US Hist Midterm

Marshall Plan

In June 1947, Secretary George C. Marshall proposed the extension of massive economic assistance to the devastated nations of Europe, saying that the policy of the United States was not directed "against any country or doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation, and chaos." The Marshall Plan was applied solely to Western Europe, precluding any measure of Soviet Bloc cooperation. The Marshall Plan also institutionalized and legitimized the concept of U.S. foreign aid programs, which have become a integral part of U.S. foreign policy.

Senator Joseph McCarthy

Joined the senate in 1946, and used anti-communist sentiment to revamp his platform. He accused many people in the government to be a part of the Communist party, after these accusations, the Tyding's committee was created to investigate these accusations. In 1952 McCarthy became head of the Committee on Government Operations. Many people in the government and in Universities lost their jobs for being accused of sympathizing with the communist ideas. Out of the witch-hunt led by McCarthy, McCarthyism the movement, which emerged as a part of Republican effort to defeat the democratic administration. McCarthyism appealed to isolationists, particularly German and Irish Americans, and to Catholics. Once the McCarren-Walter Act was passed, the quotas on immigration placed in the 1920's were more strict. McCarthy lost his popularity and support declined when he accused members in the military of communism and was taken to trial . Edward R. Murrow's show "See it Now" showed McCarthy at his worst, and on March 2, 1955 McCarthy was censored and had no more power.

Lewis Powell Memorandum

Lewis Powell = corporate lawyer nominated to the Supreme Court by Nixon in 1971 Wrote the memo to his friend two months prior to his nomination, though it was leaked long after his Supreme Court confirmation wrote that the "American economic system is under broad attack" Sources of attack were communists, leftists, and other revolutionaries Also the proliferate media, students on college campuses, and politicians Pushed businesses to become more politicized so they could conquer these threats Emphasized the importance of strengthening institutions like the US Chamber and other institutions that represented business interest

Cuban Missile Crisis

The CMC was a 13-day confrontation in October 1962 between the Soviet Union and Cuba on one side and US on the other. The crisis is generally regarded as the moment in which the cold war came closest to turning into a nuclear conflict and is also the first documented instance of mutual assured destruction being discussed as a determining factor in a major international arms agreement. The Soviet Union had asked Cube if they could build nuclear missiles in Cuba as a response to America building missiles in Turkey. Kennedy and Khrushchev both feared that the only way that this would be resolved would be through a military confrontation.

Dienbienphu 1954

The French were losing the war in Indochina against Vietminh, and in may they suffered a defeat at Dienbienphu. After that defeat a new government came into power in Paris under Pierre Mendes-France, that wanted a peace agreement by the end of July. As a result, France decided to acknowledge Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos at the Geneva Conference.

Pentagon Papers

Were a top secret compilation of US intelligence and military information that documented the history of the Vietnam War. Commissioned by then Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara Documents were leaked to the press by former DOD civilian official Daniel Ellsberg Published by the New York Times in 1971 Showed that the US government entered the conflict in Vietnam without a clear strategy or objective Included a 1964 CIA report stating that the domino theory was no longer relevant in Asia Despite governmental knowledge of this, the Kennedy and Johnson administration continued to use this Cold War rhetic and reasoning to justify the war Showed that the US's continued involvement in the war was mainly to avoid humiliating defeat (70%) Shocked the American public because it showed the executive branch manipulating the public and led to societal distrust of the government

1948 Presidential Election

• Truman, 3 others running o Dewey, Henry Wallace and the Progressive Party (envisioned continuation of Triple Alliance, peace was possible, Cold War need not continue, people excited about Wallace) o Other problems: "Dixiecrats." Disgruntled white Southerners. The fractured and fractious Democrats resigned to nominating a candidate everyone considered a sure loser. • The States' Right Democrats: "We stand for the segregation of the races and the racial integrity of each race" • Truman won, to the surprise of many political onlookers • Laid out agenda, made most liberals pretty happy • "The Fair Deal" This election is considered to be the greatest election upset in American history. Virtually every prediction indicated that Dewey would defeat Truman.

Loyalty-Security Program/Loyalty Review Board

President Truman created these programs on March 21, 1947 which mandated a loyalty investigation of each federal job applicant and made agency heads "personally responsible" for their employees' loyalty. The review process was to be carried out by the FBI, but supervised by a central Loyalty Review Board.

Civil Rights

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Social Movements

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The Vietnam War

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Freedom Budget

A Philip Randolph Institute Inspired by FDR Bill of Rights and freedom from want Must embrace all Americans The economy is rich enough to not tolerate the slums and ghettos, unemployment rates and substandard wages Riots have shown that there is no prospect for peace when the nation is divided between the affluent and extremely poor Freedom from want and poverty affect everyone

March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom

August 28, 1963 -- 250,000-300,000 people show up Largest Demonstration in American History King's "I Have A Dream" speech King is frozen and time and people only remember the movement by that Speech was promptly forgotten at the time; only because of his assassination that it gets remembered

OPEC Oil Embargo

Brought about the 1973-74 energy crisis in the US See the *Energy Crisis* ID for greater detail

Equal Rights Amendment

Equal Rights Amendment (ERA) -- no discrimination based on sex -- was supposedly a done deal The House of Rep. passes the ERA in fall of 1971; Senate passes it in 1972 Never reached 38 state threshold State level battles -- opposition to ERA was higher amongst married, older, less educated women Phyllis Schlafy -- chief force behind failure of ERA ERA will take away some of the most important rights we have (exemption from the draft) and not give women anything they don't already have Certain protections for women will be taken away

Brown v. Board of Education

Five separate cases that were heard by the U.S. Supreme Court concerning the issue of segregation in public schools. While the facts of each case are different, the main issue in each was the constitutionality of state-sponsored segregation in public schools. Thurgood Marshall and the NAACP Legal Defense and Education Fund handled these cases. On May 14, 1954, Chief of Justice Warren delivered the opinion of the Court, stating that "We conclude that in the field of public education the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal. . ."

Negro American Labor Council

Founded in 1960, the NALC sought to address the failure of the AFL-CIO (American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations) to end racial discrimination in some of its unions. Randolph introduced a resolution at the 1959 National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) convention calling for a black labor organization that would carry out the civil rights program of the AFL-CIO Randolph would be voted the first president of the organization and used it to organize the March on Washington in 1963 Asked for MLK's support numerous times; would eventually become part of the SCLC

Iran-Contra Affair

Here's What Happened: Reagan Administration had sold weapons to mullahs in Iran in exchange for hostages → US makes profits on weapons in cash → US divert the money to counterrevolutionaries in Nicaragua Significance: This dramatically hurts the Reagan Administration's credibility and approval No legal ramifications come of it; George Bush the First pardons 6 people implicated

Cuban Revolution and Missile Crisis

How and why were the American policy makers "fixated" on Cuba following the Cuban Revolution? Background on Cuban Revolution Fulgencio Batista seized power in a coup in March 1952 The US immediately recognized this, supported them with arms and training This government grew unpopular and repressive. Corruption was widespread and there was great poverty Fidel Castro led the Cuban Revolution -- Castro was a Marxist, but not really a communist Overthrew Batista in 1959 with guerilla army US relations strain Publicly executed hundreds of Batista supporters US landowners found their land taken away and expropriated Cuban Communist Party was legalized and penetrated many spheres of government Raul Castro, brother of Fidel and known Communist, was installed as leader of Revolutionary Armed Forces Raul visits the Soviet Union and asks for a partnership Cuba was seen as a precursor for the fall of Latin America to communism What policies did they pursue toward the Castro regime? The policy standpoint the US adopted when dealing with the Castro regime fell along the lines of Dulles's "brinksmanship". The US resolved to threaten nuclear war (this was more evident in the Cuban Missile Crisis). The Bay of Pigs (1961) was started after Kennedy was briefed by Eisenhower about a small group of Cuban exiles that could be used to topple the regime. These right-wing exiles were to be used to stir up popular unrest, but Castro saw it coming and crushed it. This resulted in a humiliating failure for the US and played a pivotal role in relations. The Administration of Kennedy still resolved to try and cripple the Castro regime economically and use sabotage. Because of the rise to power of the Castro regime, the US became acutely aware of other countries in Latin America with unhappy populations falling to communism. Therefore, the US implemented the "Alliance for Progress" policy that was the equivalent of the Marshall Plan for Western Europe. What factors contributed to the deterioration in US-Cuban relations? There are many factors that contributed to the deterioration of US-Cuban relations Public execution of hundreds of Batista supporters US landowners getting their land taken away in Cuba The creation of the Cuban Communist Party The Bay of Pigs invasion The growing influence and partnership of the Soviet Union and Cuba What did the Cuban Missile Crisis reveal about American and Soviet perceptions and concerns? The Cuban Missile Crisis revealed that both the Americans and Soviets feared nuclear war. The Americans also revealed their fear of the war being brought onto American territory both in the administration and the public. I think the rest of this is pretty self explanatory and answered in the other questions. How was the crisis resolved? Background Soviets secret installation of nuclear weapons in Cuba (90 miles from the coast of Florida) Blockade put in place Soviet ships were not allowed to enter US waters and military put on full alert The world was the closest it has ever been to nuclear destruction Resolution Soviets withdrew missiles from Cuba The US agreed to not invade Cuba US agreed to remove offensive missiles from Turkey on the Soviet border This was kept secret, so it did not appear as if we were conceding Leaders Kennedy comes off looking great Within two years, Khrushchev is put out of the job What this means? This was a turning point in the debate over nuclear war From now on the two superpowers never came face-to-face in a military conflict; there would be many proxy wars Khrushchev greatly ramped up Soviet interference in the third world to overthrow unfriendly regimes and support wars of "national liberation" What was its longer term impact during the remainder of the Kennedy Administration and the Johnson Administration? The failure of the Bay of Pigs made Kennedy resolve to prove his administration's worth, while the Cuban Missile Crisis made him appear as a hero. As a result of the crisis, a "hot line" was set up between Kennedy and Khrushchev and a nuclear test ban treaty was signed in 1963 by the two major powers and over 100 nations. There was definitely a "thaw in American-Soviet relations" and the mindset was now changed on how to approach the conflict. Instead of the face-to-face dimension of the situation in Cuba, the rest of the conflicts would be fought out through proxy wars; Vietnam, Afghanistan, etc. The US confidence gained from a success here may have led to a willingness to enter Vietnam and a belief that when one country falls to communism, many more will. The Alliance for Progress was also a major policy shift. Some notes below: Alliance for Progress March of 1961, President Kennedy promises to do for Latin America what the Marshall plan did for Western Europe This Alliance for Progress would work to satisfy the basic needs of LA people Kennedy and the Third World -- two-tiered policy Fostering Economic Development -- wanted to engineer higher standards of living, expand the middle class, increase education; all of this would lead to progress and no need for revolution Agency for International Development (AID) Peace Corps All of this was too little and too late Much of the money ended up in the hand of corrupted elites The Peace Corps didn't make large enough of an effect Counterinsurgency Green berets and Navy SEALS Thousands and thousands of third world militaries were trained by US military These were aimed to prepare third world countries to resist uprising US was interfering with other governments and manipulating elections at this time Leaders put into place opposed free elections and the idea of social reform -- this was the whole point of the Alliance for Progress

Little Rock Crisis of 1957

In 1954, the United States Supreme Court declared public school segregation unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education. One year later the Court reiterated its ruling calling on school districts throughout the United States to desegregate their public schools "with all deliberate speed." * School officials interviewed approximately eighty black students for Central High School, the largest school in the city and only nine were chosen. * the nine students arrived at Central High School on September 3, 1957 looking forward to a successful academic year. Instead they were greeted by an angry mob of white students, parents, and citizens determined to stop integration. In addition to facing physical threats, screams, and racial slurs from the crowd, Arkansas Governor Orval M. Faubus intervened, ordering the Arkansas National Guard to keep the nine African American students from entering the school. * On September 20, 1957, Federal Judge Ronald Davies ordered Governor Faubus to remove the National Guard from the Central High School's entrance and to allow integration to take its course in Little Rock. When Faubus defied the court order, President Dwight Eisenhower dispatched nearly 1,000 paratroopers and federalized the 10,000 Arkansas National Guard troops who were to ensure that the school would be open to the nine students. Montgomery Bus Boycott puts MLK in the national spotlight Southern Christian Leadership Conference -- formed in 1957 Highlights tactic of non-violence and peaceful protests Demands an end to segregation and racial barriers Called upon "amazing universalism" of Declaration of Independence Influenced by Mahatma Gandhi and Non-Violence Civil Disobedience Baird Rustin is the conduit of Gandhi's teachings to MLK and the Southern Civil Rights Movement This did not mean passivity Individuals needed to be able to take on suffering without reacting It was "creative" Seeks to awaken a sense of moral shame in the opponent This was not working Sought to change the "target audience" -- the federal government and those outside of the South Non violent persuasion to non violent coercion

Election of 1964

It was held on Tuesday, November 3, 1964. Democratic candidate and incumbent President Lyndon B. Johnson had come to office less than a year earlier following the assassination of his predecessor,John F. Kennedy. Johnson, who had successfully associated himself with Kennedy's popularity, won 61.1% of the popular vote, the highest won by a candidate since James Monroe's re-election in 1820.

NSC-68

President Harry S. Truman receives National Security Council Paper Number 68 (NSC-68) in April 1950. NSC-68 formed the basis for America's Cold War policy for the next two decades. According to the report, the United States should vigorously pursue a policy of "containing" Soviet expansion. Truman signed NSC-68 into policy in September 1950 as a result of the Korean War. NSC-68 remained the foundation of U.S. Cold War policy until at least the 1970s.

Communist Party USA

Right after the creation of the Communist Party in 1919, the US government attacked the party with the Palmer Raids, named after Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. Communists advocated for unemployment insurance, the right to organize, and for Social Security. Many members of the party were imprisoned throughout the 1940's and 1950's under the Smith Act. Increasing fear of communism as a result of the Cold War with the USSR weakened the CPUSA presence and impact in society and the government.

Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944/GI Bill

Signed into law by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on June 22, 1944, this act, also known as the GI Bill, provided veterans of the Second World War funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing. To reduce the possibility of postwar depression brought on by widespread unemployment, the National Resources Planning Board, a White House agency, studied postwar manpower needs as early as 1942 and in June 1943 recommended a series of programs for education and training. Within the following 7 years, approximately 8 million veterans received educational benefits. This bill prevented a new depression.

Birmingham Campaign of 1963

The Birmingham campaign was a model of direct action protest, as it effectively shut down the city and through the media, drew the world's attention to racial segregation in the South. Furthermore, it paved the way for the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Birmingham campaign was a movement organized in early 1963 by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) to bring attention to the integration efforts of African Americans in Alabama. Led by Martin Luther King, Jr. and others, the campaign of nonviolent direct actions culminated in widely publicized confrontation between black youth and white civic authorities, and eventually led the municipal government to change the city's discrimination laws. In the early 1960's, Birmingham was one of the most racially divided cities in the US, both as enforced by law and culturally. Protests began with a boycott intended to pressure business leaders to open employment to people of all races and end segregation in public facilities, stores and restaurants When these boycotts were unnoticed, the leaders began what they called Project C. A series of sit-ins and marches intended to provoke mass arrest. Campaign ran low on adult volunteers and the coordinator James Bevel trained and directed high school, college and elementary school students to participate in the demonstrations, which resulted in thousands of arrests. As jails filled with students, the Birmingham Police Department decided to use high-pressure water jets and police attack dogs on the children and bystanders. In some cases, the bystanders attacked police...who responded with force. King and the SCLC drew both criticism and praise for allowing children to participate and be put in harm's way. On May 8th, business leaders agreed to most of the protester's demands. On may 10th, Fred Shuttlesworth and MLK Jr. told reporters that they had an agreement from the City of Birmingham to desegregate lunch counters, restrooms, drinking fountains and fitting rooms within 90 days and to hire blacks in stores as salesmen and clerks. Kennedy urged organizations to raise bail money in order to free demonstrators. Night of May 11th, a bomb destroyed a motel that MLK Jr. was staying at and another damaged MLK's brother's house. Police came to inspect the scene and were met with angered African Americans. In the early hours of the morning, thousands of African Americans rioted, numerous buildings and vehicles were burned, and several people, including a police officer, were stabbed. May 13th, three thousand federal troops were deployed to Birmingham to restore order, even though the Alabama Governor told JFK that every was fine and that the local forces were handling the situation. June 1963, the Jim Crow signs regulating segregated public places in Birmingham were taken down. King and the SCLC were criticized for ending the campaign with promises that were too vague and "settling for a lot less than even moderate demands" By July, most of the city's segregating ordinances were overturned and some of the lunch counters in the city started to comply to the new rule The campaign brought national and international attention to racist violence in Birmingham. Attorney General RFK met with James Baldwin and other Black leaders to prevent unrest from spreading The reputation of MLK soared following the protests The Birmingham Campaign as well as George Wallace's refusal to admit black student to the University of Alabama convinced President Kennedy that he needed to address the severe inequalities between black and white citizens in the South. The Birmingham campaign inspired the Civil Rights Movement in other parts of the South. It also marked the maturation of the SCLC as a national force in the civil rights arena of the land.

Energy Crisis

The Energy Crisis lasted from 1973-74 and was caused by OPEC (the Oil and Petroleum Exporting Countries) drastically raising the price of oil in the US, making it expensive to import and reducing the amount of gas and oil readily available in the US Prices increased by nearly 33% Huge gas and energy shortages OPEC increased prices due to the US involvement in the Yom Kippur War US continued its usually policy of aiding Israel, sending planes, tanks, and ammunition to Israel OPEC declared that they would no longer sell oil to nations supporting Israel, and they imposed production quotas on themselves in an attempt to raise international oil prices Demonstrated that the US was no longer solely in charge of its own economy and economic "destiny" American dependency on oil lead to huge pushes for alternative energy sources, most significantly nuclear power plants

Strategic Defense Initiative

The Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) was proposed by U.S. President Ronald Reagan on March 23, 1983, to use ground-based and space-based systems to protect the United States from attack by strategic nuclear ballistic missiles. * The initiative focused on strategic defense rather than the prior strategic offense doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD). * The ambitious initiative was widely criticized as being unrealistic, even unscientific, as well as for threatening to destabilize MAD and re-ignite "an offensive arms race".In light of Reagan's vocal criticism of MAD, the Strategic Defense Initiative was an important part of his defense policy intended to offset MAD bias.

"Domino Theory"

The domino theory, governed much of U.S. foreign policy beginning in the early 1950s, held that a communist victory in one nation would quickly lead to a chain reaction of communist takeovers in neighboring states. In Southeast Asia, the United States government used the domino theory to justify its support of a non-communist regime in South Vietnam against the communist government of North Vietnam, and ultimately its increasing involvement in the long-running Vietnam War (1954-75).

Rollback

This policy was formulated by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles circa 1952 claiming that the goal of US policy must be to rollback the spread of communism instead of just containing it. In a larger context, rollback refers to changing the major policies of a state, usually by replacing the ruling regime. Rollback was discussed in the uprising in East Germany (1953) and Hungarian Revolution (1956).

The New Look

This policy was the national security policy under the Eisenhower Administration that called for a scaling down of military spending in order to sustain growth of the US economy. The plan called for drastic reductions in military spending and a shift to the use of strategic nuclear weapons to deter potential threats of the Eastern Bloc under the USSR. The US would be prepared to respond to any attack by the USSR, but would not pursue any further build-up until then instead focusing on limited wars and sufficiency.

"The New Right"

Transformation of vague anti-liberalism into avowed conservatism by 1980 did not happen overnight Formed New Right to raise money, support candidates, create issues, and mobilized voters Rise of Modern Conservatism First Steps: 1945-1968 Building an intellectual edifice in academia Small in number; efforts do not work at national level Form the basis of the Barry Goldwater campaign -- lost in 1964 Expanding the Base: 1968-1980 By 1970s, wealthy conservatives start writing checks Ideas of the New Right are worth betting money on Lewis Powell -- "Confidential Memorandum: Attack on the Free Enterprise System" (1971) -- this may be important Memo for the Chamber of Commerce American economic system is under attack We have seen statism before, but now.. Attacks are sustained coming from academics and extremists Professors and colleges are indoctrinating their students Only 14% of Americans felt a part of the enterprise system Businesses and corporations have responded by "appeasement, ineptitude and ignoring the problem" Ultimate issue is survival Threat to the system is also a threat to individual freedom Everyone must work together to fund efforts to keep business alive Political efforts for business survival Building the Organizational and Ideological Infrastructure Heritage Foundation -- think tank for conservative intellectuals AEI -- American Enterprise Institute -- grew massively in size Right pioneered the tactics for targeting voters and money that the Democrats have recently caught up to Rise of Christian Right Why the 70s upsurge of conservative religion 1960s witnessed a challenge of authority on so many levels -- this was a reaction Threat to family values Many different denominations come together who had previously been fighting "rooted in authentic Gospel, not the social Gospel." Many had seen a secular gospel before -- eradication of poverty and inequality -- but this was to be abandoned The Electronic Church Pat Robertson Joey Falwell and Moral Majority "Get them saved, baptized, and registered." Clean Sweep: 1980-2000

Modern Conservatism

What accounts for the rise of the conservative movement from the 1950s through the 1990s? People were disillusioned with the government and leaders (Nixon, Vietnam, Iranian Hostage Crisis, stagflation, Energy Crisis, etc.) American Century only lasted 25 years or so US could not project its power everywhere and anywhere (Vietnam, Cambodia, Nicaragua, Afghanistan, etc.) Much of the disillusionment evident in the Malaise Speech July 15, 1979 -- one of the most famous speeches given by a modern American President -- The Malaise Speech 65 million Americans listened Remembered as a fount of peculiarity and sanctimony Talked about "fundamental threat to American democracy" Growing doubt and lack of confidence People are losing faith in government, ability to shape democracy, and a gap between citizens and government is large Some energy legislation passed afterwards Still doomed to fail by summer of 1979. But things get worse... Iranian Revolution Followed by Iranian Hostage Crisis -- showed the failure of carter Administration and end of American power Didn't affect Americans directly, but because of this, it was so unsettling for Americans and was used as a metaphor for how detached the public had gotten The rise of republicanism and a return to moral traditions was also a reaction to the cult of narcissism -- the growing consumerism that was essentially alienating individuals across the country. People needed to feel united once again. Major demographic changes allowed for Republicans to build a base Steel factory workers were seeing their domestic industry decline because of cheaply made foreign steel. These workers felt forgotten by their government. Growth of Silicon Valley and its influence in the economy How - programmatically and organizationally - did the conservative movement expand its influence, particularly in the electoral arena and in the realm of ideas, in the second half of the 20th century? Major progress and advances in the amount of republicans in the House and Senate going into the 1980 election of Reagan Many single issue lobby groups would rise up in the 70s and 80s -- ERA groups, abortion groups, etc. Evangelical Christian Involvement Fundamentalist television such as "700 Club" and "Praise the Lord Hour" Jerry Falwells' Moral Majority very successful at registering voters Pat Robertson -- urged followers to vote any non-believers out of office Direct Mail Campaign -- RAVCO Letters were sent on single issue pleas or appeals for conservative candidates 100 million pieces of mail sent out at its peak Think tanks sought to give intellectual legitimacy to the movement These included; The Heritage Foundation, the American Enterprise Institute and the Hoover Foundation What were the goals of the New Right? Neoconservative views: encompassed traditional positions such as anticommunism, opposition to govt. interference and bureaucracy, and support for free enterprise and a balanced budget. Affirmative action programs, constant expansion of rights of arrested peoples, abortion approval and a host of issues prompted a desire for a more faith-based nation Supply-Side Economics -- cut the tax rate and go along the Laffer Curve which went off the minimum tax rate that the government could still function at. Business and industry would use money that would have gone into taxes into their business and create new jobs What was the nature of the Reagan Revolution? What did it accomplish? See "Reagan Revolution" and "New Right" for greater detail Reagan was able to inspire trust, regardless of things such as the Iran-Contra Affair. In terms of the Cold War Human rights were essentially mocked because of how little Carter did to achieve them Perceived the USSR as an entity that posed a grave and moral threat to the US -- an "evil empire" This became clear to Reagan throughout the 1970s Strong believer in the domino theory -- USSR strongly expansionist Largest military build-up in American peace time history. Strategic Defense Initiative (Star Wars) Met with Anti-Nuclear Weapons Movement of the 1980s Greatest thaw in superpower relations since the cold war had begun However... He was militant anti-communist support on the periphery Authorized aid to Asia, Africa and Central America Central America Last major battle of the Cold War Reagan saw the Soviet Union at the basis of all unrest Wanted to restore US credibility and faith US became increasingly interventionist Reagan Doctrine -- committed the SU to rolling back Soviet influence in the Third World Reagan became governor of California on the heels of the Watts Riots, the Berkeley FSM, and a ton of other protests and disturbances in the state. This was a precursor for policy elsewhere. To what extent did the modern conservatism shift the nation's gravity to the right? Reagan was able to appoint several conservative judges to the Supreme Court which continued to advance the Known as the Age of Greed and Hypocrisy While televangelists were preaching morality and Christian values, many were arrested for prostitution and embezzlement Reagan had been divorced and had a troubled relationship with his kids The AIDs epidemic and divorce rate hit all time highs Reagan defense build-up and massive deficits would hurt the country for years to come Did the conservative movement achieve its goals in the economic and social sphere? What is interesting is that many note that apathy throughout the country might have been as influential as the rise of the New Right 47% of the country did not vote in 1980 Traditional democratic constituencies did not turn out to vote People saw the Democratic party under Carter as having abandoned the working class voters who made up their largest base People were completely skeptical and disillusioned by the government, not able to see anyway that it would work for them. Poverty levels grow at staggering rates Criminal punishments under the Reagan Administration grew as well The War on Drugs effectively started under Reagan, and drug use flourished

The Affluent Society

What was the fate of the New Deal and liberalism in the 1940s and 1950s? Eisenhower administration, federal entitlement programs, social security, veterans benefits, or unemployment historians would conclude that World War II rather than the New Deal pulled the United States out of the Great Depression. the administration of Franklin D. Roosevelt experimented with Keynesian economics, but the president's minnate fiscal conservatism had kept government expenditures to a minimum. As a result, unemployment persisted. In what ways/to what extent was the United States an "affluent society" in the post-World War II era? The U.S. economy boom during the 1950s, unparalleled economic growth, personal income and productivity both increase. This also introduces the a rampant consumer culture in the decade, as the American economy transformed from a simple production economy to a consumer economy. Television also introduced Americans to a national and global culture. The problem of rural and urban poverty reflects that not all Americans have equally enjoyed the "affluent society." What forces promoted suburban growth in these decades? In 1947, Congress authorized the construction of 37000 miles of additional highways The dramatic increase in car ownership accelerated white, middle-class America's move to the suburbs. Between 1950 to 1960, 13 million new homes were constructed in America, 11 million of them in suburb. New York, Philadelphia and Chicago What role did race play in that growth? African Americans increasingly isolated in inner-city ghettos, mill and factory workers in New England and the Carolinas, Appalachians who lived in the coal region that stretched from western Pennsylvania to northern Georgina. Most chose to migrate to cities to find jobs, but often disappointed. Racial tensions accelerated in the decade, as the segregation among races increased How were American cities and their urban centers in particular, changing? people start moving out from the city to suburbans During the 1950s, twenty million Americans would move to the suburb, the largest movement since the western migration of the 1880s How did popular culture change in the post-war decades? Television becomes a part of popular culture movie, focus on themes of womanhood and family value, promote the traditional role of woman as wife and helpmate On the musical scene, folk music attained a degree of prominence. Elvis Presley gave teenage Americans the sense of identity and separateness they so desperately longed for in the conforming 1950s. The new car culture, proliferation of automobiles had almost as great as cultural impact on the nation as the spread of television. Sexual Revolution, the subject of sex becomes open, explicit, direct, its a healthy part of life On what grounds did Americans celebrate or criticize the Affluent society? Celebrate The exponential rise in per capita GDP The solidifying of the US as a world power GI Bill of rights was a success Liberal Consensus is evidence of a general feeling of complacency in the country Birth of consumerism Criticize -- mainly, the Age of Affluence did not affect everyone equally The deterioration of the inner cities and racialization of suburbia (Housing Act of 1949) The discontent garnered in American women In what ways did women's role and expectation change in the postwar years to the early 1960s? instead of being a homemakers, women continued to demand the right to choose and increasingly worked outside the home. What were the goals of post-war "labor feminists"? Popular culture thinks feminism, which dominant culture derided as creeping masculinity, At the heart of what Betty Friedan "the feminine mystique" was the notion of the indispensable female. The ideal suburban wife- efficient, beautiful, loving- existed to help the organization man reach new levels of success and fulfillment. The proportion of working wives doubled from 16.7% in 1940 to 31.7% in 1960. The percentage of women who worked outside the home increased from 7% to 25% during the 1950s.

The Cold War

What were the key events, developments, or decisions that contributed to the Cold War? ·The End of WWII o Following the war, there was a question of whether the alliance between Great Britain, US and Soviet Union would continue...however, the nations disagreed greatly on what should be done with Germany. § Differences in ideology led the nations to have issues when discussing: Germany's conquered land, how would they be run?, what does democracy mean?, who will be allowed to participate in elections § Poland was a huge topic of debate § Reparations and amount owed was another subject for debate ·Stalin's speech February 9, 1946 o Stalin used Marxist-Lenin communist language when discussing WWII-stating that the war was due to "unequal" development of capitalist countries and that lead to unbalance=war § Stalin is hinting that more wars will happen in the future due to capitalism § This worried Americans because the speech was very ominous ·Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech, March 1946 o Called for Anglo-group of power to stop Russians o Anne Applebaum stated that between the signing of the Yalta agreement and Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 "a great many changes took place" EVENTS The Soviets and US's problems went deep When the Bolsheviks came to power it was not looked upon well by American government Looked down upon Soviets for withdrawing from WWI US did not recognize the Soviet Union into the 1930s US helped White Army fight Bolsheviks in Russia, they lost, left bad taste in mouths of winning Bolsheviks The diplomatic relations have been strained since the Soviets took power US Wartime Alliance with Soviet Union was a period of peace—alliance of convenience/necessity It was awkward: defeating Germany is the only reason the alliance exists Underlying this—budget. The Republicans during this time wanted to cut back expenditures. Aid to Russia is not high on list After—Russia wants a protective buffer zone, twice Germany has went to Russia and ravaged them Stalin wants buffer countries to make it difficult to get to and attack Soviet Union Is this a defensive measure? Revisionists say yes, makes sense they want friendly regimes on their borders Others say no, can't keep friendly regimes friendly Others say expansionist goals Whether defensive or expansionist in nature, the Soviet Union expanded greatly Defensive Security Imperative? Vs. Ideological Project for expansion? Churchill says towards the end of the war, proposed to Stalin that they recognize each other's spheres of influences; Britain got some in Greece and Soviet's got those with interest to them Then, Churchill has to stamp down on Communist uprising in Greece FDR initially believed that Stalin's want for influence made sense because of security reasons, unavoidable Eastern Europe had never interested US in the past Yalta Conference Feb. 1945, Britain and US agree to Soviet Union spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, kept talks extremely vague Elections in Soviet Union's spheres of influence from 1946 on, the elections were not democratic in the Western way. People who were fascists at all weren't allowed What were the origins of the Cuban Missile Crisis? How did that crisis unfold? How was it resolved and what were its consequences? Background on Cuban Revolution Fulgencio Batista seized power in a coup in March 1952 The US immediately recognized this, supported them with arms and training This government grew unpopular and repressive. Corruption was widespread and there was great poverty Fidel Castro led the Cuban Revolution -- Castro was a Marxist, but not really a communist Overthrew Batista in 1959 with guerilla army US relations strain Publicly executed hundreds of Batista supporters US landowners found their land taken away and expropriated Cuban Communist Party was legalized and penetrated many spheres of government Raul Castro, brother of Fidel and known Communist, was installed as leader of Revolutionary Armed Forces Raul visits the Soviet Union and asks for a partnership Cuba was seen as a precursor for the fall of Latin America to communism · US resolved to threaten nuclear war to deter Castro · There are many factors that contributed to the deterioration of US-Cuban relations o Public execution of hundreds of Batista supporters o US landowners getting their land taken away in Cuba o The creation of the Cuban Communist Party o The Bay of Pigs invasion (1961) § The Kennedy Administration's attempt at a coup to overthrow the Castro regime § Kennedy briefed by Eisenhower about a small group of Cuban exiles that could be used to topple the regime § Tried to use these exiles stir up popular unrest § Castro saw this coming and crushed it § Result was a humiliating failure for the US § Kennedy Administration still resolved to try and cripple the Castro regime economically and use sabotage. o The growing influence and partnership of the Soviet Union and Cuba · Cuban Missile Crisis unfolded with US obtaining intelligence information that the Soviets were secretly bringing nuclear weapons to Cuba and pointing them towards the US How was the crisis resolved? Blockade put in place Soviet ships were not allowed to enter US waters and military put on full alert The world was the closest it has ever been to nuclear destruction Resolution Soviets withdrew missiles from Cuba The US agreed to not invade Cuba US agreed to remove offensive missiles from Turkey on the Soviet border This was kept secret, so it did not appear as if we were conceding Leaders Kennedy comes off looking great Within two years, Khrushchev is put out of the job What this means? This was a turning point in the debate over nuclear war From now on the two superpowers never came face-to-face in a military conflict; there would be many proxy wars particularly in Latin America (consequence) · Further future consequence was Khrushchev's greatly ramping up of Soviet interference in the third world to overthrow unfriendly regimes and support wars of "national liberation" What was détente and how did it function? Who supported it? Opposed it? On what grounds? (I'm taking the information of détente from the ID section) · Détente was a permanent relaxation in international affairs during the Cold War. This détente took several forms, including increased discussion on arms control. Although the decade began with vast improvements in bilateral relations, by the end of the decade events had brought the two superpowers back to the brink of confrontation. How did the world's major powers attempt to ease world tension? · USSR and USA: o 1963 - hot-line established after Cuban Missile Crisis o 1963 - both agreed to only use underground tests for nuclear explosions o 1969 - Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) start o 1972 - Richard Nixon, USA president, visited Moscow o 1973 - Leonid Brezhnev, USSR leader, visited Washington o 1974 - Nixon visited Moscow o 1975 - Helsinki Agreement — USA, USSR, Canada + major European powers accept European frontiers set up after World War Two. This recognized that Germany was divided and East European countries agreed to allow their people human rights such as freedom of speech. The 1970's witnessed detente. Why? 1) The horrors of Vietnam shocked people. 2) There was a growing fear of a nuclear holocaust especially with the growth in those countries that had nuclear weapons. Also both USA and USSR had huge stockpiles of weapons. 3 major powers, China, USA, and the USSR initially wanted to pursue detente · China - was fearful of isolation in the world. Was also fearful of what USA had done in Vietnam. China's stockpile of nuclear weapons was a lot smaller than that of USA. China was also worried by her worsening relations with USSR. · USA - realized that there were better ways of containing communism than the ways that were done in previous years. Was also aware of the massive cost of weapons production and maintaining a huge armed force. A peaceful relationship with the USSR would be very beneficial to USA especially after the cost of the Vietnam War. o US public in favor of peace o Kennedy in support due to the Cuban Missile Crisis o Johnson supported détente, but only so far as it achieved his domestic political goals and fit his agenda o Nixon, Ford, and Carter continued pursing Détente · Soviets and Khrushchev - USSR was spending a huge amount on weapons at the expense of basic household goods. Living standards were poor and USSR was also aware that relationship with China was far from good while USA was trying to improve with China. o Khrushchev's opposition viewed Khrushchev as catering and capitulating to the US § His successors wanted to try and elevate the power of the USSR again, but still intended to continue favoring détente o USSR wanted to repair their relations with China o Brezhnev and Nixon had a good relationship (signed SALT) and then with Ford after Nixon left office Détente eroded because of its opposition and because Brezhnev sent Soviet troops into Afghanistan · Kremlin Brezhnev started revamping Soviet missiles and weaponry · Conflict over American continued involvement in Vietnam · US defense experts saw the Soviet arms buildup as a serious threat o Additionally, Soviet weapons were being used by N Vietnamese forces and the USSR was intervening in Africa o Soviets still insistent that they were pursuing détente · US opinion towards détente began to shift, particularly after Watergate and the public's loss of faith in the government · Once Soviets got involved in Afghanistan, détente was dead so long as they remained involved in the conflict · Regan was hugely against re-realizing détente: viewed the Soviets as the "evil empire" What policies did the U.S. pursue in Central America in the late 1970s and 1980s? · Nicaragua: o Nicaraguans overthrew their US backed political leading party, the Somozas o Sandinistas largest opposition group o Somoza's national guard waged violent war against their own citizens, prompting US reevaluation of their policy o Carter concerned about Sandinista rise to power, torn by his pursuance of human rights through foreign policy and supporting the Sandinista totalitarian regime o The Contra War: § Reagan viewed the Sandinistas as "Marxist Leninists" who were surrogates for the Soviets and Cubans § November 1981, Reagan approved National Security Decision Document (NSDD) 17, authorizing the CIA to organize a military force of Nicaraguans to overthrow the Sandinistas § Contra force created waged "dirty war" against the Sandinistas and Nicaraguan citizens § Contra War remained a secret war, though gradually information was leaked and the Reagan administration faced stiff opposition § Administration's behavior was questionably legal § Boland Amendment passed in 1982 barring the CIA and other government agencies from funding anti-rebellion in Nicaragua § Reagan keeps doing dealings in Nicaragua under the table § Results in a second Boland Amendment § Reagan tells his National Security Advisor to do whatever it took to keep the Contras a strong opposition force to the Sandinistas o Iran-Contra Affair: § Reagan's National Security Advisor illegally sold weapons to Iran and used the cash to illegally fund the Contra war § Reagan denies his involvement in the dealings and escapes without being prosecuted, but his reputation was tarnished · El Salvador o Policies of the Kennedy administration had enhanced the ability of military rulers to control the population o Carter administration backed Christian and social democrats hoping to isolate the extremists § Plans bore little fruit and political violence intensified o Warring factions coalesced under military leaders, and large amounts of violence began to take place in country o Reagan administration argued the Cold War imperatives justified ignoring this mass murder § Their basic policy in El Salvador was to achieve a military victory over the guerrillas by building a powerful anti-Communist army § Gave $25 million in military aid to the army but later El Salvador received about $1 billion § Provided them with the latest military technology, including many powerful aircrafts o In 1984, thousands of noncombatants were being killed in indiscriminate air bombardments § Between 1975-1991 the death toll was around 300,000 and there were more than 1 million refugees o Reagan successfully convinced the US government that the monetary involvement was necessary and justified because it supported democracy · Negotiations between the warring parties eventually brought peace to both countries · Guatemala: o Reagan praised the Guatemalan government in its violence against the guerrillas in country § Indicated he favored restoring military aid to the country o Guatemalan government engaged in mass genocide of Mayans How did President Reagan pursue the Cold War? · Reagan denounced Soviet adventurism in the third world and detested the Soviet system · Hated communism but was supremely confident that Americans had a superior way of life · Believed that the best national security policy during the Cold War was one of strength · Waged proxy wars against the Soviet Union in the third world o Guerilla forces waged wars against Soviet-backed governments and the US often supported these insurgencies o Central American conflicts (see above) · Reagan saw the world in apocalyptic terms o Viewed the revolutions in South America as the result of Soviet inspiration and formation · Reagan Doctrine o Committed the US to rolling back Soviet influence in the third world How has the nature of American military involvement changed from World War II, to Korea, Vietnam, and the "proxy wars" of the 1980s? · WWII o Pearl Harbor attack prompted American entry into the war o Military involvement was characterized by physical troop presence in the Pacific and in Europe § Lots of boots on the ground o Atomic bombs dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki o War was global (obviously); build up of alliances to counter the German threat and totalitarianism governments of Germany, Italy, and Japan · Korea o Conflict started because of Soviet and US vying for territory and influence in Korea § US fear of Soviet controlling the whole peninsula o US sent troops to the southern half of Korea o US convinced the UN to send military aid as well in form of "police action" § UN troops mostly American soldiers under the command of General MacArthur o MacArthur sent jets and military near the Chinese-North Korean border against orders, calling for an all out war § Saw an opportunity to "deal communism a decisive blow" § Was fired by President Truman on April 11, 1951 o US practicing containment · Vietnam o Like Korea, war was a war of containment and a fight along Cold War ideological lines o US pursued nation building plans in South Vietnam o President Kennedy intensified US covert actions against the North and increased troop commitment from 685 "advisors" to 16,000 § Despite this, process of state building failed o President Johnson wouldn't back out of the conflict § Gulf of Tonkin Resolution: gave congressional approval for the expansion of the war § Huge scale air raids on communist controlled territories § Saw the bombing as a way to break the will of the opposition § Use of napalm § 1965, large number of ground troops were in Vietnam as well o Nixon gradually phased the US out of the conflict § Increased bombing, decreasing US troop numbers and replacing them with South Vietnamese soldiers § US entrance into Cambodia § Even more increased bombing · Proxy Wars o See information above on conflicts in South America o Involved US sending monetary and military aid to governments in El Salvador and Nicaragua to prevent Communist rebellion What was the character of superpower relations during the course of the 1980s? · Reagan was on of the harshest critics of détente during the 70s, but he wasn't a warmonger and welcomed peaceful competition with the Kremlin o Was willing to reach out to the Kremlin leadership to appreciate the concerns of his adversary o Wanted to stay ahead of the Kremlin in the arms race · After Reagan's assassination attempt in 1981 he changed his perspective and became deeply concerned with nuclear weapons and war and the potential destruction they could cause o Wanted to talk to the Soviet leadership to reduce tensions and promote change in the Soviet Union · 1985, Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union o Wanted to reform and revitalize his country and system of government o Biggest contributor to ending the cold war · Conflict over the US's pursuance of SDI (strategic defense initiative) · Both Gorbachev and Reagan committed to reducing their huge nuclear stockpiles o 1987, sign the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, significantly reducing weapon stockpiles o Both leaders were focused on transcending the ideological divide between countries · 1988, Gorbachev announced he would withdraw Soviet troops from Afghanistan · Berlin wall falls in 1989 · Gorbachev welcomed Bush's election after Reagan and the two worked together well

Containing communism

What were the origins of the "containment" doctrine and the "Truman Doctrine"? - George Kennan & Containment He was a U.S. Diplomat in Russia Loved Russia/Russian people but he was not fan of the Soviet Regime Wrote several memos to the White House about Soviet Union, were largely ignored During WWII he told White House to not trust the Soviet Union—was ignored December, 5000 word telegram "The Long Telegram" Context—the speech by Joseph Stalin Finally White House noticed, asked for Kennan's opinion. Relations with Soviet Union were getting worse and Kennan's views finally were noticed, the Long Telegram became very popular -"The Long Telegram" 1946 Key Points: the Soviet Union operated on different levels, "to confront the Russians with unalterable counter-force at every point where they show signs of encroaching upon the interests of a peaceful and stable world" Leffler has insisted that at wars end "Stalin's exact plans were not clear, indeed he had no master plan, nor anything like it." The Soviet dictator was preoccupied with enhancing the self-interest of the Soviet Union This document was the basis for the Containment Policy, that hoped to prevent the spread of communism abroad. It was supposed to represent the middle ground between appeasement and rollback. -Truman Doctrine, 1947 Greece/Turkey conflict in 1947 Led to the Truman Doctrine Speech on March 12, 1947, changed the currents of foreign affairs Britain gives Greece affairs to US because they ran out of money The US felt it was important to keep Greece in the Western tab The Greek Civil War during/after WWII Communists (led resistance against Nazis during WWII) vs. Conservative in Government (Weak, reactionary, massive violations of human rights) The US's turn to assume Britain's paying role They take this, if Greek communists wont they may align themselves with Soviet Unionàfeared bandwagon effect Truman addressed a joint session of Congress, requested and received ~$400 million in military & economic aid for Greece & Turkey This was done to prevent both of the nations from falling into the Soviet Sphere. It is considered to be the start of the containment policy and the Cold War How did "containment" work in practice? -The US policy of containment was basically just the US policy to stop the spread of communism. This took the form of stationing military forces in direct confrontation with communists: Greece, Iran, Germany, Turkey, Latin America, Korea and Vietnam. And the idea was that the Soviets would not want to battle and that they would eventually back down. -This idea was first implemented with the creation of NATO, where US and Western European nations joined together to prevent the spread of communist ideals throughout Europe. Furthermore, US fought directly opposed to communist governments, including Vietnam and Korea. So while, the policy was not successful in every nation it was able to prevent the spread of these ideas across the world. How did Asia fit into the framework of U.S.-Soviet relations? Asia was another sphere in which America and the Soviet Union could attempt to exert their power in and see which of their ideologies was more influential. This in turn created a lot of tension between the two nations and other Asian powers including: China, Vietnam and Korea. Korean War · Ramping up Cold War · George Herring—"It was a blood stalemate" · In the end, the Korean War was a clear-cut victory for no one. What impact did Stalin's death have on U.S.-Soviet relations? -There was a distinct thaw between Soviets and Americans. Relations had started to get better as Stalin's successor (Khrushchev) was not as radical. -Khrushchev took steps to "destalinize" the Soviet Union, following the death of Stalin. Furthermore, he held out the promise of greater freedom for the Soviet people. He wanted to reduce the tension between the superpowers, but relations deteriorated once again at the end of the 1950's due to a series of crises: the Hungarian Uprising, the Arms Race and the Space Race. - In many ways, the death of Stalin was also the death of the Soviet Union.

Liberalism

What were the origins of the Great Society and the War on Poverty? What did they accomplish? Great Society originated from President Johnson and attempted to make the US a greater society (duh) Great Society had two goals -- reducing racial injustice and eliminating poverty Civil Rights Turbulence Malcolm X Represents radicalization of the younger generation Malcolm X leads the "Nation of Islam" and a huge critic of non-violence Black Power Many did not see progress or change in their daily lives King's Chicago Campaign, 1966 Turns his attention to the North after the Voting Rights Act of 1965 Tries to target equal housing in Chicago; this is very unsuccessful Riots Watts Riot, 1965 Shortly after LBJ signs the Voting Rights Act Many people were confused by this Detroit Riot, 1967 15,000 state police and national guardsmen needed to put down the violence 43 killed; 2,000 injured Memphis Sanitation Strike, 1968 King Assassination in April of 1968 Washington Riots of 1968 12 deaths; 1,900 injured; 7,600 people arrested Kerner Commission (The National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders) "Our nation is moving towards two societies, one back, one white -- separate and unequal" Frustration and powerlessness led blacks to think violence is the only way to solve problems Racial pride and self-esteem are taking the place of apathy and submission to the system This problem must be solved by swift actions and new programs The Ghetto Problem "White institutions created it, white institutions maintain it, and white society condones it." Major funding is necessary Very little progress was made with this Whitney Young Called for Marshall Plan for the Negro (1963) If the US could give so much money to Western Europe, they could give money to rebuild the devastated black community Freedom Budget -- A Philip Randolph Institute Lyndon Johnson War on Poverty (1964-1965) State of the Union in January 1965 "Great Society rests on the abundance and liberty of all. It demands an end to poverty and racial injustice... but that is just the beginning." Not just about material wealth, but how we use it Johnson had strong democratic majorities and used this to enact large legislative reforms Programs Head Start Food Stamps Job Corps Medicaid Medicare Legal Services Upward Bound School Lunch Programs Results "The number of impoverished Americans fell from over 20% in 1959 to around 13% by 1968" Conservatives thought Great Society programs enlarged the size of federal government and were wasteful Richard Nixon would use this in his campaign Conservative Case Moral Hazards are clear Unemployment compensation promotes unemployment; welfare creates dependency; same with disability insurance Very Costly Liberals argue that spending on the Vietnam War was the costly part and a distraction There was a lot of white backlash -- not necessarily racism but the want for law and order What domestic policies did Nixon and Carter pursue? Nixon Established the EPA expanded enforcement of affirmative action desegregated schools more thoroughly Carter: Pursued the building of nuclear power plants as alternative sources of energy after the Energy Crisis of 1973-74 Mass protesting, particularly outside the Seabrook plant being built in New Hampshire (this is the protest the Prof went to and was arrested at) What domestic and foreign policy issues challenged the Carter Administration? Foreign policy: Principal things defining Carter foreign policy were human rights and open diplomacy See ID about Carter's human rights policy Yom Kippur War Iranian Revolution Carter respected the Shah, viewed him as a great leader and didn't see the Iranian revolution coming However Carter did not intervene to save the Shah's position of power Iranian Hostage Crisis (See ID below) Soviet Union Brezhnev, Kruschav's successor began a large arms build up Wanted to maintain detente, but wanted to build Soviet strength so the country could compromise from a stronger position Soviets in Afghanistan, ending detente OPEC oil embargo Nicaraguan Revolution (See Cold War essay) Domestic Issues: Stagflation and economic depression Rise of environmentalism and protests of nuclear power plants Energy Crisis "Crisis of Confidence" To what extent was Carter a liberal? Carter remained a Washington outsider while president Refused to engage in a give and take with Congress Was a Democrat, but tried to brand himself as a "new democrat" How did Carter and his advisors understand the crisis confronting the nation in the late 1970s? "Crisis of confidence" Carter viewed this crisis as a profound threat to the country striking "at the very heart and soul and spirit of our national will" People were losing faith in the government In what ways was Clinton a "New Democrat"? Vast environmental policies (i.e. Energy Policy Act of 1992) to protect against global warming and climate change Liberalism of Hillary and Bill on abortion, gay rights, and equality of women and African Americans was apparent "Don't Ask, Don't Tell." -- recruiters banned from asking about an individual's sexual orientation Homosexuals must be celibate during service Both liberals and conservatives offended

McCarthy Era and Anticommunism

a) ""McCarthyism was to become the longest lasting and most widespread episode of political repression in modern American history precisely because of its diversity," argues Ellen Schrecker. What were the sources of "McCarthyism"? · The term "McCarthyism" is synonymous with the anticommunist political repression of the early Cold War · It evolved from a small group of American political elites (including McCarthy and Hoover) who managed to convince a larger group of political elites that "outing and then ousting communists should be the states full time pursuit" (McEnaney) o Exaggerated the dangers and simplified the complexities of communism and its threat to US national security · Schrecker argues that the "bureaucratic heart" of McCarthyism was the FBI or "Hooverism" · Trickled down to partisan politics and other aspects of US society creating the "Cold War culture" (see later question) What arguments did anticommunists advance against domestic communists and the Soviet Union? Schrecker: · Number one argument = National Security o People really believed that Communists endangered the US, helping both actively and passively to construct the system of McCarthyite political repression o Communism was viewed as grave threat to democracy and western ideals of liberty and freedom o American policy makers used almost apocalyptic rhetoric towards the fight between freedom and communism as matters of "Life and death" o Continued to increase with the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950 § Cold war turns into a hot war § Allows politicians and bureaucrats to ramp up anticommunism campaigns under further guise of national security o Communism and the ACP were synonymous with the Soviets · Many government officials concerned with sabotage, particularly after the outbreak of the Korean War o Vulnerable waterfront o Labor and industry vulnerable to political strikes § Government very afraid that the communists could use labor strikes to shut down the defense industry Laura McEnaney (among others) has argued that there were "many McCarthyisms" during the Cold War. What does she mean by that statement? · McEnaney's argument that there were "many McCarthyisms" was taken from Schrecker's statement that "there was not one, but many McCarthyisms, each with its own agenda and modus operandi" · McCarthyism and anti-communism were frequently used as political tools for policy makers/corporations/politicians to achieve their own agendas o Conservative politicians used anti-communism to launch an attack on more liberal members of the government and twist policy to their own benefit o Corporations used this to weaken labor unions and increase their profits, particularly within the defense industry § Greater rhetoric of anti-communism and the need for national security = greater levels of defense spending o The NAACP distanced itself from communism in an attempt to pursue their own goals of racial equality § Thought that pursuing anti-communist rhetoric would further their cause politically Drawing upon the articles by Schrecker, Arnesen, and McEnaney, explore the contours of the anti-Communist network: Who were the various anticommunists? · Big players = McCarthy and Hoover · Permeated various levels of politics and corporations o Anticommunist maritime union leaders · Philip A. Randolph · Mostly championed by more conservative members of the Republican party What were their critiques of the Communist party? · National Security fears · ACP link to and control by the Soviet Union o Shifting party ideologies to conform to interests of the Soviets · Communist party was "anti-American", anti-freedom, anti-democracy (further specific critiques can be found further down) How did they propose to deal with the "Communist threat"? · FBI; phone tapping, domestic surveillance · Prosecutorial strategy: o Used the criminal justice system to prosecute suspected communists o Trials and prosecution used to send people to jail, but also to spread the ideas of the evils of communism to the rest of the nation o Deterrent strategy: made people not want to associate or have anything to do with communism · Unemployment method: o Many suspected communists were fired from their jobs o Federal employees and people who worked in defense industries were the most vulnerable o The US government and other private corporations adopted screening procedures to ensure that their employees did not have communist associations or sympathies § Many procedures were biased and racially discriminatory o "Guilt by association" - if an employee had questionable affiliations/ undesirable qualities they were fired What, precisely, was A. Philip Randolph's critique of the CP? · After a brief tenure of working with communists as president of the National Negro Congress (NNC), Randolph cut off ties with the communists and left the NNC · Randolph's biggest problem with the CP was that they completely changed their party's goals because of the Nazi-Soviet pact o Considers the ACP's antiwar protests to be the "blackest page in the history of American Communists" · Saw anticommunism as a genuine defense of democratic ideals · Realized that a party (ACP) dedicated to the defense of dictatorship and subordinated to a foreign power (Soviet Union) could not bring about permanent or desirable change for African Americans, or any Americans · Despite his dislike of the ACP however, Randolph was never a staunch anticommunist o Didn't think that they should be able to pursue their campaigns unchallenged, but didn't support state-sanctioned repression o Thought that if Hoover and the FBI weren't checked they would destroy the US Bill of Rights b) The readings by Schrecker and Arnesen offer somewhat different interpretations of the American Communist party. On what issues do they agree? Disagree? Schrecker: · Argument deals mostly with the persecution of the ACP (American Communist Party) and the methods the government used to promote and pursue anticommunism · Because of the persecution directed towards the CP, peace groups and movements actively tried to distance themselves from any association with communism o NAACP conducted internal purges and disconnected itself from causes that seemed "pink" Arnesen: · "Communists' flaws—born of a voluntary acceptance of an organizational style and vision that required them to submit to what Randolph termed an "alien master"—were not incidental but constitutive of their politics, at all levels of the party, at least for those who chose to remain in its ranks" · Argument deals mostly with the ACP and its relationship to the civil-rights movement · Analyses the party in how beneficial vs. counterproductive it was in promoting black rights · ACP backed off its anti-Fascist program with the signing of the Nazi-Soviet pact o Put all energy into a peace movement trying to keep the US out of WWII · ACP reversed position again when the Nazis invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 o Suddenly pro-war, pro unity backing the Soviets · Black community thought that the ACP's endorsement of national unity meant that less emphasis/importance was going to be placed on equality o Minority groups had to subordinate their agendas to the large task of unity at hand o Gave verbal but no organized support to civil-rights · ACP members maintained an uncompromising position against discrimination in the 1930s, but their wartime behavior lacked the same previous aggression in the fight for black rights · Wartime gains blacks won could be attributed to the NAACP, The Urban League, and other groups but not the ACP Agree: · Communist party had been strongly committed to racial equality · Association with the ACP gradually began to have negative effects on organizations promoting racial equality and civil-rights o These organizations began to distance themselves from the ACP so as not to hurt their own political goals Disagree: · Schrecker highlights the repression and persecution of McCarthyism, not necessarily sympathizing with the communists but clearly disagrees with the authority and action taken by anticommunist proponents and the FBI o Mentions the potential threats the party posed, but considers most of them the result of government rhetoric o Anticommunism was used as a political tool · Arnesen highlights the dynamics the ACP had on racial equality and the civil-rights movement, but takes a more harsh stance towards the communist party o Doesn't defend the governmental overreach of its anticommunist policies, but views postwar anticommunism much more as a genuine defense of democratic ideals o Talks more about the ACPs (negative) ties to the Soviet Union c) According to the readings and lectures, what did the Communist party stand for? What did it accomplish? What were its failings/weaknesses? Party Stance: · The communist party fairly consistently supported racial equality o Offered blacks full equality within their ranks from as far back as the Great Depression o This support wavered between organized, active support to just verbal support · The ACPs political stance constantly shifted during WWII and the Cold War o Pre WWII, very anti-Fascism o After the Nazi-Soviet pact they switched ideological sides and launched a peace movement, their goal to keep the US out of the "imperialistic" WWII o Once the Nazis attacked the Soviet Union they switched positions and called for US entry into the war · ACP was characterized by its link to the Soviet Union o The party was run by a foreign nation, their goals aligned with those of the Soviet CP and government Party Failing/Weaknesses: · The ACPs biggest failings come from its aforementioned ideological changes during WWII and the Cold War o Because the party was inherently tied and controlled by the Soviets, they could not maintain consistency in their party values within the US o The ACP voluntarily accepted an organizational style and vision that required them to submit to a foreign power and authority o The ACP was also a very secret organization, there was no public element to party membership § Contributed to a greater level of mystery/fear and eventual persecution of the party Party accomplishments: · Helped build industrial unions and promote rights of marginalized laborers o Led several strikes over labor-management conflicts at two California aviation companies and the Allis-Chalmers machine tool factory outside Milwaukee before the US entered WWII · Helped promote/support civil-rights to a small extent d) "As United States policymakers charted a more aggressive internationalism at the end of World War II," Laura McEnaney argues, "it was not immediately clear how ordinary Americans might be affected by this new course." How does she characterize the impact of "Cold War culture"? What impact did McCarthyism/the so-called "red scare"/the Cold War have on American society? · McEnaney argues that the "Cold War culture" was not an abstraction, that it had real permeating effects into the Post WWII culture of the US, however it never was able to completely define and exercise power over US culture in its entirety. · The Cold War culture and McCarthyism affected the... o Politics/state/law/political movements § Rise of Senator McCarthy and his power § Rise of Hoover's power and the FBIs anticommunist actions (illegal phone tapping and spying of "suspected" communists) § Shaped much of the partisan rhetoric in politics and political elections · Candidates and government officials were increasingly pressured to take a hard stance on communist § President Truman and Eisenhower made concessions to anti-communist sentiment and backed away from taking a strong stance against the movement despite their principled objections § Conservative politicians attack on the Democratic party and more liberal politicians, accusing them of disloyalty § Strong focus on increasing and preserving US national security o Workplace § Post war strikes hinted that workers might prioritize domestic prosperity above national security · American foreign policy leaders couldn't have this "blueprint"; national security was the central goal for America's post WWII world § Taft-Hartley Act of 1947 · Required union leaders to sign an affidavit avowing they were not communists · Gave corporations the power to pursue longstanding anti-union agendas · Legislation attacked labor's actual and potential power · Emboldened anti-communists within the Congress of Industrial Organizations allowing them to purge and weaken their left, liberal flank o Domestic life § Some grassroots, anti-communist movement § Increased focus on traditional gender roles in society § Increased religiosity · Despite everything that the Cold War culture did affect within American society, it was never able to exercise full control o There were other factors shaping these results o The culture that allowed McCarthy's rise to power also removed him from it o Cold War didn't create the Red Scare, though it did give legitimacy and longevity to it o Voters were not totally consumed by anti-communist rhetoric, despite its prevalence in political elections

World War and Cold War

a) How did World War II affect the American home front? After the war ends, US emerges as superpower of the world; many other countries lay in ruin-physically/socially In preparation for war, America's economy boomed and it was pulled out of the Great Depression American Home Front Government had more of a role in Americans' lives business converted into war effort The war, for four years, was a foreign war in the minds of Americans at home Government relies on laws, exhortation, etc. Propaganda was used to rally the people buy war bonds, to work hard, to fight A Call to Arms by Maury Klein mass production was the ultimate weapon in the American arsenal The government's job was to make sure that we produced more ships than our enemies could sink By 1944, the American fleet outnumbered Japan by 4 to 1, by 1944 more than a million people were repairing/building ships How? Government contracts (pays companies like Kaiser), American men/women rose to the challenge Women in the Workforce 15 million men drafted Where do you get workers? Women participation grew by 50% Federal government stepped in and portrayed working women as fulfilling patriotic duties; many more women began working jobs that had been exclusively male However, this did not signify any permanent shift in the thinking on gender roles just thought of as a special time of need, not as rights or equality How was work viewed? Politicians saw this as a temporary war-time duty Post-war period, gender roles snapped back as they were assumed to return back to duties in house before war Not all women took their lay-offs lying down Some protested, often with no result After war, whatever gains they had made during war were scaled back After war though, women's percent in workforce grew steadily Black Americans & WWII Home Front During WWI, Black Americans benefited from worker shortages (healthy economy) WWII was preceded by economic depression so people were looking for jobs Blacks got "the H jobs": hot, heavy, hard As war progresses most businesses give in and hire African Americans Detroit Race Riot of 1943: 43 dead, 700 injured, declaration of a state of emergency, FDR sent soldiers In summer of 1943 there were 250 racial conflicts in 47 cities WWI—WEB Dubois "Close Ranks" The Crisis (July 1918) Patriotic service, we will be quiet about race and fight side by side with whites Thought it would even field after WWI, it did not, they came home to lynching & bloody race riots WWII—Not many wanted to speak Double V Campaign (slogan): Victory abroad, Victory over racism @ home "There can be no compromise with justice." A. Phillip Randolph—launches March on Washington at beginning of war; Black socialist Union leader, inspired other black workers A number of black labor leaders met with FDR to air grievances about blacks being ignored in war effort, these were ignored 1941 thought of March on Washington, created March on Washington Movement. Put out demand to fight and work for their country Goals of MWM—desegregate armed forces, end segregation in government employment, give war contracts to blacks Organized march to bring African Americans to Washington Randolph's goal was to get FDR's attention Eleanor Roosevelt asked Randolph not to do it FDR called black leaders to White House to get them to cancel March Randolph/President squared off FDR feared chaos of march FDR backed down; drafted & signed Executive Order 8802—no discrimination in the employment of workers in defense industries or government because of race, creed, color, or national origins FEPC: Fair Employment Practice Committee Historians fight over the FECP's legacy Some said it was weak, some said great Seems to have worked more in North than South FEPC did not survive the war, denied funding, Congress kills it The efforts to get FEPC back kept the fight for fair employment alive and thriving. They sow seeds and shift public opinion, discredit the notion that unfair employment was fine 1960's legislative success Employment Equality—EEOC (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) 20 year old battle, 1964 Civil Rights Act NAACP's numbers double after war WWII seen as seed time of the racial metamorphosis of America b) What were the key events, developments, or decisions that contributed to the Cold War? ·The End of WWII o Following the war, there was a question of whether the alliance between Great Britain, US and Soviet Union would continue...however, the nations disagreed greatly on what should be done with Germany. § Differences in ideology led the nations to have issues when discussing: Germany's conquered land, how would they be run?, what does democracy mean?, who will be allowed to participate in elections § Poland was a huge topic of debate § Reparations and amount owed was another subject for debate ·Stalin's speech February 9, 1946 o Stalin used Marxist-Lenin communist language when discussing WWII-stating that the war was due to "unequal" development of capitalist countries and that lead to unbalance=war § Stalin is hinting that more wars will happen in the future due to capitalism § This worried Americans because the speech was very ominous ·Churchill's Iron Curtain Speech, March 1946 o Called for Anglo-group of power to stop Russians o Anne Applebaum stated that between the signing of the Yalta agreement and Churchill's "Iron Curtain" speech in 1946 "a great many changes took place" EVENTS The Soviets and US's problems went deep When the Bolsheviks came to power it was not looked upon well by American government Looked down upon Soviets for withdrawing from WWI US did not recognize the Soviet Union into the 1930s US helped White Army fight Bolsheviks in Russia, they lost, left bad taste in mouths of winning Bolsheviks The diplomatic relations have been strained since the Soviets took power US Wartime Alliance with Soviet Union was a period of peace—alliance of convenience/necessity It was awkward: defeating Germany is the only reason the alliance exists Underlying this—budget. The Republicans during this time wanted to cut back expenditures. Aid to Russia is not high on list After—Russia wants a protective buffer zone, twice Germany has went to Russia and ravaged them Stalin wants buffer countries to make it difficult to get to and attack Soviet Union Is this a defensive measure? Revisionists say yes, makes sense they want friendly regimes on their borders Others say no can't keep friendly regimes friendly Others say expansionist goals Whether defensive or expansionist in nature, the Soviet Union expanded greatly Defensive Security Imperative? Vs. Ideological Project for expansion? Churchill says towards the end of the war, proposed to Stalin that they recognize each other's spheres of influences; Britain got some in Greece and Soviet's got those with interest to them Then, Churchill has to stamp down on Communist uprising in Greece FDR initially believed that Stalin's want for influence made sense because of security reasons, unavoidable Eastern Europe had never interested US in the past Yalta Conference Feb. 1945, Britain and US agree to Soviet Union spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, kept talks extremely vague Elections in Soviet Union's spheres of influence from 1946 on, the elections were not democratic in the Western way. People who were fascists at all weren't allowed How did Presidents Roosevelt, Truman, and Eisenhower approach the Soviet Union and the questions of post-war relations? -Roosevelt § Roosevelt had attempted to maintain any possible unity between the nations that had existed at the end of World War II. § Roosevelt had tried to prevent any great conflict (like the Cold War) knowing that the two nations were extremely strong. -Truman § Following the death of Roosevelt in 1945, Truman became the American president. § Relations deteriorated between America and the Soviet Union, as Truman was unwilling to compromise to Stalin's demands (especially in comparison to Roosevelt). § Truman's knowledge of the successful atomic bomb also changed his attitude toward the Soviet Union and made him cockier in America's abilities. Forcing his attitude to clash directly with Stalin's. § Truman had signed NATO agreement in 1949, which was a clear union of America and Western Europe against the USSR and Eastern Europe. -Eisenhower § He felt that it was important to keep pressure on the Soviet Union. He articulated the "Domino Theory" as the threat presented by the spread of communism. § Eisenhower had started off his presidency with a "Chance for Peace" speech that was extremely unsuccessful in holding off the nuclear arms race. § The Cold War escalated during his presidency, with Russia successfully testing a Hydrogen Bomb. Eisenhower proposed a disarmament agreement with the Soviets against the advice of his advisors. § Eisenhower made adjustments to the military system: greater reliance on nuclear weapons and reducing conventional forces. He changed his views from disarmament to arms control. § Furthermore, there was competition between the nations in the Space Race. As each nation tried to be the first to exhibit control and gain enormous prestige around the world. To what extent did ideology and self-interest drive American and Soviet actions? What Was the Cold War About? HISTOGRAPHIC 1. Orthodox View a. Shared by conservative as well as many liberals, held that: i. WWII created a major power vacuum in Europe ii. The defeat of Germany/Japan removed the "counterbalance to Soviet power" & "propelled Soviet expansion iii. A more benevolent US iv. Averill Harriman, US Ambassador to Soviet Union 1943-1946 b. In this view, the US is moving slowly and would have preferred conciliatory but the Soviet Union wanted conflict c. Dragged into conflict, places blame solely on Soviet Union, the US was seen to have just been forced in, benevolent, Cold War inevitable in this view 2. Revisionist Perspective a. The Cold War could probably have been avoided, not inevitable b. The US could have accepted Russian power in Eastern Europe c. Less pursuit of democracy and more the pursuit of good markets d. In this view it was the Americans who were the aggressors i. Needed to create markets, still in shadow of the Great Depression, greater prosperity to people comes about with free/open markets e. Russian policies could be seen as cautious/conservative f. US could have met Russia 3/4th of the way to understand them 3. Neo-Revisionists a. Argues that neither the view of the orthodox nor revisionists historians "does full justice to the complexities of the problem" b. Neither one can take full blame for the Cold War c. It was inevitable because following WWII they were doomed to be antagonists. Traditions, belief systems, and goals were so different that tension was inevitable What were Stalin's goals after World War II? - After WWII the countries liberated by the Soviets all had communist governments imposed on them; Poland, East Germany, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria - Yugoslavia liberated itself (more or less) and had its own form of communism, Yugoslavia also liberated Albania- they developed a very severe form of communism. There are three main reasons for their establishment. 1) Russia has historically had no secure border. There are no great rivers, no mountains, no deserts or seas that separate it from potential warlike neighbours. The fear of invasion, and the idea of buying time through land was one of Stalin's goals after World War II. As former border towns become consolidated into the Russian political landscape, so does the need to push the border further away from the heartland. After the devastation faced in the Soviet Union in WWII the Soviets wanted to push the border as far away from Kiev, from Moscow & Minsk as they could. 2) They wanted to set up satellite countries because they could. The Red Army had conquered the territory at great expense and the Soviet leadership was unwilling to simply withdraw - allowing Western style governments to push right up to her borders. 3) The Yalta Agreement between FDR, Churchill & Stalin had laid out the spheres of influence that each of the Allied countries would have, and the satellite countries all fell under the Soviet sphere. -Furthermore, the Soviets had a different view of democracy to the one in the West and in turn wanted to make sure that the nation was not surrounded by capitalist nations. -Finally, Stalin wanted to prevent a unified Germany to prevent from being attacked by them ever again.

Korean War

c) Most information referring to the Korean War are from the Stueck article and pages 54-61 of the Woods book What were the origins of the Korean War? War broke out on June 25, 1950 Korea opened up their gates to powers around the world in 1880s who all started vying for territory and influence Conflict in 1894 and 1905 between regional powers Japan won and annexed the peninsula in 1910 Korean exiles picked sides Traditionalist, Confucians looked to the Nationalist Chinese Liberal, capitalist, democratic looked to US Radicals to Communist China and Soviets Korea liberated from Japan in 1945 at the end of the Pacific War The US and Soviets sent troops to the peninsula. Because of fear of Soviet occupation of the whole peninsula, Truman and Stalin agreed over dividing the country on the 38th parallel Soviets started consolidating their position in the North by putting local leaders into positions of power Kim Il Sung -- former guerilla fighter from Manchuria -- became the favorite Became secretary in chief of the New Korean Provisional People's Committee (NKPPC) under Soviet authority Division North consolidated Communist factions; the South established a coalition of rightists and centrists The South had a deteriorating economy because of bad rice distribution and no land programs, unlike the North The South had received a lot of refugees that overloaded their system Rhee became president of the South in 1947 North Koreans under Sung captured Seoul for three days starting on June 25th, 1950 with the military assistance of the Soviets and Chinese under Mao Mao had removed all the nationalists in the country to Taiwan US countered under a UN umbrella Stages of War June 25, 1950 - mid September of 1950: The North Korean Offensive September 15th—UN counteroffensive US building NATO alliances and make power moves across the world July 27, 1953 - Stalemate What was at stake? There was a wave of neo-isolationism at the time with people such as Hoover and McCarthy claiming that the biggest threat to US freedom was coming from within Secretary of State Acheson told Korea in 1947 that it was no longer under the protection of the US, but rather the UN. The US was consolidating a peace treaty with Japan and discussing military installations in 1950 The Soviets and Chinese were left out of the talks; they saw a friendly regime in Korea as a necessary counterweight to this US-friendly establishment in Japan Obviously, the spread of communism was at stake and expansion of Sino-Soviet sphere General MacArthur Saw an opportunity in Korea to "deal communism a decisive blow" Against the orders of Truman, MacArthur sent jets and military near the Chinese-North Korea border and tempted the Russians by sending jets. He was calling for all-out war Truman fired him on April 11, 1951 What was the outcome? Produced a relatively stable military balance, making direct confrontation between the US and Soviets unlikely Woods, "the Korean War virtually destroyed neo-isolationism and led to the globalization of containment that had been called for in the Truman Doctrine." Negative effects War solidified China's division Escalated American involvement in Indochina Ensured the prolonged estrangement of US and China Impacts for the future Increased the likelihood of future conflict in SE Asia Tightened Sino-Soviet alliance, while sowing seeds for future conflict between the two Massive destruction and division created on the Korean peninsula Results The war ended in a stalemate; divided along the lines that North-South Korea remain divided today 33,000 Americans dead 3 million wounded, killed or missing Koreans; 5 million Korean refugees 100,000 Koreans were killed before the war even began Veterans felt unappreciated and cut off from countrymen Americans quickly forgot about the war NSC 68 (1950) -- basis for containment along with Sources of Soviet Conduct Any extension of the area under Sino-Soviet control constituted a threat to the US Remains classified until the 1970s Crystallizes the intensification of the Americans to the Cold War The Soviets detonated their first atomic weapon in 1949 and China falls (becomes communist in 1949) Calls for the building of a hydrogen bomb and for a major increase in spending for the war "Kremlin is militant because it possesses and is possessed by a world-wide revolutionary movement"

Iranian Hostage Crisis:

was a diplomatic crisis between Iran and the United States. Fifty-two Americans were held hostage for 444 days (November 4, 1979 to January 20, 1981), after a group of Iranian students supporting the Iranian Revolution took over the US Embassy in Tehran. * President Carter called the hostages "victims of terrorism and anarchy," adding that "the United States will not yield to blackmail." * The crisis was described by the western media as an entanglement of "vengeance and mutual incomprehension." In Iran, the hostage taking was widely seen as a blow against the United States and its influence in Iran, its perceived attempts to undermine the Iranian Revolution, and its longstanding support of the recently overthrown Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran. * The Iranians wanted the United States to return the Shah back to them for trial of the crimes committed by him during his reign on ordinary citizens with the help of his secret police, the SAVAK. * In the United States, the hostage-taking was seen as an outrage violating the principle of international law granting diplomats immunity from arrest and diplomatic compounds' inviolability.

Jerry Falwell -- (August 11, 1933 - May 15, 2007) -- PROFESSIONAL *******

An American evangelical Southern Baptist pastor,televangelist, and a conservative political commentator. He was the founding pastor of the Thomas Road Baptist Church, a megachurch in Lynchburg, Virginia. He founded Lynchburg Christian Academy (now Liberty Christian Academy) in 1967, Liberty University in 1971, and co-founded the Moral Majority in 1979. As leader of the Moral Majority, Falwell played a huge role in registering voters to vote republican based on conservative/Christian values "Get them saved, baptized and registered"

Boland Amendment

Boland Amendment -- 1982 -- no government agencies are allowed to fund the overthrow of government in Nicaragua This was avoided and disregarded by the Reagan Administration Second Boland amendment bars the entirety of the government from any type of funding of the contras -- directly or indirectly This led to the Iran Contra Affair

PATCO Strike

On August 3, 1981, the union declared a strike, seeking better working conditions, better pay and a 32-hour workweek. In addition, PATCO no longer wanted to be included within the civil service clauses that had haunted it for decades. * Ronald Reagan declared the PATCO strike a "peril to national safety" and ordered them back to work under the terms of the Taft-Hartley Act of 1947. * Only 1,300 of the nearly 13,000 controllers returned to work.Subsequently, Reagan demanded those remaining on strike return to work within 48 hours, otherwise their jobs would be forfeited. * On August 5, following the PATCO workers' refusal to return to work, Reagan fired the 11,345 striking air traffic controllers who had ignored the order,and banned them from federal service for life.

Glasnost

Part of Gorbachev's New Thinking a policy that called for increased openness and transparency in government institutions and activities in the Soviet Union. It meant a reorientation in focus to that of rooting out corruption and abuses by the top levels of the Central Committee and Soviets in power

Loss of China Scenario

This refers to the US view of losing China to communism in 1949 when the Nationalists were driven out of the country by Mao Zedong. The ensuing debates and outlook was grim for the US, who saw this as an indicator of communism's spreading across the globe. This issue was also exploited by Republicans in the 1952 election that brought Eisenhower into the presidency.

"Weatherman"

commonly known as the Weather Underground, was an American radical left organization founded on the Ann Arbor campus of the University of Michigan Originally called Weatherman, the group became known colloquially as the Weathermen. * Weatherman first organized in 1969 as a faction of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) composed for the most part of the national office leadership of SDS and their supporters. Their goal was to create a clandestine revolutionary party for the overthrow of the US government. * the group conducted a campaign of bombings through the mid-1970s, and took part in actions such as the jailbreak of Timothy Leary. * The bombing attacks mostly targeted government buildings, along with several banks. Most were preceded by evacuation warnings, along with communiqués identifying the particular matter that the attack was intended to protest. No persons were killed in any of their acts of property destruction, although three members of the group were killed in the Greenwich Village townhouse explosion and former members of the group robbed a Brinks armored car in 1981 resulting in the death of three people including Waverly Brown, the first black police officer on the Nyack police force.

Montgomery Bus Boycott

major event in the U.S. civil rights movement, was a political and social protest campaign against the policy of racial segregation on the public transit system of Montgomery Alabama. * The campaign lasted from December 1, 1955, when Rosa Parks, an African American woman, was arrested for refusing to surrender her seat to a white person, to December 20, 1956, when a federal ruling, Browder v. Gayle, took effect, and led to a United States Supreme Court decision that declared the Alabama and Montgomery laws requiring segregated buses to be unconstitutional. * Black taxi drivers charged ten cents per ride, a fare equal to the cost to ride the bus, in support of the boycott. When word of this reached city officials on December 8, the order went out to fine any cab driver who charged a rider less than 45 cents. In addition to using private motor vehicles, some people used non-motorized means to get around, such as cycling, walking, or even riding mules or driving horse-drawn buggies. Some people also hitchhiked. * King and 89 other boycott leaders and carpool drivers were indicted for conspiring to interfere with a business under a 1921 ordinance.Rather than wait to be arrested, they boldly turned themselves in as an act of defiance. *King was ordered to pay a $500 fine or serve 386 days in jail. He ended up spending two weeks in jail.

Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956

o Created many interstate highways across the country o Ike: "most ambitious road program by any nation in all history" o Many people given jobs—"largest public works program" • Why? Korean War coming to end, defense spending slowed, economy headed South, facilitate economic recovery, foster future economic security o Federal government would pay for bulk, sold to members of Congress as civil defense system—evacuating cities needed to be possible o Made Americans "marriage" to automobiles closer

Taft-Hartley Act

A United States federal law that monitors the activities and power of labor unions. The act, still effective, was sponsored by Senator Robert Taft and Representative Fred A. Hartley, Jr.and legislated by overriding U.S. President Harry S. Truman's veto on June 23, 1947; labor leaders called it the "slave-labor bill" while President Truman argued it would "conflict with important principles of our democratic society," though he would subsequently use it twelve times during his presidency. The Taft-Hartley Act amended the National Labor Relations Act (NLRA; informally the Wagner Act), which Congress passed in 1935.

Venona

A counter-intelligence program initiated by the United States Army Signal Intelligence Service (a forerunner of the National Security Agency) that lasted from 1943 to 1980, started by Carter W. Clarke. The program attempted to decrypt messages sent by Soviet Union intelligence agencies, including its foreign intelligence service and military intelligence services. The project produced some of the most important breakthroughs for western counter-intelligence in this period, including the discovery of the Cambridge spy ring and the exposure of Soviet espionage targeting the Manhattan Project. The Venona project was terminated in 1980, and the classified documents were released to the public in 1995.

Ho Chi Minh

Co-founder of both the french and the vietnamese communist parties, and established the Vietmihn: a communist based insurgent movement whose goal was to rid Vietnam of foreign control At first the United States supported Ho and the Vietmihn and opposed French reinfiltration but after Roosevelt's death, the onset of the cold war, and the need of France to fight against soviet aggression caused the US to support France's efforts to regain control France created the Republic of South Vietnam in 1950 and Ho had created the Democratic Republic of Vietnam in 1945 as the head

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

During the "Second Reconstruction" in 1964, mississippi was the most racially divided and economically backward state in the union Blacks were incredibly marginalized regardless of the fact they constituted 42% of the population, as a result Bob Moses and David Dennis of CORE created the concept "Freedom Summer" they encouraged both white and black college students to do nonviolent protests and to teach in "freedom schools: and organize a "freedom party" to challenge the all white mississippi democratic party. The party members traveled through mississippi to educate blacks and build "freedom Schools," and to try and register blacks to vote The MFDP went to Atlantic City, NJ during the democratic convention to demand seats on the mississippi delegation. "We didn't come all this way for no two seats!"- Fannie Lou Hamer

Détente

Détente was a permanent relaxation in international affairs during the Cold War. This détente took several forms, including increased discussion on arms control. Although the decade began with vast improvements in bilateral relations, by the end of the decade events had brought the two superpowers back to the brink of confrontation. The 1970's witnessed detente. Why? 1) The horrors of Vietnam shocked people. 2) There was a growing fear of a nuclear holocaust especially with the growth in those countries that had nuclear weapons. Also both USA and USSR had huge stockpiles of weapons. Why did all 3 major powers want to pursue detente ? China - was fearful of isolation in the world. Was also fearful of what USA had done in Vietnam. China's stockpile of nuclear weapons was a lot smaller than that of USA. China was also worried by her worsening relations with USSR. USA - realized that there were better ways of containing communism than the ways that were done in previous years. Was also aware of the massive cost of weapons production and maintaining a huge armed force. A peaceful relationship with the USSR would be very beneficial to USA especially after the cost of the Vietnam War. USSR - USSR was spending a huge amount on weapons at the expense of basic household goods. Living standards were poor and USSR was also aware that relationship with China was far from good while USA was trying to improve with China. How did the world's major powers attempt to ease world tension? USSR and USA: 1963 - hot-line established after Cuban Missile Crisis 1963 - both agreed to only use underground tests for nuclear explosions 1969 - Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) start 1972 - Richard Nixon, USA president, visited Moscow 1973 - Leonid Brezhnev, USSR leader, visited Washington 1974 - Nixon visited Moscow 1975 - Helsinki Agreement — USA, USSR, Canada + major European powers accept European frontiers set up after World War Two. This recognised that Germany was divided and East European countries agreed to allow their people human rights such as freedom of speech.

Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965

Established the basic structure of modern day immigration laws President Johnson signed bill into law viewed the new law as overturning a biased immigration system The immigration bill was seen as an extension of the civil rights movement because it eliminated the national origins quota system of 1924 (the number of people that could enter the US from each country had a quota number) Placed more emphasis on "family reunification" Gave higher preference to relatives of American citizens Bill meant to end discrimination, but some feared that it would increase immigration numbers and change the source countries immigrants came from Opponents to the bill worried that increased immigration would change the "whiteness" of the country who maintained the country's heritage Architects of the law had no idea that the law would become an avenue for "global migration" Led to a HUGE increase in immigration to the US In 2004, 11% (34mil) of the population in the US were immigrants Increased the level of illegal immigrants 500,000 were deported each year in the decade following the passage of the bill

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)

Formed in 1957 by MLK Jr. Reverend Ralph Abernathy and 100 black ministers were part of the founding group. The organization would grow rapidly at first and then taper off Wanted an end to segregation and racial barriers through non-violent protests and actions Inspired by Gandhi, Rustin, and Smiley Baird Rustin is the conduit of Gandhi's teachings to MLK and the Southern Civil Rights Movement This did not mean passivity Individuals needed to be able to take on suffering without reacting It was "creative" Seeks to awaken a sense of moral shame in the opponent This was not working Sought to change the "target audience" -- the federal government and those outside of the South Non violent persuasion to non violent coercion New militant, non-violent, direct action component of the civil rights movement complimenting the legal approach of the NAACP -- Woods Lent financial aid to the 1961 Freedom Rides Played a role in the Woolworth Lunch Counter Sit-ins

George Kennan

He was Foreign Service Officer. In 1946, while he was Chargé d'Affaires in Moscow, Kennan sent an 8,000-word telegram to the Department—"long telegram"—on the aggressive nature of Stalin's foreign policy. His conclusion was that "the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be that of a long-term patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies."

Tet Offensive

Ho and General Giap designed an offensive designed to invade south vietnam; regular units of the NVA would lure american forces into outlying areas where they would engage in battles, and at the same time the Vietcong would smuggle themselves into the cities and towns of South Vietnam. They would attack military and police facilities and government buildings. On January 30, 1968 5 out of the 6 major cities in the south were hit, and response the US and the ARVN attacked and drove the communists into the countryside. There were more than 40,000 communists soldiers killed or wounded. The US lost morale because of the images of the Tet Offensive attack appearing on television. The American people began questioning what was the point of being in the war. Walter Kronkite publicly questioned and doubted the US's success in Vietnam.

Roe v. Wade

In 1821, Connecticut passed the first state statute criminalizing abortion. In 1900, every state had abortion legislation In 1969, Norma McCorvey (who would then go on to use the alias Jane Roe) discovered she was pregnant with her third child and tired to obtain an abortion by claiming she was pregnant. After attempting to obtain an illegal abortion, she was referred to attorneys Linda Coffee and Sarah Weddington. On her behalf they filed suit in a U.S. District Court in Texas. The defendant in the case was Dallas County District Attorney Henry Wade, representing the state of Texas. The district court ruled in McCorvey's favor on the legal merits of her case, but declined to grant an injunction against the enforcement of the laws barring abortion. The Roe v. Wade reached the Supreme Court on appeal in 1970. The trials took place in Dec 1971, however it was held for seven judges because two had retired recently. The court struck down Texas' law and stated that it was vague. However when Blackmun was tasked to write an opinion describing the vagueness in the law, he proposed that the trial be re-heard in 1972. The central court decision that created current abortion law in the US. In this 1973 decision, the Supreme Court ruled that women had a constitutional right to abortion and that this right was based on an implied right to personal privacy emanating from the Fourteenth Amendment and the Ninth Amendment. In Roe v. Wade the court said that a fetus is not a person but "potential life" and thus does not have constitutional rights of its own. The Court also set up a framework in which the woman's right abortion and the state's right to protect potential life shift: during the first trimester of pregnancy, a woman's privacy right is strongest and the state may not regulate abortion for any reason; during the second trimester, the state may regulate abortion only to protect the health of the woman; during the third trimester, the state may regulate or prohibit abortion to promote its interest in the potential life of the fetus, except where abortion is necessary to preserve the woman's life or health. It was decided simultaneously with a companion case, Doe v. Bolton. The court ruled 7-2 in favor of women's rights. Roe v. Wade continues to be one of the most controversial cases. Every year, on the anniversary of the decision, opponents of abortion march DC to protest the legalization of abortion. Many states have enacted laws limiting or regulating abortion in order to deter abortions.

Executive Order 8802

In 1941, A. Philip Randolph, president of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, threatened to have 10,000 blacks march on Washington to protest job discrimination. President Franklin Roosevelt yielded to Randolph's demand. Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, prohibiting discrimination in defense jobs or government. Executive Order 8802, banned discriminatory employment practices by Federal agencies and all unions and companies engaged in war-related work. The order also established the Fair Employment Practices Commission to investigate instances of discrimination.

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

In early August 1964, two U.S. destroyers stationed in the Gulf of Tonkin in Vietnam radioed that they had been fired upon by North Vietnamese forces. In response to these reported incidents, President Lyndon B. Johnson requested permission from the U.S. Congress to increase the U.S. military presence in Indochina. On August 7, 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, authorizing President Johnson to take any measures he believed were necessary to retaliate and to promote the maintenance of international peace and security in southeast Asia. This resolution became the legal basis for the Johnson and Nixon Administrations prosecution of the Vietnam War. The U.S. Navy stationed two destroyers, the Maddox and the Turner Joy, in the Gulf of Tonkin to bolster these actions. They reported an attack by North Vietnamese patrol boats on August 2, and a second attack on August 4. Doubts later emerged as to whether or not the attack against the Turner Joy had taken place. Immediately after reports of the second attack, Johnson asked the U.S. Congress for permission to defend U.S. forces in Southeast Asia. The Senate passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution with only two opposing votes, and the House of Representatives passed it unanimously. Congress supported the resolution with the assumption that the president would return and seek their support before engaging in additional escalations of the war. The Gulf of Tonkin incident and the subsequent Gulf of Tonkin resolution provided the justification for further U.S. escalation of the conflict in Vietnam. Acting on the belief that Hanoi would eventually weaken when faced with stepped up bombing raids, Johnson and his advisers ordered the U.S. military to launch Operation Rolling Thunder, a bombing campaign against the North. Operation Rolling Thunder commenced on February 13, 1965 and continued through the spring of 1967. Johnson also authorized the first of many deployments of regular ground combat troops to Vietnam to fight the Viet Cong in the countryside.

Japanese Internment and Executive Order 9066

Issued by President Franklin Roosevelt on February 19, 1942, this order authorized the evacuation of all persons deemed a threat to national security from the West Coast to relocation centers further inland. Envy over economic success combined with distrust over cultural separateness and long-standing anti-Asian racism turned into disaster when the Empire of Japan attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941. Lobbyists from western states, many representing competing economic interests or nativist groups, pressured Congress and the President to remove persons of Japanese descent from the west coast, both foreign born (issei - meaning "first generation" of Japanese in the U.S.) and American citizens (nisei - the second generation of Japanese in America, U.S. citizens by birthright.) The Japanese American Evacuation Claims Act of 1948, with amendments in 1951 and 1965, provided token payments for some property losses. More serious efforts to make amends took place in the early 1980s, when the congressionally established Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians held investigations and made recommendations.

Bricker Amendment

John W. Bricker proposed the amendment to restrict the executive branch's freedom of action in foreign affairs. He was afraid of America becoming a racially integrated welfare state. Senators, moderate as well as conservative supported the amendment because they were angry at Franklin Roosevelt's diplomacy at the Yalta conference. President Eisenhower tried to pull strings behind the scenes to eliminate the Bricker amendment, and proposed an amendment declaring any international agreement that conflicted with the constitution null and void.

Bay of Pigs

Kennedy authorized a clandestine invasion of Cuba by a brigade of Cuban exiles. The brigade hit the beach at the Bay of Pigs on April 17, 1961, but the operation collapsed in spectacular failure within 2 days. Kennedy took public responsibility for the mistakes made, but remained determined to rid Cuba of Castro. On October 24 Soviet vessels approached the quarantine line but turned back; 3 days later, the Cubans shot down a U.S. reconnaissance plane. After these near flash points, Kennedy responded on October 27 to the first of two letters sent by Khrushchev on October 26 and 27 proposing various settlements of the crisis. Kennedy accepted the Soviet offer to withdraw the missiles from Cuba in return for an end to the quarantine and a U.S. pledge not to invade Cuba.

Crabgrass Frontier

Kenneth T. Jackson wrote the book Crabgrass Frontier: the Suburbanization of the United States: He has four working definitions of the suburbs: (1) Function (non-farm residential), (2) class (middle and upper status), (3) Separation (a daily journey-to-work), (4) density (low relative to older sections). The idea was that the rich left the city first, then the middle class left to the suburbs. The Home Owners Loan Corporation (HOLC) and the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) was created to supply the demand of housing especially for the soldiers but they helped promote "white flight". After World War II the increase in wartime productions allowed people to afford homes, from this Levittowns were created.

Watergate Crisis

Largest contributor to Carter's Malaise Speech and the "crisis of confidence" President Nixon became increasingly paranoid about his critics and saw enemies everywhere, particularly within the Democratic party March 1971, Nixon created a team of former FBI and CIA agents nicknamed "the plumbers" who would serve as a clandestine operation unit for the Oval office Panicked by the Pentagon Paper leak, Nixon ordered the plumbers to break into Ellsberg's office (DOD civilian employee who leaked the papers) to search for and destroy any documents linking Nixon to the scandal Plumbers used again later that year to break into and bug DNC chairman Larry O'Brien's office in the Watergate office buildings Several members of the team caught in the act on June 17 and were prosecuted Nixon and his staff panicked and began an extensive cover up that included using $220,000 to bribe the burglars to keep quiet during the trial One of the burglars broke down and admitted White House involvement Nixon began to set up his advisors to take the fall for the scandal his advisors John Dean and Jeb Magruder began cooperating with the prosecution in exchange for immunity Dean's testimony led the prosecution to order Nixon to turn over the tapes of recorded conversations between the President and his aides When Nixon continually refused to turn over all of the tapes, the House Judiciary Committee voted to recommend impeachment prompted Nixon to hand over the tapes, giving the "smoking gun" to the prosecution, a conversation between Haldeman and Nixon discussing how to use the CIA to throw the FBI off their trail Facing near-certain impeachment, Nixon resigned in 1974 Results of Watergate: First president in history to resign under fire 25 members of the administration, including 4 cabinet officers were convicted CIA director WIlliam Colby revealed that during the Nixon administration, the CIA maintained files on around 10,000 US citizens and engaged in illegal wiretapping against opponents of US policy in Vietnam as well as other dissidents

Truman-MacArthur Controversy

MacArthur, who commanded the troops of the United Nations, wanted to use American air power to attack the People's Republic of China. Truman refused, fearing that an American attack on China would bring the Soviet Union into the war. When MacArthur criticized Truman's decision publicly, Truman declared MacArthur insubordinate and removed him as commanding general. MacArthur returned to the United States, received a hero's welcome, and told Congress, "Old soldiers never die; they only fade away."

Mikhail Gorbachev

Mikhail Gorbachev becomes the new Soviet Premier in 1985 Understood that the country was in very bad economic shape New Thinking Perestroika -- restructuring Perestroika allowed more independent actions from various ministries and introduced some market-like reforms. The goal of the perestroika, however, was not to end the command economy but rather to make socialism work more efficiently to better meet the needs of Soviet consumers Glasnost -- opening Money spent on military needed to be redistributed to the people and other projects 1986 -- Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Disaster Gorbachev is deeply affected 1/3rd of the smallest nuclear explosive going off People started to realize how unthinkable nuclear war would be Incomprehensible devastation 1985-1988 President Reagan and Soviet Premier Gorbachev attended many nuclear summits to reduce nuclear arms Gorbachev is distraught at the slowness of Reagan to take him up on offers Feared that Reagan was trying to gear up the nuclear arms race with the Strategic Defense Initiative 1987: Intermediate Range Nuclear Force Treaty Eliminated medium range nuclear missiles from Europe Small portion of countries' nuclear arsenals removed Much more reform to follow

"The Culture Wars" -- 1990s

Multiculturalism push starting in academia that spilled over into politics and other sphere of American culture Two Sides Formerly disadvantaged minorities and groups called for a change in the white power structure that dominated history and culture They called for deconstructionism and denunciation of the elites and influence of "dead white European males" Critics of the movement that saw it as "cultural nihilism" History was history and could not be changed We needed a return to the canons of Western Civilization and what made Americans Americans. This fight manifested itself in calls for affirmative action, changes to curriculum (i.e. bilingualism), etc.

Double V

On February 7th, 1942, the Pittsburgh Courier urged black people to give their all for the war effort, while at the same time calling on the government to do all it could to make the rhetoric of the Declaration of Independence and the equal rights amendments to the Constitution real for every citizen, regardless of race. They called it the "Double V" Campaign, V for a double victory campaign " The V for victory sign is being displayed prominently in all so-called democratic countries which are fighting for victory over aggression, slavery, and tyranny. If this V sign means that to those now engaged in this great conflict, then let we colored Americans adopt the double V V for a double victory. The first V for victory over our enemies from without, the second V for victory for our enemies from within. For surely those who perpetuate these ugly prejudices here are seeking to destroy our democratic form of government just as surely as the Axis forces." - James G Thompson The Double V campaign ran weekly into 1943, but in 1945 the Double V disappeared and was replaced in 1946 with a single V. Although not all demands were heard by the campaign there was a great impact on the black community.

Sputnik

On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched the earth's first artificial satellite, Sputnik-1. The successful launch came as a shock to experts and citizens in the United States, who had hoped that the United States would accomplish this scientific advancement first. Many people did not anticipate how successful sputnik would be. The launch of Sputnik fueled both the space race and the arms race, in addition to increasing Cold War tensions, as each country worked to prepare new methods of attacking the other. Eventually, lawmakers and political campaigners in the United States successfully exploited the fear of a "missile gap" developing between U.S. and Soviet nuclear arsenals in the 1960 presidential election, which brought John F. Kennedy to power over Eisenhower's vice president, Richard Nixon.

House Committee on Un-American Activities

Originally created to combat fascism, it was given power to investigate domestic subversion in 1945. In 1947, Republican J. Parnell Thomas became chair of HUAC, soon after he began accusing Hollywood of trying to overthrow the government. On October 20, 1947, HUAC began hearing testimony, from "friendly witnesses" to cooperate with the committee. The Hollywood Ten were convicted in contempt of congress because of the HUAC's investigations. The work of the committee continued to decline in importance throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s until the committee itself was renamed the House Internal Security Committee in 1969, prefiguring its eventual abolition in 1975.

"Vietnamization"

President Richard Nixon introduced a new strategy called Vietnamization that was aimed at ending American involvement in the Vietnam War (1954-75) by transferring all military responsibilities to South Vietnam. The increasingly unpopular war had created deep divisions in American society. Nixon believed his Vietnamization strategy, which involved building up South Vietnam's military strength in order to facilitate a gradual withdrawal of U.S. troops, would prepare the South Vietnamese to take responsibility for their own defense against a Communist takeover and allow the U.S. to leave the conflict with its honor intact. In 1973, the U.S. negotiated a treaty with the North Vietnamese, withdrew American combat troops and declared the Vietnamization process complete. In January 1973, the Nixon administration negotiated a peace agreement with North Vietnamese leaders. Under the terms of the settlement, the U.S. agreed to withdraw its remaining troops within 60 days in exchange for an immediate cease-fire, the return of American prisoners of war, and North Vietnam's promise to recognize the legitimacy of South Vietnam's government and submit future disputes to an international commission.

Carter's Human Rights Policy

Principal things of Carter foreign policy were human rights and open diplomacy Wanted to make American foreign policy conform to the lofty, idealistic principles of Wilsonian rhetoric Carter declared he would make the Helsinki accords on human rights (freedom of expression, migration, freedom from economic exploitation) the criteria for US dealings with other countries Carter insisted that the US did not have to aid countries exploiting their populations and that the US should be free to condemn violations of human rights at any opportunity Carter wanted to make morality the basis of American foreign policy believed that he could simultaneously safeguard the country's strategic and economic interests (flawed belief) Showed a basic ignorance of history and international politics no matter US intentions, intervention into affairs of other countries would be interpreted as imperialism US attempted to use economic aid to pressure various military groups to respect human rights in Latin America, particularly in Panama Carter pursued US foreign policy in problematic ways because of his intent focus on morality and human rights

"Reagan Revolution"

Reagan Former Hollywood B Actor and Governor of California Played on feelings of national insecurity by embodying optimism and power "The era of self-doubt is over" 1980 Election Reagan received 51% of the vote; Carter got 41% Biggest turning point since FDR won in 1932 Democrats had controlled policy since 1930s and the Great Depression; now it was in the Republicans' hands Issues that came to the forefront Return to 'traditional values' -- morality, family, patriotism, and conservatism Women rights Roe v. Wade (1972) -- legalized abortion in US Perspective of Nancy McLean: "If a woman could not control her body, she would be powerless in other arenas..." Second Wave Feminism Critique of gender inequality and relations Women moving into the workforce over past decades 80% of women were still in traditional female jobs Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)

SDS

SDS -- Students for a Democratic Society -- founded in 1962 As the first wave of baby boomers hit college, the southern civil rights movement exploded into the nations headlines Port Huron Statement Launched the Revolution of the 1960s These are children of the Age of Affluence who are not content with solely money Deeply felt anxieties about their role in the world and world they inherit They would be marked as leftists Want to establish... A participatory democracy Society be organized to encourage independence Economic experience must be creative, self-directed, encouraging human dignity, respect for others, and social responsibility. The New Left Woods American and intellectuals against liberal politics "Distrusted institutions that were roadblocks to social justice and to authentic personal relationships" Clark Kerr -- Knowledge Industry Higher education expanded since end of WWII We should invest more in the knowledge industry The Free Speech Fight -- UCB, 1964-1965 Mario Savio "The Machine Speech" Arguments We have become servants of the knowledge industry Source of Protests: The desire of young people to do and say something about the society they lived in The society made them feel useless, exploited, guilty, etc. Protestors win

The Long Telegram

Sent by George Kennan in 1946 This letter, addressed to the US State Department, refers to the speech of Joseph Stalin to the Supreme Soviet after WWII. In the speech, Stalin praised the Soviets for pulling through and said that other struggles lied ahead in the future. The speech did not garner much attention at the time, but everyone was interested to see what Kennan, a hard-liner on the USSR and student of the country who had a severe distaste for the Soviet regime, had to say. The Content • "Russians were insecure and had a neurotic view of the world" • A political force committed fanatically to the belief that the US could not stay as the global power; this was grounded in the principles of Marxism • Moscow is building inner-regimes and setting up support for communist parties throughout the world o US, Greece, Italy and France Summary • The Soviets intend to disturb the US way of life • There are deep currents of Russian nationalism • The USSR was in a position to assert influence across the world

Phyllis Schlafly

She is a constitutional lawyer, conservative activist, author and founder of Eagle Forum. She is well known for opposing modern feminism and her campaign again the proposed Equal Rights Amendment. She published a book in 1964 titled "A Choice, Not an Echo" and came to national attention as the book was distributed in support of Goldwater's 1964 presidential campaign. In 1946, Schlafly became a researcher for the American Enterprise Institute and worked in the successful US House of Representatives campaign of Claude Bakewell In 1952, Schlafly ran for Congress as a Republican but lost to Democrat Melvin Price. At the 1960 Republican Convention, Schlafly helped lead a revolt against Richard Nixon's stance against segregation and discrimination. In 1967, Schlafly lost the bid for presidency of the National Federation of Republican Women against a more moderate candidate. Critics of Schlafly see her advocacy again equal rights and her roles as a working professional as a contradiction. Many have noted the irony in Schlafly's role as an advocate for the full-time mother and wife, while being herself a lawyer, editor of a newsletter, regular speaker at anti-liberal rallies and political activist. Schlafly has called Roe v. Wade "the worst decision in the history of the US Supreme Court" and said that it "is responsible for the killing of millions of unborn babies" Schlafly was an outspoken opponent of the Equal Rights Amendment during the 1970s. She argued that women would lose gender specific benefits that they currently enjoyed. She began her campaign when 28 of the needed 38 states had ratified the amendment. Five more states ratified ERA after Schlafly began her opposition campaign, however, five states rescinded their ratification. She was opposed to organizations such as NOW.

Watts Riot/Uprising

Soon after president Johnson passed the 1965 Civil Rights Act, unemployed African Americans began looting, firebombing, and wrecking businesses in Watts, Los Angeles. They wanted "to drive white 'exploiters' out of the ghetto". The rioters had destroyed $34 million worth of property, and the authorities had killed 34 rioters and wounded 9. Life, marked the Watts Riots as setting the tone for confrontation and revolt, and showing how undemocratic the US was. Forces that allowed the riots to occur: The civil rights movement created a certain level of expectation, but congress did little to improve the conditions of living of African Americans Ghettos were created not by law but by socioeconomic status and prejudice

Stagflation

Stagflation occurs when inflation is high, unemployment is high, and the economy is in decline Characterized the American economy during the 70s Brought about by the following causes Johnson Administration attempted to pay for the Vietnam War without raising taxes, leading to a rapidly amounting deficit and a steady increase in the money supply (inflation) The US faced harsh competition from cheap, high-quality foreign goods (mostly from Germany, Japan, and Taiwan). The US had no industrial policy to tailor developments in domestic manufacturing to counter this changing international economy, thus the US began to lose more of its world and domestic market share US was incredibly dependent on foreign oil consumption The Energy Crisis from 1973-74 Carter's inability to effectively address and fix stagflation and the economic depression of the 70s helped contribute to his ineffective presidential term and the "crisis of confidence" that pervaded during this decade

Carter's "Malaise Speech"

The "crisis of confidence" speech April 18, 1977 Carter addressed the nation expressing concern over a crisis of confidence within American society Crisis of confidence brought on by shifting attitudes from the 60s-70s Super charged political activity of the 60s moved to complacency and the "me" generation of the 70s Vietnam war, public dissatisfaction with US involvement Pentagon papers revealing that the US did not get involved in the Vietnam war because of concerns over the domino theory, despite presidential rhetoric that this was the reasoning behind the actions Economic and energy crisis of the 70s also a large contributor Americans lost faith that the government could perform its basic duties Began to doubt the system of capitalism and free enterprise Watergate scandal revealed further corruption and manipulation by the executive branch of the government Carter viewed the crisis of confidence as a "fundamental threat to US democracy"

The American Century

The American Century, pushed forward by Henry Luce, states the US in a post WWII environment must realize their role as the most powerful nation in the world and embrace internationalism, not isolationism. The US must use its power for good against the backdrop of Cold War tensions. This is how: • To make America work, we need an international economy and international moral order. Must have a strong commitment to American ideals in order to make this project work. • We have replaced Britain as the global hegemon • Must see free enterprise prevail • We have the responsibility to guarantee freedom of the seas and be a leader of world trade • We must export our skills, expertise and educators

Cuban Missile Crisis

The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war. In 1962, the Soviet Union was behind the United States in the arms race. Soviet missile were only powerful enough to be launched against Europe from the USSR. But the US was capable of striking the entire Soviet Union from a location in Turkey. In April of 1962, Nikita Khrushchev developed the idea of placing missiles in Cuba. A deployment in Cuba would provide a real deterrent to a potential U.S. attack again the Soviet Union. At the same time Fidel Castro was looking for a way to defend his island nation from an attack but the US. Following the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, Castro was uneasy and was sure that there would be a second attack. So he approved of Khrushchev's pand and in the summer of '62 the missiles were being installed in Cuba. For the US, the crisis began on October 15th of 1962 when reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba. President Kennedy was informed of this the following day and he immediately call a meeting of his twelve most important advisors. After seven days of discussion, the administration decided to place a quarantine on the island. Kennedy announced to the public the existence of missiles and the quarantine on the 22nd. He also stated that any nuclear missile launched from Cuba would be regarded as an attack by the Soviet Union and demanded that the Soviets removed all of their offensive weapons. On October 26th, the US received a letter from Khrushchev. He wrote that Soviets would remove missiles and personnel if the US promised not to invade Cuba. October 27th was the worst day of the crisis. A U-2 was shot down over Cuba and a second letter from Khrushchev was received...it demanded the removal of US missiles from Turkey in exchange for Soviet missiles in Cuba. Attorney General Robert Kennedy advised that the second letter be ignored and that the US agree to the first terms. On Oct. 28th tensions began to ease as Khrushchev announced that he would dismantle the installations and return the missiles to the Soviet Union. Further discussions were held to implement the Oct. 28th agreement. This agreement worked out best for the US and made Kennedy seem like the winner since this nation did not have to remove missiles that could hit the USSR directly.

Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC)

The FEPC was created after the Executive order 8802, and it only had "persuasive" powers and was often ignored. Most job improvements were in the lower levels, laborers, janitors, and cleaning women. After FDR's death, the committee was in limbo and died out, Truman tried to reestablish the committee but failed when his focus shifted to the Korean war.

Dien Bien Phu

The French were losing the war in Indochina against Vietminh, and in may they suffered a defeat at Dienbienphu. After that defeat a new government came into power in Paris under Pierre Mendes-France, that wanted a peace agreement by the end of July. As a result, France decided to acknowledge Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos at the Geneva Conference.

Korean War

The Korean War began as a civil war between North and South Korea, but the conflict soon became international when, under U.S. leadership, the United Nations joined to support South Korea and the People's Republic of China (PRC) entered to aid North Korea. The war left Korea divided and brought the Cold War to Asia. As the war drew to a close in August of 1945, two U.S. army colonels (one of whom, Dean Rusk, would later become Secretary of State) proposed that the Soviet Union take responsibility for accepting the surrender of Japanese troops in the part of the Korean peninsula north of the 38th parallel, whereas U.S. troops would receive the surrender south of that line. This decision resulted in the division and separation of many villages along the 38th parallel and families with ties across that line. In 1949, under a UN agreement, both the Soviet Union and the United States withdrew their military forces from Korea.

1963 March on Washington

The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom or "The Great March on Washington", as styled in a sound recording released after the event, was one of the largest political rallies for human rights in United States history and called for civil and economic rights for African Americans. * On Wednesday, August 28, 1963. Martin Luther King, Jr., standing in front of the Lincoln Memorial, delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech advocating that racial harmony should prevail upon the march. * The march is credited with helping to pass the Civil Rights Act (1964) and motivating the Selma to Montgomery marches which led to the passage of the Voting Rights Act (1965). * 1963 also marked the 100th anniversary of the signing of the Emancipation Proclamation by Abraham Lincoln.

Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party

The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) was an American political party created in the state of Mississippi in 1964, during the civil rights movement. * In June 1963, African-Americans attempted to cast votes in the Mississippi primary election but were prevented from doing so. Unable to vote in the official election, they organized an alternative "Freedom Ballot" to take place at the same time as the November voting. Seen as a protest action to dramatize denial of their voting rights, close to 80,000 people cast freedom ballots for an integrated slate of candidates. * COFO built on the success of the Freedom Ballot by formally establishing the MFDP in April 1964 as a non-discriminatory, non-exclusionary rival to the regular party organization. The MFDP hoped to replace the regulars as the officially-recognized Democratic Party organization in Mississippi by winning the Mississippi seats at the 1964 Democratic National Convention for a slate of delegates elected by disenfranchised black Mississippians and white sympathizers.

National Organization for Women

The NOW is a feminist organization founded in 1966 in Washington, DC by 28 people attending the Third National Conference of State Commissions on the Status of women. The Statement of Purpose states that "the time has come to confront, with concrete action, the condition that now prevent women from enjoying the equality opportunity and freedom of choice which is their right, as individual Americans, and as human beings" There were many influences contributing to the rise of NOW including: the President's Commission on the Status of Women, Betty Friedan's book and lack of enforcement of the Civil Right Act of 1964 (prohibiting sexual discrimination) The President's Commission on the Status of Women was established in 1961 by John F. Kennedy, in hopes of providing a solution to female discrimination in education, work force and Social Security. Kennedy appointed Eleanor Roosevelt as the head of the organization. The goal of action was to compromise those wanting to advance women's rights in work force and those advocating women's domestic importance/role needing to be preserved. Advocation of the Equal Rights Amendment was a pertinent issue to NOW. They had three main goals. The organization also supported the Freedom of Choice Act in response to the lack of freedom of choice following Roe v. Wade.

National Negro Congress

The National Negro Congress was established in 1935 to "secure the right of the Negro people to be free from Jim Crowism, segregation, discrimination, lynching, and mob violence" and "to promote the spirit of unity and cooperation between Negro and white people." It was conceived as a national coalition of church, labor, and civil rights organizations that would coordinate protest action in the face of deteriorating economic conditions for blacks. The organization came out of talks by Communist delegates of the Joint Committee on National Recovery's (JCNR) conference. A. Phillip Randolph was elected president and John P. Davis was the National Secretary. The Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939 signaled the beginning of the end for the NNC. The Communist Party's shift away from the Popular Front in the wake of the Pact alienated non-Communist NNC affiliates and their constituents around the country. As the cold war continued and anti-communist sentiments grew the NNC was crippled by lack of support.

The Other America

The Other America: Rediscovering Poverty During the 1950s, many people believed poverty in America could only be talked about in a historical context 1960s, 20% still in poverty (50% in 1939) The Other America (1962) written by Michael Harrington found 40-50 million Americans affected by poverty Claimed that this poverty was invisible to Americans Suburbia separated the middle-class from the poor Women in America George Gallup does a survey of 1813 women claiming that women are content as housewives September 7, 1968 -- Miss America Protest in Atlantic City, New Jersey Hodgson -- change in attitudes, expectations and life chances of American women in the 1960s to 1970s made the most lasting transformation 1961: President Kennedy signs an executive order that creates the President's Commission on the Status of Women Eleanor Roosevelt voted head of the commission Issued American Women (1963) reported the labor conditions, the lack of women's rights to own husbands property Calls for women's rights to paid employment, pay equity, paid maternity leave, and opposition to sex discrimination. Wanted to open up opportunities for women in the market realm and their satisfaction outside the realm. This signaled the rebirth of feminism in the US The Feminine Mystique by Betty Freidan Spoke of entrapment and the untapped potential of women in the US Attended Highland Folk School -- radical support and teaching advocacy for women and minority rights She goes on to become a founding member of NOW in 1966 Significance: Basically, the age of affluence did not equally affect everyone in the US, namely women, the poor, and minority groups. These unaddressed issues and grievances would fuel much of the discontent in the 1960s.

SNCC

The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) was founded in April 1960, by young people who had emerged as leaders of the sit-in protest movement initiated on February 1 of that year by four black college students in Greensboro, North Carolina. they scheduled sit ins and freedom rides to protest segregation and discrimination.

Election of 1968

The coalition that put Johnson into office in 1964 was splintering around the issue of the Vietnam War Johnson was committed to winning the war, as were his remaining supporters. People began to stop supporting him due to this Anti-war liberals within the Democratic party became convinced that it was necessary to prevent Johnson's renomination in 1968 Those committed to ousting Johnson turned to Eugene McCarthy as their candidate Johnson abdicated office after his first term. Reasons for this have been the subject of much debate (possibly heath reasons, possibly new there was a chance he wouldn't win nomination) After Johnson withdrew from the race, Robert Kennedy and Vice President Hubert Humphrey entered Shortly afterwards MLK JR and Robert Kennedy were assassinated Humphrey eventually won the Democratic party nomination George Wallace entered the race running as a third party candidate Preached "politics of hate", blaming the federal government, integration, and bureaucracy for problems within the US Republican candidate Richard Nixon seized the middle ground public and won the presidency by a narrow margin Historic because it took place during such a tumultuous time during American history (Vietnam War, inflation, urban rioting, ect.)

Containment

This the US policy to prevent the spread of communism abroad. Seeing communism as a growing threat to American interests and the subsequent spread of its ideology to Eastern Europe and China, Truman decided to implement this policy. The basis for this was the Long Telegram sent by Kennan and was highly influential in the creation of NATO. This was seen as a middle-ground between rollback and appeasement, as well as used as justification for entering Vietnam and involvement in proxy wars such as Korea and Afghanistan.

Manhattan Project

This was the code name for the effort to build an atomic bomb. President Roosevelt pursued this research very cautiously. This was an extremely secretive research project as the American government did not want others to learn of what the group was trying to develop. Roosevelt had agreed with Churchill that Germans, Japanese and Soviets should be kept in the dark on this work. Only a few privileged scientist and officials knew about the bomb's development. Vice-President Truman did not learn about the project until he became President Truman. In 1945, Oppenheimer was ready to test the first bomb and no one was prepared for the results that were to come. A cover up story was released immediately since the damage was so wide spread. President Truman was informed in Potsdam,Germany that the project had been successful. The world had then entered the nuclear age.

Fair Deal

Truman's fair deal increased minimum wage from $0.40 to $0.75; an extension of Social Security benefits, repeal of Taft-Hartley, a federal health insurance plan, civil rights legislation, federal funds for the construction of low-cost housing, and a guaranteed income for farmers. The Fair Deal had problems being passed; Southern Democrats felt alienated and were more likely to cooperate with Taft and the Republicans. Despite there being poverty in the US, Americans were enjoying an unparalleled period of prosperity. Public and government attention turned to the Cold War crisis abroad Although Taft and Truman agreed on federal aid to education, the inability of catholics and protestants to agree whether the $300 million should go to public education or private education caused the bill to die down. The American Medical Association viewed the administrations health insurance as "socialized medicine", and as a program felt it would limit doctors incomes and their freedom of action. During Truman's second term the National Housing Act of 1949 passed that helped construct 810,000 units of low-cost housing. The Hill-Burton Act made federal matching grants available to the states for the construction of nonprofit clinics and hospitals. In 1950 Congress expanded the Social Security Act.

Betty Friedan

Was an American writer, activist and feminist. A leading figure in the women's movement in the United States, her 1963 book "The Feminine Mystique" is credited with sparking the second wave of American feminism in the 20th century. In 1966, Friedan founded and was elected the first president of the National Organization for Women (NOW) which aimed to bring women "into the mainstream of American society now in fully equal partnership with men" The organization lobbied for enforcement of Title 7 of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Pay Act of 1963, the first two major legislatice victories of the movement and forced the Equal Opportunities Commission to stop ignoring and start treating with dignity and urgency, claims filed involving sex discrimination. Despite the success of NOW under Friedan, her decision to pressure Equal Employment Opportunity was met with fierce opposition within the group. Which in turn led her to step down as president in 1969. She also organized the nationwide Women's Strike for Equality in August of 1970 (on the 50th anniversary of women getting the right to vote). The strike was extremely successful in broadening the feminist movement. Friedan remained active in politics and advocacy for the rest of her life, she authored six books in her lifetime. She was critical of extreme factions of feminism that attacked groups such as men and homemakers. Friedan and many other feminist played a prominent role in society as they fought the nomination of G. Harold Carswell for Supreme Court on the grounds that he supported discrimination and anti feminism.

Betty Friedan

Was the author of "The Feminine Mystique". She had attended Smith College and was married with three children. She said that she hadn't thought of "women problem". Friedan had a radical professor in college. She wrote for the Electrical Union Newspaper. However, she concealed all of this information trying to hide any links between earlier movements and later movements. She led the National Organization for Women (NOW). She was a leading figure in the women's movements. Her book is credited with sparking the "second wave" of American feminism in the 20th century.

Truman Doctrine

With the Truman Doctrine, President Harry S. Truman established that the United States would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. The immediate cause for the speech was a recent announcement by the British Government that, as of March 31, it would no longer provide military and economic assistance to the Greek Government in its civil war against the Greek Communist Party. The Truman Doctrine committed the United States to actively offering assistance to preserve the political integrity of democratic nations when such an offer was deemed to be in the best interest of the United States.

The Feminine Mystique (1963)

Written by Betty Friedan, this book is seen as the catalyst for the second-wave feminism of the 1950s. In it she speaks about the entrapment and untapped potential of women in the US. She goes through many letters from housewives who were unhappy with their lives. Joanne Meyerowitz, argues that magazines and popular culture at the time were not as repressive as Friedan suggests, but rather supported the idea of women working. Betty Friedan would go on to become a founding member of NOW in 1966.

Voting Rights Act of 1965

the Act prohibits states and local governments from imposing any "voting qualification or prerequisite to voting, or standard, practice, or procedure ... to deny or abridge the right of any citizen of the United States to vote on account of race or color. * It was signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, who had earlier signed the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964 into law. * The Act established extensive federal oversight of elections administration. Section 5 of the Act prohibited states and local governments with a history of discriminatory voting practices from implementing any change affecting voting without first obtaining the approval of the United States Attorney General.

Freedom Rides

were civil rights activists who rode interstate buses into the segregated southern United States in 1961 and following years to challenge the non-enforcement of the United States Supreme Court decisions Irene Morgan v. Commonwealth of Virginia (1946) and Boynton v. Virginia (1960) which ruled that segregated public buses were unconstitutional. * They called national attention to the disregard for the federal law and the local violence used to enforce segregation in the southern United States. * The Supreme Court's decision in Boynton supported the right of interstate travelers to disregard local segregation ordinances. Southern local and state police considered the actions of the Freedom Riders as criminal and arrested them in some locations. In some localities, such as Birmingham, Alabama, the police cooperated with Ku Klux Klan chapters and other whites opposing the actions and allowed mobs to attack the riders.