us history final

The Great Railroad Strike of 1877

- 1873: after the financial panic of 1873, the major rail lines in the East cut the wages of their workers - 1877: companies announced another 10% wage cut -> most of railroad workers at Martinsburg, West Virginia, walked off te job and blocked the tracks in order to shut down all traffic resulting violence left 100 people dead and millions of dollars in damaged property: - Pittsburgh: thousands of striking workers burned 39 buildings and destroyed more than 1000 rail cars and locomotives eventually, the disgruntled workers, lacking organized bargaining power, had little choice but to drift back to work: failed raised the possibility of a great civil war between labor and capital for many americans

Crisis in Cuba

- Cuban economy depressed by Wilson-Gorman tariff - Cubans revolted against Spanish rule Cubans had repeatedly revolted against Spanish rule only to be continually suppressed. The Cubans revolted into what became known as the Cuban War for Independence. America followed the conflict each day through the newspapers. - Yellow Journalism developed out of this. Two major NY newspapers competed for readers and sensational writing style came out of it. Hearst, the owner of the New York Journal, advocated for war against Spain to help the Cubans as a means to elevate the US to a global status. The US officially recognized the Cuban rebels.

Tariff Reform

Effort led by the Democratic party to reduce taxes on imported goods, which Republicans argued were needed to protect American industries from foreign competition. late 19th century: the government's high-tariff policies, shaped largely by the Republican party, had favored big businesses by effectively shutting out foreign imports -> enable US corporations to dominate their American markets and charge higher prices for their products Cleveland argued that congress should reduce both the tariff rates and the number of imported goods subject to tariffs so as to enable European companies to compete in the American marketplace -> lost him reelection in 1888

Ida B. Wells

journalist and outspoken advocate of racial equality + cofounder of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People in 1909 + worked for women's suffrage = first African American to file suit against discrimination (won then Tennessee Supreme Court overruled) = editor of "Memphis Free Speech": newspaper that focused on African American issues - launched crusade against lynching -> angry whites destroy her office and threatened to lynch her - in NY: criticize Jim Crow laws + demand that blacks have their voting rights restored - direct opposition to Booker T. Washington

Bonanza farms

large farms that came to dominate agricultural life in much of the West in the late 1800s; instead of plots farmed by yeoman farmers, large amounts of machinery were used, and workers were hired laborers, often performing only specific tasks(similar to work in a factory). Thomas Jefferson's dream of an America primarily made up of small farmers gave way to industrial agriculture.

Booker T. Washington

most influential African American leader of the time - Founder of Tuskegee Institute: historically black university + dedicated to discipline and vocational training (most foremost African American educator in the nation by the 1890s) - recurring message to students was the importance of "practical knowledge" - in part to please his white donors, he argued that blacks shouldn't focus on fighting racial segregation but just work hard, not complain, and not stir up trouble (emphasize economic self-sufficiency) - urge African Americans to begin "at the bottom" as well-educated farmers, not as social activists (conservative approach) - Fighting for "social equality" and directly challenging white rule would be a huge mistake ("the extremest folly"). Any effort at "agitation" the white-dominant South would, he warned, backfire: civil rights hav to wait = criticized for sacrificing civil and political rights in his crusade for vocational education) - "quiet efforts," he noted, were more successful and realistic than the "brass band" approach championed by Du Bois: secretly financed legal efforts to oppose Jim Crow laws

sudden prospering of large industrial cities (ppl leave farms and villages (women leave cult of domesticity) to work in factories, mines, mills: unskilled, low-wage jobs) rising standard of living and phenomenal prosperity

most visible social change resulting from growth

Knights of Labor

national union (labor group) = most egalitarian union during teh Gilded Age = a national labor organization with a broad platform; reached peak membership in 1880s - endorsed the reforms advanced by previous workingmen's groups, including the creation of a bureau of labor statistics an mechanics' lien laws (to ensure payment of wages), the elimination of convict-labor competition, the establishment of the eight-hour work day and worker cooperatives, and greater use of paper currency - called for equal pay for equal work by men and women - condemned violence, class warfare, and socialism, boycotting instead of strikes as a way to pressure employers one big union of all workers (worked for wages), skilled and unskilled, men and women, immigrants and African Americans

Jim Crow Laws "Jim Crow" = satirical expression meaning "Negro"

new racial regulations called THIS: name derived from old song-and-dance caricature of African Americans performed by white actor Thomas D. Rice in blackface makeup during the 1830s

Political deadlock

republicans and democracts pretty much equal for a long time: although the republicans won 4/6 presidential elections between 1876 and 1896, the president faced great difficulties in getting anything accomplished - House controlled by Democrats and the Senate by Republicans, making bipartisan legislation v difficult - the nearly even division of power produced THIS at the federal level - many americans believed the spoils system prevented gov from addressing the nation's issues and corrupted those who worked in gov

economies of scale

result of technological advances: larger business enterprises, including huge commercial farms, were able to afford expensive new machinery and large workforces that made them more productive than smaller enterprises

"A Splendid Little War"

term used by John Hay in a letter to Teddy Roosevelt; all of Spain's ships were destroyed in 7 hours; war was short and effective even though americans also died. - U.S vs Spain - 114 days long - US Navy defeated Spanish in the Philippines (colony controlled by Spain at the time). American navy way better than outdated Spanish vessels. US continued to occupy the islands - Fighting continued with Cuba vs. Spanish. US had 1 million volunteers, trained them while blockaded Cuba. - Ended when Spanish navy was trapped but got caught by American fleet and was easily outgunned - Called THIS by secretary of state John Hay impact of war on Spanish Empire: - America was able to take control of Puerto Rico - Spain sued for peace & signed the Treaty of Paris ending the war - Spain's empire in the Americas ended

horizontal integration

strategy of consolidating control (Rockefeller 1870s): dominant corporation in a particular industry buys or forces out most of its competitors

Mugwumps

Reformers who bolted the Republican party in 1884 to support Democratic Grover Cleveland for president over Republican James G. Blaine, whose secret dealings on behalf of railroad companies had brought charges of corruption reform element of teh Republican party done w blaine + many republicans refused to endorse his candidacy (scorned these ppl as "goo-goos": the god-government crowd) -> anti-Blaine Republicans jokingly called his after an Algonquin Indian word meaning "big chief" = self-appointed political elite dedicated to promoting honest gov + saw the election as "moral rather than political" - generally opposed tariffs on imports and championed free trade - foremost goal = reform the process of appointing ppl to gov jobs by making ALL federal jobs nonpartisan - broke away from Republican party

holding company

Rockefeller created this bc Ohio's Supreme Court ordered the Standard Oil Trust dissolved bc it was behaving like a monopoly -> still want keep control of his numerous companies: huge corporation that controls other companies by "holding" most or all of their stock certificates = corporation established to own and manage other companies' stock rather than to produce goods and services itself (owns a majority of the stock in other companies instead of producing stuff itself)

Standard Oil Trust

Rockefeller's loophole: a new way of merging businesses bc practice of one corporation owning stock in competing ones outlawed gave Rockefeller a virtual monopoly over the American oil industry

trust

a combination of firms or corporations formed by a legal agreement, especially to reduce competition

vertical integration

a corporation owns all the different businesses needed to produce and sell its product

War in the Philippines

- Emilio Aguinaldo leads the Filipino rebels: they want independence, not a transfer of power - U.S. defeats Filipinos in conventional battles; sends in provisional government - Filipinos resort to guerrilla tactics - Anti Imperialist League v. those in favor of imperialism - The US wanted to keep the phillippines under its control so that they could more easily penetrate the Chinese market. - Filipinos have different plans and declare themselves independent and choose Emilio Aguinaldo as president of the new republic. Fighting between the American forces and filipino forces called insurrectos begin fighting on and off for weeks. Full scale war erupts and the US finds itself at odds with its founding principle that people should have the right to govern themselves. - After three years, over 4200 American soldiers have died and the US resorted to burning villages, torturing and executing prisoners, and imprisoning civilians. They filipino resistance collapses and Aguinaldo swore an oath authority to the United States. - Debate over imperialism ensues in the US. American Anti-Imperialist league is formed. Andrew Carnegie offered to buy the phillippines their independence for 20 million dollars.

Rutherford B. Hayes

- as pres: brought to the White House in 1877 both a lingering controversy over the disputed election results and a new style of uprightness in sharp contrast to the scandals of the Grant presidency - called "His Fraudulency" by critics - stubbornly honest and conservative - compromise presidential nominee of the two factions fighting for control of the Republican party, the so-called Stalwarts (led by Senator Roscoe Conkling of NY) and Half-Breeds (led by Senator James G Blaine of Maine): two warring Republican factions existed primarily to advance the careers of Conkling and Blaine, who detested each other - tried to stay above the petty political bickering: joined the growing public outrage over political corruption, admitting that his party "must mend its ways" by focusing on Republican principles rather than fighting over the spoils of office -> start civil service reform - held to a conservative line that would guide his successors (for both parties)for te rest of the century on economic issues

Andrew Carnegie

- created the largest steel company in the world during the late nineteenth century - rags to riches - helped develop a military telegraph system -> from telegraph to railroading to bridge building and then to steelmaking: early 1870s = decided to concentrate on teh manufacture of iron and steel and be master in that (want dominate steel industry): continuous innovation - accumulated vast wealth for the pure pleasure of the pursuit of it + often ruthlessly treated his workers and competitors devoted himself to dispensing his riches for the public good calling himself a "distributor" of wealth after retiring from business Bessemer converter: - steel making process became a lot cheaper (could make steel in large quantities): England's Sir Henry Bessemer invented this: a process by which high-quality steel could be produced more quickly by blasting air (oxygen) through the modern iron in the furnace - he decided to concentrate his operations on steel bc THIS made it so inexpensive to produce and the railroad industry needed massive amounts of it: more steel -> price drop -> industrial uses soared dominate steel industry between 1880 and 1900 by: - expand his own business by acquiring competitors or driving them out of business by cutting prices and taking their customers (mergers to eliminate competition) - focus on continuous innovation to reduce operating costs - expand industry by vertical integration (gain control of every phase of steelmaking business, including the raw materials)

Teddy Roosevelt

- elected as McKinley's VP, but McKinley died after being shot by an anarchist. Roosevelt becomes president upon his death. -nicknamed Mr. Imperialism - believed that the US must assume a much larger role in world affairs - America broadens its economic interests in Asia & Latin America-> THIS GUY becomes president in 1901 - favors a strong global military presence - "Speak softly and carry a big stick" -> Constructs Panama Canal -> Deploys The Great White Fleet to project power

W.E.B. DuBois

- led criticism against Booker T. Washington + fierce advocate for black education and civil rights - first African American to earn a doctoral degree from Harvard (in history and sociology) - promote civil rights + left a distinguished record as a scholar, authoring more than 20 bks - flamboyant personalist and combative spirit: Not long after he began teaching at Atlanta University in 1897, he launched a public assault on Booker T. Washington's strategy for improving the quality of life for African Americans. - called Washington's 1895 speech at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta "the Atlanta Compromise": argued that Washington was so determined to please powerful whites that he "accepted the alleged inferiority of the Negro" so blacks could "concentrate all their energies on industrial education, the accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South." - stressed that African American leaders should adopt a strategy of "ceaseless agitation" directed at ensuring the right to vote and winning civil equality - maintained that the education of blacks should not be merely vocational but should develop bold leaders willing to challenge segregation and discrimination - demanded that disenfranchisement and legalized segregation cease immediately and that the laws of the land be enforced

John D. Rockefeller

- rags to riches - developed a single-minded passion for systematic organization and self-discipline - 1860s: decided to bring order and rationality to teh chaotic new boom-and-bust oil industry (sought a monopoly over the oil industry) - fiercely ambitious and hard bargainer -obsessed with precision, efficiency, tidiness, money goal was to eliminate competitors so as to gain control of teh entire oil company (monopoly) so he could raise oil prices as he saw fit world's leading philanthropist by 1900 -> Rockefeller Foundation ruthlessly efficient in his efforts to dominate the oil industry: - was adept at reducing expenses, incorporating the latest technologies, and eliminating waste while paying "nobody a profit." - Because he shipped so much oil by rail, for example, he forced railroads to pay him secret cash "rebates" on his oil shipments, enabling him to pay less for shipping than his competitors paid.

Pendleton Act

1883: momentum against the "spoils system" generated by Garfield's assassination enabled George H. Pendleton (democrat) to convince congress to establish Civil Service Commission this -> a growing percentage of federal jobs would now be filled on the basis of competitive tests (the "merit system") rather than political favoritism + federal employees running for office were prohibited from receiving political contributions from other government workers: - law that allowed the pres to decide which federal jobs would be filled according to rules laid down by a bipartisan Civil Service Commission - candidates competed for these jobs through examinations, and appointments cold only be made from list of those who took the exams - once appointed, civil service officials couldn't be removed for political reasons limited first step in cleaning up the patronage process

Immigration Restriction League

1891: nativists formed THIS to save the Anglo-Saxon "race" from being "contaminated" by "alien" immigrants sought to convince Congress to ban illiterate immigrants, even tho illiterate immigrants from Britain and Germany had been allowed into the US in the past

Sharecropping

A farming system developed after the Civil War by which landless workers farmed land in exchange with the landowner for farm supplies and a share of the crop. A system used on southern farms after the Civil War in which farmers worked land owned by someone else in return for a small portion of the crops.

J. Pierpont Morgan

A highly successful banker who started General Electric and bought out Carnegie. With Carnegie's holdings he launched U.S Steel and made it the first billion dollar corporation. Had influence over Congress - born rich - took over poorly run companies, appointed new executives, and supervised operations - hates the chaos of comp: viewed that high profits required order and stability, and stability required consolidating competitors into trusts that he would own and manipulate - recognized importance of railroads: controlled 1/6 of nation's railway system - triumph was consolidation of steel industry: bought out Carnegie and added scores of related companies to form teh new US Steel Corporation (world's first billion-dollar corporation) = climactic event in the efforts of teh great financial capitalist to reduce industrial competition

Pullman Strike (1894)

A national strike by the American Railway Union, whose members shut down major railways in sympathy with striking workers in Pullman, Illinois (a "model" industrial suburb of Chicago owned by the Pullman Palace Car Company); ended with intervention of federal troops. paralyzed the economies of teh 27 states and territorie making up the western half of the nation - during terrible depression of 1893, George Pullman laid off 3000 of his 5800 employees and cut wages 25-40% for the rest, but didn't lower rents for housing or the price of food in teh company store -> workers join American Railway Union (ARU) - Georg Pullman fires 3 members of a workers' grievance committee -> workers went on strike on May 11, 1894 - June, ARU workers stop handling trains containing Pullman rail cars -> shut down most railroad in teh Midwest, cutting off all traffic thru Chicago - July 3: Pres Grover Cleveland sent 2000 federal troops into Chicago area, claiming it was his duty to ensure the delivery of MAIL + attorney general convinced a federal judge to sign an "injunction," (official court decree) prohibiting the labor union from interfering with the delivery of mail and interstate commerce - July 13: call off strike

Manifest Destiny

A notion held by a nineteenth-century Americans that the United States was destined to rule the continent, from the Atlantic the Pacific. relentless march of conquest, settlement, and exploitation propelled by sense of THIS: a lust for land, a hope for quick fortunes, and a restless desire to improve one's lot in life Americans claimed a special "destiny" to settle, develop, and dominate the entire continent: don't care about forcing out the native americans, Chinese workers, and Hispanic cowboys who were there first lured by the inexpensive federal land and misleading advertisements celebrating life on the plains.

Party Boss

A powerful political leader who controlled a "machine" of associates and operatives to promote both individual and party interests, often using informal tactics such as intimidation or the patronage system. staged election parades, firework displays, and free banquets (with alcoholic beverages) for voters + helped settle local disputes, provided aid for the needy, and distributed gov jobs and contracts to loyal followers and corporate donors (help ppl out) often arrogant and dictatorial in their behavior: decided who the candidates would be + determined the party's positions on significant issues and commanded loyalty and obedience by rewarding and punishing their members once in power, they excelled at patronage

Yellow Journalism

A type of news reporting, epitomized in the 1890s by the newspaper empires of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer, that intentionally manipulates public opinion through sensational headlines, illustrations, and articles about both real and invented events. editors sent their best reporters to Cuba and encourage them to exaggerate the facts in their stories to attract more readers

- to take advantage of the huge Asian markets, Seward believed the US first had to remove all foreign powers from te northern Pacific coast of Northern America and gain access to that region's valuable Pacific ports -> tried to acquire the british colony of British COlumbia, sandwiched between Russian-owned Alaska and the Washington Territory - 1866: while encouraging business leaders and civil authorities in British Columbia to consider becoming US territory: Sec of State William H Seward learn of Russia's desire to sell Alaska - 1867: US bought Alaska for $7.2 million -> remove Russia from North America as an imperial power (though purchase might influence British Columbia to join the union) - proved to be the biggest bargain since the Louisiana Purchase, in part bc of its vast deposits of gold and oil as well as ice

Acquisition of Alaska

- Seward and other Americans promoting expanded trade with Asia also want Hawaiian Islands: a unified kingdom since 1795 + had a sizeable population of American Christian missionaries and single profitable crop: SUGARCANE - 1875: Hawaii signed trade agreement with the US that allowed Hawaiian sugar to enter the country duty-free in exchange for Hawaii's promise that none of its territory would be leased or granted to another nation -> this agreement led to a boom in sugar production based on cheap immigrant workers, mainly Chinese and Japanese, and American sugar planters soon formed an economic elite - by 1890s: native Hawaiian population had been reduced to a minority by smallpox and other diseases, and Asian immigrants became the most numerous ethnic group. - monarchy overthrew -> americans in Hawaii acted improperly and most native Hawaiians opposed annexation -> Cleveland tried to restore queen to power but met resistance from haoles - July 4, 1894: gov they controlled created the Republic of Hawaii, which included in its constitution a provision for AMerican annexation

Acquisition of Hawaii

Exodusters

African Americans who migrated west from the South in search of a haven from racism and poverty after the collapse of Radical Republican rule. called this bc they were making their exodus from the South (in search of a haven from racism and poverty)

USS Maine

American warship that exploded in the Cuban port of Havana on February 15, 1898; though later discovered to be the result of an accident, the destruction of THIS was initially attributed by war-hungry Americans to Spain, contributing to the onset of the Spanish-American War

Laissez-fair economics

An economic doctrine holding that businesses and individuals should be able to pursue their economic interest without government interference "let them do as they will"

Civil Service Reform

An extended effort led by political reformers to end the patronage system; led to the Pendleton Act (1883), which called for government positions to be awarded based on merit rather than party loyalty. Hayes appointed a committee to consider a "merit system" for hiring gov employees + fire Arthur (his commitment to cleaning up politics enraged Republican leaders)

Interstate Commerce Commission

An independent federal agency established in 1887 to oversee businesses engaged in interstate trade, especially railroads, but whose regulatory power was limited when tested in the courts first federal agency designed to regulate business activities empowered the ICC's five members to ensure that railroad freight rates were "reasonable and just"

American Tobacco Company

Business founded in 1890 by North Carolina's James Buchanan Duke, who combined the major tobacco manufacturers of the time, ultimately controlling 90 percent of the country's cigarette production. Duke family of Durham, NC essential to revival of tobacco industry: James Buchanan "Buck" Duke spent lavishly on advertising schemes and perfected the mechanized mass production of cigarettes + undersold competitors in their own markets and cornered supply of ingredients needed to make cigarettes (used to travel across state with dad Washington selling tobacco in small pouches)

Granger Movement

Began by offering social and educational activities for isolated farmers and their families and later started to promote "cooperatives" where farmers could join together to buy, store, and sell their crops to avoid the high fees charged by brokers and other middlemen. address problem of social isolation of ppl living on small farms

Southern Economy -Textile, Tobacco, Cotton, Coal

CH 17: was based on agriculture, produced products like tobacco, textiles, cotton, and coal mining, iron, lumber. Was for the most part failing to embrace the industrial revolution chief accomplishment of new south: a dramatic expansion of the region's textile industry, which produced cotton thread, bedding, and clothing (by 1900, South surpassed New Eng and largest producer of cotton fabric in the nation)

(Second) Industrial Revolution

CH 16: = A series of improvements in industrial technology in the 18th and 19th centuries that transformed the process of manufacturing goods. - Beginning in the late nineteenth century, a wave of technological innovations, especially in iron and steel production, steam and electrical power, and telegraphic communications, all of which spurred industrial development and urban growth - dramatic increases in economic productivity spurred by this - centered in US and Germany - wave of technological innovations,especially in iron and steel production etc etc which spurred industrial development and urban growth resulted from: 1. creation of modern transportation systems(transcontinental railroads + larger, faster steamships) and communication systems (telegraph cable under Atlantic Ocean to connect US with Europe) -> gave farmers and factory owners access to national and international markets 2. creation of electrical power (electricity): accelerated the pace of change in industrial and urban development + increased the power, speed, and efficiency of machinery + spurred urban growth by making possible trolley and subway systems as well as elevators that enabled the construction of taller buildings 3. systematic application of scientific research to industrial process (improvement of industrial process) accelerated by: 1. America's vast natural resources: land, rivers, forests, oil, coal, water, iron ore consumers 2. flood of immigrants: army of new low-wage workers + expanding national market of consumers 3. technological innovations: labor-saving machinery and mass-production techniques -> dramatic advances in efficiency and productivity 4. entrepreneurs = innovative business leaders create huge new national corporations (became virtual monopolies in industries like oil, steel, sugar, and meatpacking)

The Gilded Age

CH 18: An era of dramatic industrial and urban growth characterized by widespread political corruption and loose government oversight of corporations period from the end of the Civil War to the beginning of the 20th century = era noted for widening social, economic, political gap between the powerful and the powerless, the haves and have-nots sarcastically labeled THIS for its greed and vulgarity and was a time marked by conspicuous consumption by the newly rich as they flaunted their enormous personal wealth (same wealth that financed extensive political and corporate corruption): times not "gilded" for avg American or immigrant (neighborhoods divided by racial and ethnic background as well as social class) era that saw more political corruption than political innovation (tension between country and city) 1. the balance of power between Democrats and Republicans 2. high level of public participation in everyday politics 3. often corrupt alliance between business and political leaders at all levels of government (members of House of Representatives so often selling their votes to big business that the Capitol should have been renamed an "auction room")

Imperialism

Ch 19: the use of diplomatic or military force to extend a nation's power and enhance its economic interests, often by acquiring territory or colonies and justifying such behavior with assumptions of racial superiority British, French, Belgians, Italian s, Butch, Spanish, Germans conquered most of Africa and Asia: competing with one another for particular territories, they had established colonial governments to rule over the native populations and exploited the colonies economically

American Anti-Imperialist League

Coalition of anti-imperialist groups united in 1899 to protest American territorial expansion, especially in the Philippine Islands; its membership included prominent politicians, industrialists, labor leaders, and social reformers.

Transcontinental Railroad

Completed in 1869 at Promontory, Utah, it linked the eastern railroad system with California's railroad system, revolutionizing transportation in the west - the west of ranchers and farmers largely the product of what - lifeblood of the western economy - sold much of the land to create towns and ranches along the rail lines

Carnegie Steel Company

Corporation under the leadership of Andrew Carnegie that came to dominate the American steel industry. produced more steel each year than was produced in all of Great Britain largest industrial company in the world: mills operated nonstop = 2 daily 12 hour shifts (exception = 4th of july)

Standard Oil Company

Corporation under the leadership of John D. Rockefeller that attempted to dominate the entire oil industry through horizontal and vertical integration. (became largest oil refiner in the nation) 1870: teamed up with Henry M. Flagler, Samuel Andrews (inventor of inexpensive means of refining crude oil), and brother William Rockefeller to establish

Cattle Ranching/Drives

Cowboys often worked on cattle drives. This was when a large herd of cattle was moved from the ranch to a market place where they could be sold. A lot of the original cattle drives went from Texas to the railroads in Kansas. Abilene, Kansas = first successful cow town: The ability to ship huge numbers of cattle by rail transformed ranching into a major national industry and turned Kansas into a major economic crossroads (cattle raising evolve into business dominated by "cattle barons" and large corporations)

Crop-lien system

Credit system used by sharecroppers and share tenants who pledged a portion ("share") of their future crop to local merchants or land owners in exchange for farming supplies, clothing, and food. (barter economy) southern farmers who participated in this fell into 3 distinct categories: 1. small farm owners: farms owned small -> no generate much cash income -> had to pledge portion of their future crop to local merchant in return for supplies purchased on credit ("croppers") 2. sharecroppers: mostly black + had nothing to offer landowner but their labor -> work owner's land in return for shelter in small cabins, seed, fertilizer, mules, supplies, food + share of crop (1/2) 3. share tenants: mostly white farmers who needed to rent land to farm even if they have the animals and teh tools and line of credit with country store: pay rent by pledging share of harvested crop post-Civil War version of economic slavery for poor whites as well as blacks self-destructive bc... overwhelming focus on planting cotton or tobacco year after year stripped the soil of its fertility and stability -> disastrous erosion as topsoil during storms washed into nearby creeks and rivers (little incentive to enrich the soil or maintain buildings and equipment bc it wasn't theirs: only interested in crop hes growing) + landowners (or merchant) required croppers and tenants to grow only a "cash crop" (they decided what crop would be planted and how it would be cultivated, harvested, sold) -> they usually couldn't have their own vegetable garden but instead had to get their food from local merchant in exchange for promised cotton landlords: often swindled workers by not giving them their fair share of the crops: kept the books, handled the sale of the crops, and gave the cropper/tenant his share of the proceeds after deducting for all items supplied during the year, plus interest (cropper/tenants barely broke even in good times: often received nothing but a larger debt to be rolled over to teh next year's crop -> high interest + sagging prices for cotton and other crops = hopeless cycle of debt among small farmers, sharecroppers, and share tenants)

GDP

Gross Domestic Product: the total market value of all final goods and services produced annually in an economy

Queen Liliuokalani

Hawaiian queen/ruler who sought to preserve her nation's independence but was thwarted by the haoles (Hawaii's white population), who pushed for annexation - tried to restore "Hawaii for the Hawaiians" by restricting the political power excised by US planters in the islands - surrendered "to the superior force of the US" after haoles revolted and overthrew the monarchy -> committee representing the haoles asked the US gov to annex the islands

James Garfield

Hayes announced he wouldnt be running for reelction in 1880 -> Republican party's squabbling factions (party feud) selected a compromise candidate for president: this guy (with a Stalwart for VP: split ticket to try to mend the feud) Halfbreed manages to win the election, but a few months into his presidency a disgruntled office seeker, Charles Guiteau, assassinated him (which further excited public opinion against the spoils system -> Congress in 1883 pass Pendleton Act) in his inaugural address, he gave an impassioned defense of civil rights, arguing that the "elevation of the negro race from slavery to the full rights of citizenship is the most important political change we have known since the adoption of the Constitution of 1787." + confirmed tht the republics had ended efforts to reconstruct the former Confederacy -> southern blacks now on their own

Chester Arthur

Hayes had fired him as head of the NY Customs House -> named as the Republican party's candidate for VP (split ticket) Stalwart distanced himself from te Stalwarts and became civil servant reformer after assassination of Garfield ( as pres)

Redeemers

Henry Grady's vision of a New South celebrated this: the conservative, pro-business, white politicians in teh Democratic party who had embraced the idea of industrial progress grounded in white supremacy supporters referred to them as THIS bc they supposedly saved the South from Yankee domination and "black rule" during Reconstruction included a rising class of lawyers, merchants, railroad executives, entrepreneurs who wanted a more diversified economy + sought cuts in state taxes and expenditures, including those for the public-school systems started after teh war (didn't want educated African Americans)

leisure in suburbs: spend time together at home, signing around a piano, reading, playing games (cards, dominoes, backgammon, chess, checkers) in congested urban areas: politics as a form of public entertainment attracted ever larger crowds, saloons became even more popular social centers for working-class men, and new forms of mass entertainment (movie theaters, music halls, vaudeville shows, art museums, symphony orchestras, circuses) appealed to a broad cross-section of city residents flock to hear candidates speak at political party meetings + local political organizations provided social activities in addition to promoting new candidates (membership in political party offer benefits) -> As labor unions became increasingly common, they, too, took on social roles for working-class men.

Leisure/Entertainment

Farmers' Alliances

Like the Granger movement, these organizations sought to address the issues of small farming communities; however, Alliances emphasized more political action and called for the creation of a Third Party to advocate their concerns. (divided at the national level into Northern, Southern, and Colored branches) organized social and recreational activities for farmers and their families, but they also emphasized political action. Struggling farmers throughout the South and Midwest, where most did not own their land, saw the Alliance movement as a way to address the hardships created by chronic indebtedness, declining crop prices, and devastating droughts.

Growth of Navy

Mahan insisted that modern economic development required a powerful navy centered on huge battleships, foreign commerce, colonies to provide raw materials and new markets for American products, and global naval bases -> urged americans to "look outward" beyond the continental US Mahan championed America's "destiny" to control the Caribbean sea, build a Central American canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans (Panama Canal), and spread Christian civilization across the Pacific ideas widely circulated within political and military circles in the US as well as Great Brit and Germany -> 1896: the US had build 11 new battleships, making America's navy 3rd most powerful in the world behind Great Brit and Germany

Nativism/nativists

Native-born Americans motivated by racial prejudice who blamed immigrants for social or economic problems and sought to restrict their access to America. saw the wave of new immigrants as a threat to their way of life and their jobs + racists who believed that "Anglo-Saxon" Americans (ppl of British or Germanic background) were superior to the Slavic, Italian, Greek, Jewish newcomers the policy of protecting the interests of native-born or established inhabitants against those of immigrants.

Open Door Policy

Official U.S. insistence that Chinese trade would be open to all nations; Secretary of State John Hay unilaterally announced the policy in 1899 in hopes of protecting the Chinese market for U.S. exports. outlined by secretary of state john hay's: Without consulting China, Hay announces that China will remain an open door to European and American trade and that other nations should not try to take control of Chinese territory or ports.

People's Party (Populists)

Political party formed in 1892 following the success of Farmers' Alliance candidates; advocated a variety of reforms, including free coinage of silver, a progressive income tax, postal savings banks, regulation of railroads, and direct election of U.S. senators. supported increased government intervention in the economy, for only the U.S. Congress could expand the money supply, counterbalance the power of Big Business, and provide efficient national transportation networks to support the agricultural economy - Political third party started by farmers - Supported: Increased govt intervention in economy -> Congress could expand money supply -> Counter the power of Big Business -> Support agricultural economy - Won seats in state legislatures and a few seats in congress - Put up a presidential candidate, James B. Weaver, for the election of 1892- lost, but earned more than 1 million votes

The Mississippi Plan

Series of state constitutional amendments in 1890 that sought to disenfranchise black voters and was quickly adopted by nine other southern states. (Mississippi = first state to strip blacks of their voting rights) 1. institute residence requirement for voting (2 yrs in state, 1 yr in local election district): aimed at African American tenant farmers who were in the habit of moving yearly in search of better economic opportunities 2. disqualified blacks from voting if they had committed certain crimes 3. in order to vote, ppl had to have paid all their taxes on time, including a so-called poll tax specifically for voting (restriction that hurt both poor blacks and poor whites) 4. all voters had to be able to read or at least "understand" the US Constitution (white registrars decided who satisfied requirement) When such "legal" means were not enough to ensure their political dominance, white candidates turned to fraud and violence.

Tenements

Shabby, low-cost inner-city apartment buildings that housed the urban poor in cramped, poorly ventilated apartments. congested and plagued with fires, violent crimes, diseases as populations grew + residents (many of them immigrants) were packed like sardines in poorly ventilated and poorly lit apartments (so close together -> no natural light or fresh air) city dwellers: had little or no money and nothing but their labor to sell -> working poor (immigrants or African Americans) could rarely afford to leave the inner cities -> live in cities

Rough Riders

The First Volunteer Cavalry, led in the Spanish-American War by Theodore Roosevelt; victorious in their only engagement, the Battle of San Juan Hill. a special regiment made up of a thousand former Ivy League athletes, Irish cops, ex-convicts, cowboys, Texas Rangers, and Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Pawnee, and Creek Indians—all "young, good shots, and good riders." best remembered because Lieutenant Colonel Theodore Roosevelt was second in command.

"Separate but equal"

Underlying principle behind segregation that was legitimized by the Supreme Court ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).

Haymarket Riot

Violent uprising in Haymarket Square, Chicago (fastest growing city in the nation), where police clashed with labor demonstrators in the aftermath of a bombing - May 1886: 40000 Chicago workers went on strike in support of 8hr workday - May 3: violent clashes between strikers and "scabs" (nonunion workers who defied teh strike) erupted outside the McCormick Harvesting Machine plant, where farm equipment was made -> police arrived, shots rang out, 2 strikers killed - May 4 evening: anarchist group angered and organized meeting in Chicago's Haymarket square to protest deaths: after listening to long speeches complaining about low wages and long working hours, the crowd in Haymarket Square was beginning to break up when police arrived and ordered te workers to disperse -> someone threw a bomb toward the police -> police fire into crowd + arrest ppl through teh night - May 5: all labor meetings were banned in the city + newspapers across teh nation printed sensational headlines about anarchists terrorizing Chicago - At trials during the summer of 1886, seven anarchist leaders, all but one of them German-language speakers, were sentenced to death despite the lack of any evidence linking them to the bomb thrower, whose identity was never established (advocates of anarchism: no like gov at all) - To labor militants around the world, the executed anarchists were working-class martyrs; to the police and the economic elite in Chicago, they were demonic assassins knights of labor decline after this

Worker Burdens

Working conditions were Unhealthy and Dangerous. Workers Breathed in Lint, Dust, and Toxic Fumes on the Job (in clustered tenement houses). Lack of Safety on heavy machines caused various injuries (ex Bessemer)

Party Machine

a network of neighborhood activists and officials (party boss use this to govern local politics)

The Gold Rush

a period from 1848 to 1856 when thousands of people came to California in order to search for gold.

Boom and Bust Cycle

a period of strong economic growth followed by a period of sharp decline fueled by feverish quest for quick profits: injected a chronic instability into the society and politics of the region -> massive western migrations would ultimately take a huge toll on teh native American tribes in the region

(mining) Boomtown/Ghost town

a town undergoing rapid growth due to sudden prosperity. (abandoned due to lack of economic activity (typically former mining town)) - Tombstone, Arizona = site of substantial silver mining = fastest-growing THIS in the Southwest - male-dominated communities with a substantial population of immigrants: western mining cities were most cosmopolitan communities in American in terms of ethnic diversity - violent places - ethnic prejudice as common as violence: Chinese no can work in mines but can operate laundries and work in boardinghouses + Mexicans treated worst - in remote mountainous area - most lasted only a few years -> ppl move on -> leave ghosttowns behind

Cornelius Vanderbilt

an American business magnate who built his wealth in railroads and shipping. He was one of the richest Americans in history (Remember: Vanderbilt = railroads)

Patronage

an informal + long-standing system (sometimes called the "spoils system") used by politicians (party leaders) to reward their supporters with gov appointments/jobs or contracts: the so-called spoils of office system that invited abuse and corruption

J. Pierpont Morgan and Company

an investment bank under the leadership of J. Pierpont Morganthat bought or merged unrelated American companies, often using capital acquired from European investors the firm invested European money with American businesses and grew into a financial power by helping competing corporations merge and by purchasing massive amounts of stock in American companies and selling them at a profit = investment banking

Big Business

as untamed and reckless as the cow towns and mining camps of the West: legal system and rules of ethics cant keep up with growth of new tech and business practices/rapidly changing economy

Charles Guiteau

assassinated President Garfield on July 2, 188 (mentally diseased): - Believes that he won the state of NY for Garfield -> think he should be made the ambassador of France: Follows garfield to railway station and shoots him twice -> thinks VP owes him + should make him sec of state bc he made VP president (Garfield no die right away) - explained that God ordered him to kill pres -> jury think hes insane and pronounced him guilty of murder -> hanged - former republican who had been turned down for a federal job

Immigration

between 1865-1915, 25 million people immigrated into the U.S. escaping poverty and oppression of own country but also lured to U.S. by expectations of new opportunities. Immigrants were a constant source of cheap labor. Rise of ethnic communities as well as ethnic tensions as new immigrant groups displace previously arrived immigrant groups

Half-breeds

called this bc they supposedly were only half-loyal to Grant and half-commited to reform of the spoils system

Populism

causes: - American farmers isolated from urban-industrial society - suffering from long economic decline - eager for gov assistance - frustrated by lack of gov assistance -. begin one of the most powerful movements of political protest in US history complaints: - Railroads took advantage of them - The system of money (money had to be backed by gold) was static and currency became deflated: Wanted silver to back currency, too - Banking worked against them (often had to borrow and they felt interest rates were too high and mortgage companies too strict) - Felt that the "system" was not concerned with their needs Wanted to appeal to broad range of people and groups but primarily was a political group for non-mechanized farmers - Midwest: small family farmers struggling to hold onto land - South: modest landowners as well as sharecroppers and tenant farmers - Economically and culturally marginal farmers - Farmers geographically isolated from mainstream of national life Gave followers an outlet for grievances and a sense of community Granger Movement + Farmers Alliances

Monopoly

corporation so large that it effectively controls the entire market for its products or services (business that grows so much that it controls an entire industry)

Robber Barons ("captains of industry")

crooked dealing of political leaders and lavish wealth of business elite - Derogatory term originally applied to wealthy and powerful 19th century businessmen - They use exploitive business methods to expand monopoly/business (Expand monopoly -> deepen economic depression) big business depend on skills as entrepreneurs and development of cozy relationships with local, state, and federal gov officials (Big Business has legitimate political interests, but because of its size and resources, it also sometimes exercises a corrupt influence on government) outsized men of grit and genius who found innovative (occasionally illegal) ways to increase production, create efficiencies, and eliminate competition: John D. Rockefeller, Andrew Carnegie, and John Pierpont Morgan (stood out for their shrewdness, ruthlessness, and remarkable achievements)

Mining

during the late 1800s, mining became a big industry needed to get raw materials the first wave of prospectors (mining) focused on "placer" (surface) mining: using metal pans to sift gold dust and nuggets out of riverbeds -> once these deposits were exhausted, miners had to use other methods, all of which required much larger operations and investments: hydraulic mining, dredging, deep-shaft hard-rock tunneling = mining ceased being an individual pursuit and became a big business (only large-scale mining corporations financed by American and European investors could afford) + Many prospectors who had hoped to "strike it rich" turned into wage laborers working for mining corporations -> boomtowns bc of mining

Skyscrapers

engineers develop cast-iron and steel-frame construction techniques that allowed for taller structures -> helped city buildings handle surging populations

The Gospel of Wealth

essay in which Carnegie expresses the idea that the methods employed by the "captains of industry" benefited the general public by accelerating the Industrial Revolution, creating jobs, and growing the economy like other business barons, he accumulated a colossal personal fortune, but gave much of his money away to support education and medicine (like Rockefeller)

Chinese Exclusion Act

federal law that barred Chinese laborers from immigrating to America for 10 yrs, passed by Congress in 1882 (first federal law to restrict immigration on the basis of race) periodically renewed before being extended indefinitely in 1902 -> barriers to Chinese immigration removed in 1943

Labor Unions

formed by workers in an effort to force employers to recognize their needs and concerns durin the Gilded Age in addition to frequent strikes in response to wage cuts and other grievances (but most elected officials sided with business owners rather than workers)

Stalwarts

had been "stalwart" in their support of Pres Grant during the furor over the misdeeds of his cabinet members + they had mastered the "spoils system" of distributing political jobs to party loyalists

wheat

in teh Western states, what was the great export crop that spurred economic growth while the overall value of farmland and farm products increased in the late 19th century, small farmers didn't keep up: numbers grew in size but decrease in proportion to the population at large -> by 1890s: small farmers were in open revolt against the "system" of corrupt processors (middlemen) and "greedy" railroads and bankers who they believed conspired against them

Old/New Immigrants

old immigrants from: protestants and roman catholics from northern and western Europe new immigrants: - Wave of newcomers from southern and eastern Europe, including many Jews, who became a majority among immigrants to America after 1890. (especially from Russia, Poland, Greece, Italy) - their languages and cultural backgrounds were markedly different from those of most old immigrants as well as most native-born Americans (Judaism, Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholicism whereas Protestant = majority) - exploited bc poor and no english Old: Northern European (English, Germans, Irish Catholics), assimilated easier, high skill level, often spoke English New: South/Eastern, wouldn't assimilate, close- knit community, uneducated, poor, unskilled laborers

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)

originated in New Orleans when Homer Plessy, an octoroon (person having 1/8 African ancestry), refused to leave a whites-only railroad car and was convicted of violating the law (challenge constitutionality of Civil Rights Cases) Supreme Court ruled that states had a right to create laws segregating public places: only member of the Court to dissent = Justice John Marshall Harlan bc in feared that Court's ruling would plant the "seeds of race hate" under "the sanction of law": think all citizens equal before the law legitimized the practice of racially "separate but equal" facilities in virtually every area of southern life

- coal production (along Appalachian Mountain chain) - at southern ends of mountains: Birmingham, Alabama sprang up during the 1870s in the shadow of Red Mountain: named for its abundant iron ore + boosters soon tagged the steelmaking city the "Pittsburgh of the South" - urban and industrial expansion + rapid population growth -> need for housing -> lumber = fastest growing industry in South (by 1900, lumber surpass textiles in annual economic value)

other New South industries (besides tobacco)

Political Rings

politics controlled by THESE in cities crowded with new immigrant voters across America: small groups of powerful insiders who shaped policy and managed the nomination and election of candidates = selected candidates to run (each had a ruler: the party boss)

Grover Cleveland

rise of Mugwumps + growing national concerns about political corruption -> Democrats nominate THIS GUY as a reform candidate: - VERY into anti-corruption and reform: as mayor and governor, he repeatedly vetoed bills bc in his view they served private interests at the expense of the public good - supported civil service reform - opposed expanding the money supply - preferred free trade to high tariffs, which tended to enrich big businesses at the expense of consumers - known for honestly and integrity but scandal revealed that he had illegitimate child reform efforts: struggled with Democratic officials reviving the patronage system + opposed federal favors to Big Business ("a public office is a public trust"): held to a strictly limited view of gov's role in both economic and social matters = "though the ppl support the gov, the gov shouldn't support the ppl" -> veto more acts of Congress than any previous pres during his administration for all his genuine commitment to limited gov intervention, he urged Congress to adopt an important new policy: federal regulation of the rates charged by interstate railroads (those who crossed state lines) to ship goods, crops, or livestock -> Supreme Court declare in 1886 no state could regulate the rates charged by railroads engaged in interstate traffic - interstate commerce commission (ICC) - tariff reform

Westward Expansion

territorial acquisitions as settlers began moving westward beyond the Appalachian Mountains remarkable geographic extremes contained in the vast land west of the Mississippi River: - majestic mountains, roaring rivers, deep-sculpted canyons, searing deserts, grassy plains, and dense forests (not affected by Civil War and Reconstruction much) - Great Plains—western Kansas, Nebraska, Oklahoma, northern Texas, the Dakotas, eastern Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana unprepared for harsh living conditions on the plains (drought, grasshoppers, prairie fires, dust storms -> frequent crop failures and bankruptcy) + Kansas homesteads were often not large enough to be self-sustaining + most of the black farmers were forced to supplement their income by hiring themselves out to white ranchers + sudden influx of so many blacks taxed resources and patience (not promised land but better than experiences in south) - manifest destiny - post-Civil War West came to symbolize economic opportunity and personal freedom convinced many americans, as well as the federal gov, that economic development of the West held the key to national prosperity: - discovery of gold, silver, copper, iron, coal + completion of transcontinental railroads + collapse of Indian resistance + rise of buffalo-hide and range-cattle industries - capitalists made huge profits investing in western mines, cattle, railroads, and commercial farms

Commercial farming

the raising of crops and livestock for sale in markets

Homestead Act (1862)

though land was essentially free bc of THIS, horses, livestock, wagons, wells, lumber, fencing, seed, machinery, and fertilizer were not -> freight rates and interest rates on loans v high -> declining crop prices produced chronic indebtedness, leading strapped western farmers to embrace virtually any plan to increase the money supply and thus pay off their debts with inflated currency

regulate immigration that have been inconsistent in their goals and frequently rooted in racial and ethnic prejudice

throughout American history, congress had passed laws that do what

Ellis Island

to accommodate the soaring numbers of immigrants passing through New York, Congress built a reception center HERE, near the Statue of Liberty: officials question immigrants to see if theyre fit to enter teh US

textile industry +coal, lumber, steel

what industry booms bc of New South ideals? others? new south = south's agricultural economy would be diversified by expanded industrial sectors and race relations would be harmonious