keep the pilgrimage routes open. At the request of His Majesty's government, the governments of France and Russia have given similar assurances." *a city located on the western coast of Arabia along the Red Sea Pamphlet published by the British Indian War Department, 1915. The pamphlet was translated and distributed in cities and towns in India. The Ottoman Empire likely entered into the conflict referred to in the passage because

it had lost significant territory to other European states in the nineteenth century.

"In view of the outbreak of war between Great Britain and Turkey, which occurred because of the ill-advised, unprovoked, and deliberate action of the Ottoman government, His Majesty's government has made a public announcement regarding the holy places of Arabia, the holy shrines of Mesopotamia, and the port of Jeddah,* which is as follows. His Majesty's most loyal Muslim subjects should understand that His Majesty's government is not fighting this war because of religion. The British navy and its military forces will not attack the holy places of Arabia or Jeddah unless the Turks interfere with pilgrimages from India to the holy places and shrines in question. In that case, British military forces will intervene to keep the pilgrimage routes open. At the request of His Majesty's government, the governments of France and Russia have given similar assurances." *a city located on the western coast of Arabia along the Red Sea Pamphlet published by the British Indian War Department, 1915. The pamphlet was translated and distributed in cities and towns in India. The Ottoman Empire likely entered into the conflict referred to in the passage because .

it had lost significant territory to other European states in the nineteenth century.

"When the proposal to proclaim the equality of races was rejected by the Peace Conference at Versailles, Viscount Makino, the Japanese representative, made it known that Japan would reintroduce the proposal. Obviously, Japan feels that this issue is momentous for the sake of humanity and the peace of the world. Of the non-white countries, Japan has taken the lead in adopting the best parts of European civilization. Japan codified her laws, and reformed her police and judicial systems, her military and naval forces, thus placing herself almost on an equal footing with that of the European countries. Some whites regard the development of Japan as an unjustifiable encroachment upon their own rights. It is, of course, true that there are still peoples in this world who are so backward in civilization that they cannot at once be admitted into the international family on an equal footing. What they need is proper guidance and direction. When they have reached a certain stage of civilization, they should be given an equal place and rank in the family of nations. Although most Asiatic nations are fully peers of European nations, yet they are discriminated against because of the color of the skin. The root of this discrimination lies in the perverted feeling of racial superiority entertained by the whites. If the present situation continues, there is every likelihood that the peace of the world will be endangered." Okuma Shigenobu, Japanese member of parliament and former prime minister, "Illusions of the White Race," article published in a Japanese journal, Tokyo, 1921 Shigenobu's point of view regarding Western attitudes toward Japan as expressed in the passage is significant in that similar ideas were used by members of the Japanese government during the period between the First and the Second World Wars to justify

militarizing the Japanese state and expanding its territories in Asia

Source 1 "Under the present circumstances, if we were to find ourselves in a war with France, it will be a people's war that cannot be won in one decisive battle but will turn into a long and deadly struggle with a country that will not give up before the strength of its entire people has been broken. Our own people, too, will be utterly broken and exhausted, even if we emerge victorious at the end." Helmuth von Moltke, German general, letter to the German emperor Wilhelm II, 1905 Source 2 "The integrity of what remains of the Ottoman Empire is one of the principles upon which the world's balance of power is based. Therefore, I reject the idea that it is in our national interest to shatter one of the cornerstones of the international order. What if, after we have attacked Libya* and destabilized the Ottoman Empire, the Balkans begin to stir? And what if a Balkan war provokes a clash between the two power blocs and a European war? Italy must not be the country that bears the responsibility of putting a match to the powder keg." *Italy wanted to colonize Libya, which at the time was a province of the Ottoman Empire. Giovanni Giolitti, prime minister of Italy, speech before the Italian parliament as it debated whether to attack Ottoman Libya, 1911 Moltke's prediction in Source 1 about the consequences of a potential war between Germany and France is most directly explained by the fact that

previous conflicts had stirred intense nationalism in France and Germany