Week 15: Human Impacts on the Environment & Conservation Biology

Three levels of biodiversity

1. genetic diversity (in a specific population) - represents genetic variation within and b/w populations 2. species diversity (in a specific ecosystem) 3. community and ecosystem diversity across the landscape of an entire region

plastic waste in marine debris

1.) 4.8 to 12.7 million metric tons of plastic waste enters the oceans each year 2.) Pieces are broken down into smaller pieces by water/wave movement and UV light 3.) Microplastics: Plastic particles less than 5mm in size

Habitat Loss - Statistics

1.) 73% species that have become extinct, endangered, vulnerable or rare in the past few hundred years attributed to habitat loss 2.) ~98% tropical dry forests in Mexico and Central America clear cut 3.) Southern Wisconsin prairies: 800,000 ha -> 800 ha today (turned into agriculture and caused loss of biodiversity) 4.) About 70% of coral reefs damaged, 40 - 50% could disappear in the next 30 - 40 years 5.) freshwater habitats are also threatened (dams and reservoirs also hurt)

how many endangered/threatened species on land vs. ocean that still wait for description

1.) 730 plant species endangered or threatened 123 North American freshwater animals extinct since 1900 2.) 200 plant species are extinct 3.) 123 North american freshwater animals extinct since 1900

What does Minimum viable population (MVP) NOT INCLUDE:

1.) AGE: pre reproductive and really old individuals 2.) BEHAVIOR: ex: if only one male or female is elected to be the reproductive individual, these are the individuals that will breed and pass on their alleles to the offspring

Mississippi River Basin example

1.) As nutrients drain from both agricultural and agricultural land and cities they feed into this system, fueling this phytoplankton bloom every summer. 2.) When those phytoplankton die, the activity of the decomposers results in a formation of a dead zone of low oxygen. 3.) Causing fish and other marine mammals to disappear.

The Keeling Curve

1.) At a station in Hawaii - there has been an increase in CO2 2.) there is a relationship with rising CO2 levels and a rise in average global temperatures (this relationship is due to greenhouse effect)

Atrazine

1.) Atrazine is the 2nd most widely used pesticide in the US 2.) most common chemical contaminant of US water and one of the most widely used herbicides in the world 3.) primarily absorbed by roots and stems of target plant and inhibits photosynthesis 4.) mobile: can be transported 1000km fro site of application 5.) persistance - residence time is much longer than application 6.) potential impacts: it can move through ecosystem thro run off and leeching which will end up in water and can be taken up by aquatic animals, these animals could get eaten and the chemical moves through food web OR the total ecosystem can get ruined - depleted photosynthesis

consequences of plastic waste

1.) Birds, mammals, turtles, and fish are all dying after mistaking plastic debris for food. 2.) This can go up the food web to also have consequences for human health. 3.) Plastic waste can influence disease dynamics: coral reefs that are contaminated by a plastic had much higher rates of disease than reefs without plastic. this is driven by bacteria that colonize the plastic fragments

Major greenhouse gases and their contribution to global warming

1.) CO2 (73%) 2.) Methane (CH4) 3.) Nitrous oxide (N2O) 4.) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) 5.) and water vapor

what happens if the shifts between phenological changes in plants and animals don't align? - Caribou population example

1.) Caribou populations migrate north in the spring to give birth and to eat sprouting plants (alpine chickweed) 2.) Alpine chickweed is an early flowering plant on which caribou depend. the caribou haven't changed their migration habits 3.) Earlier spring plant growth has resulted in food shortages and a fourfold drop in caribou offspring production

Consequences of Overharvesting

1.) Commercially important fish populations have been decimated 2.) Increasing demands 3.) New harvesting technologies (resulted in many fish populations that were beyond the point of over-exploitation) 4.) Global catches of fish - Five fold increase from 1950 - 1989 5.) Many beyond the point of overexploitation

Invasive Species - Impacts

1.) Contribute to ~40% of the extinctions recorded since 1750 2.) Cost billions of dollars each year due to losses and damage and control costs 3.) More than 50,000 introduced species in the US alone

Costa Rica example

1.) Costa Rica, a world leader in establishing zoned reserves is divided into 11 conservation areas. 2.) These protected zones are surrounded by those buffer zones. 3.) these buffer zones provide forest products, water, hydroelectricity, the support sustainable agriculture and tourism, and also employ local residents.

Species diversity

1.) Currently ~1.8 million species described 2.) Estimated 5 million - 100 million species yet to be discovered! 3.) Some 86% of existing species on land and 91% in the ocean still await description

bio magnification of DDT

1.) DDT was a widespread pesticide that was used to control mosquitoes and pests. 2.) led to a massive decline in birds of prey. 3.) DDT was widely used and absorbed by species on which the birds prayed (accumulated in the bodies of birds) 4.) DDT breaks down,DDE, 2ndary metabolite, inhibited the enzyme that was needed to transfer calcium from bones to the egg shells for the birds 5.) shells of the eggs became really thin and could not withstand the weight of the parent. (chicks died and cormorants - a type of bird of prey declined by 86%) 6.) DDT was banned in 1971 - but still used in the tropics to control malaria spreading mosquitos 5.) the resistance to DDT has evolved in many insect species.

Nutrient enrichment

1.) Dead zones 2.) Critical load

Indirect effects

1.) Distribution and rates of transmission for infectious diseases will be influenced 2.) Distribution of vectors may change

Changes over time: Phenological Change - Birds

1.) Earlier breeding or first singing of birds 2.) Earlier arrival of migrants

Changes over time: Phenological Change - Plants

1.) Earlier shooting and flowering 2.) Longer growing season 3.) Some evidence indicates onset of later autumnal events

Endangered and Threatened Species - difference in definition

1.) Endangered species - in danger of extinction throughout all or much of its range 2.) Threatened species - likely to become endangered in the near future

Methods of Control

1.) Eradication is rare 2.) Control depends on commitment and continued diligence 3.) Long term, ecosystem-level efforts are the most successful 4.) Prevention is the best way

Zoned Reserves

1.) Extensive region that includes a protected core surrounded by a buffer of areas that have been changed by human activity and are used for human gain. 2.) often established as conservation areas 3.) zoned reserve model recognizes that conservation also involves working in landscapes that are largely human dominated.

Population Conservation - what does it focus on? what are the approaches?

1.) Focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical habitat 2.) Two approaches: Extinction Risks in Small Populations and Critical Habitat

What are some of the leading threats to biodiversity (and what can we do about it)?

1.) Habitat loss 2.) Invasive species 3.) Overharvesting

Environmental toxins - characteristics

1.) Humans release many toxic chemicals, including synthetics previously unknown to nature 2.) In some cases, harmful substances persist for long periods in an ecosystem 3.) One reason toxins are harmful is that they become more concentrated in successive trophic levels (Biological magnification)

Direct Effects

1.) Increased heat stress, asthma, etc. 2.) Increased mortality and injury due to natural disasters 3.) Changes in diet due to changed agricultural production 4.) higher CO2 environments will mean less nutritional crops with reduced levels of nutrients like zinc and iron and protein.

Zebra mussel outlaws

1.) Introduced to the US from Europe in the mid 1980s via ships 2.) expected to colonize most US waters, except if they're too warm or too saline. 3.) reach really high densities. 4.) filter at a very high rate, much faster than the natives. 5.) alter food webs - outcompete native species. They decrease plankton populations, leaving less food available for fish, native species, and smaller organisms. 6.) can directly cover native animals, mussels, clams, snails which reduces their survival. 7.) damage on infrastructure: attach to hard substrates (water pipes)

Examples of Invasive species

1.) Kudzu 2.) Zebra mussel outlaws 3.) starling

how urbanization affects evolution.

1.) Mutation: pollution from steel mills and industrial cities causes higher mutation rates 2.) Genetic Drift: an increase in impervious surfaces comes stronger genetic drift and decrease genetic diversity in white-footed mice 3.) Gene flow: major river, buildings and woodlands all increase resistance to gene flow 4.) Selection (ex: urban white clover have evolved and decreased chemical defenses in the form of Hcynide in cities)

Changes in climate is affecting ecosystems on many levels - list the levels

1.) Organismal Level 2.) Interspecific Interactions 3.) Ecosystem-wide

Overharvesting

1.) Overharvesting is removing more individuals than can be naturally replaced by their own reproductive efforts. 2.) So some species are more vulnerable to harvesting than others. Like organisms that have small population sizes are large organisms with low reproductive rates. 2.) Must avoid over harvesting in order for activities to be sustainable

Changes in climate is affecting ecosystems on many levels - Organismal Level

1.) Physiological and behavioral responses 2.) Birth, death, growth rates of organisms 3.) Altered distribution patterns

Habitat Loss - Action Items

1.) Plant native species 2.) Raise awareness, and become aware yourself (what is endangered in your area?) 3.) Vote in local and national elections 4.) Get involved in local natural areas 5.) Research what you buy (phosphate free laundry or a dishwasher detergents.)

Introduced Species - Action Items

1.) Plant native species 2.) Rinse your boots/fishing gear/dog feet after hiking/fishing 3.) Don't move firewood 4.) Learn about what is invasive by you! 5.) Report invasive species

Changes over time: Phenological Change

1.) Plants 2.) Birds 3.) Butterflies 4.) Amphibians

Changes in climate is affecting ecosystems on many levels - Ecosystem-wide

1.) Productivity 2.) Nutrient cycling 3.) Changes in agriculture

New stronger protections to reduce exposure to atrazine

1.) Proposed human health mitigation - rate reduction for residential turf application (granular and spray) - addtional PPE for those applying 2.) Proposed ecological mitigation: - add mandatory spray drift reduction language - add herbicide resistance management

Kudzu - example

1.) Rapidly growing vine native to Japan, introduced in 1880's as an ornamental and a forage crop 2.) 1900's: Farmers encouraged to plant to resist erosion 3.) Can grow as high as 30 meters tall 4.) Thrives in ample sun 5.) Quickly outcompetes native vegetation, strangling other plants and having the power to uproot trees

How can conservation managers help restore the population of redcockaded woodpeckers?

1.) Recognize key habitat (Restore longleaf pine forests and use controlled fires to reduce understory growth) 2.) Encourage species to colonize (construct cavities in pine trees)

Overharvesting - Action Items

1.) Recycle 2.) Research what you buy 3.) Businesses: Greening the supply chain 4.) Fish and Hunt responsibly 5.) Support the establishment of more marine protected areas 6.) Choose seafood that is harvested sustainably

Nutrient enrichment and toxins in the environment: action items

1.) Reduce or eliminate fertilizer use 2.) Clean up pet waste 3.) Dispose of medications properly 4.) Consider what you buy 5.) Wash your laundry only when needed, use cold water if possible 6.) Use a filter for your washing machine

Changes in climate is affecting ecosystems on many levels - Interspecific Interactions

1.) Relative competitive abilities of species 2.) Community structure 3.) Spread of Invasive species 4.) Spread of Disease 5.) Disruption of Synchrony

- climate change Effects on pine tree Cells

1.) Resin cells in pine trees produce less defensive resin in trees that are stressed by drought and rising temps 2.) rising temps have shortened how long it takes beetles to mature and reproduce (these beetles are pests and eat the trees) 3.) destruction due to mountain pine beetles - putting these two together, climate change has weekend the defenses of the pine trees, making them more susceptible to a rapidly growing pest

Viability of a population: (3)

1.) Risk of extinction 2.) Chance of recovery 3.) Expected time of extinction

Extinction Risks in Small Populations approach

1.) Small populations are particularly vulnerable to the threats that were induced like habitat loss, invasive species and overharvesting. 2.) Extinction Vortex: small populations are vulnerable to inbreeding and genetic drift, which lead to a loss of genetic variation that's necessary to enable evolutionary response to environmental change. This reduction and fitness at the individual level, as well as the population adaptability leads to lower reproduction and higher mortality, which continue to drive the population smaller. 3.) low genetic diversity does not always lead to extinction. (ex: elephant seals that nearly went extinct but survived. Have low genetic variation)

natural greenhouse effect

1.) Solar (short lived energy) radiation that goes to earth 2.) earth re-radiates heat (long waved energy) 3.) MORE heat escapes into SPACE 4.) LESS re-remitted heat comes back to EARTH - there is a level of greenhouse gases above the atmosphere above earth - important for keeping Earth's surface at a hub habitable temperature.

Human enhanced greenhouse effect

1.) Solar radiation that goes to earth 2.) earth re-radiates heat 3.) LESS heat escapes into SPACE 4.) MORE re-emitted heat comes back to EARTH - more greenhouse gases that have seeped into the atmosphere - there is no layer of separation 5.) caused by small group of gases, mainly water vapor, that make up less than 1% of the total volume of the atmosphere.

Loud city impacts - white crown sparrows/ European robins/ grasshoppers

1.) Species have also shown an increased frequency over background low-frequency sounds 2.) their songs have changed over time 3.) STUDY: took birds and they played pre recorded songs from birds in the sixties and then birds singing their songs today. 4.) FOUND: Birds of today respond more strongly to bird calls of today - European robins increase their singing at night. Some urban birds sing louder on weekdays. Some birds produce shorter songs that are more likely to fully transmit between loud noises of the city - urban grasshoppers sing louder than their rural conspecifics

Light pollution is felt around the world

1.) The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness 2.) 83% of the world's population and 99% of US/European residents live under light polluted skies (Singapore: the most light-polluted country and Greenland: the largest non-polluted area) 3.) Even pristine sites are impacted - light is visible far from its source

Biological magnification (What is it? When does it happen? What happens then?)

1.) The tendency for pollutants to accumulate at certain trophic levels 2.) Happens when: Chemicals taken up and stored by primary producers in the surrounding soil or water 3.) Producers eaten by second trophic level 4.) b/c carbon is lost at each transfer of energy, the 2nd trophic level eats a lot more biomass from the level below it 5.) the toxin is then stored in the bodies of consumers

Global Climate Change

1.) Unprecedented levels of CO2 2.) The Keeling Curve 3.) The Greenhouse Effect

Case study: Analysis of Grizzly Bear Populations

1.) Used life history data obtained for individual bears over 23 years, simulated environmental effects on survival and reproduction. 2.) Models predict that a population of 70-90 individuals would have a 95% chance of survival for 100 years 3.) Current estimate: 700 (737 from the 2019 report), but only a few dominant males breed, and females may only reproduce with ample food availability (Ne = ¼ total population size ~ 175 bears) 4.) Yellowstone grizzly population has low genetic variability compared with other grizzly populations.

Population Viability Analysis (2)

1.) Viability of a population 2.) Predicted based on Demographic data (censuses, m-r, surveys, observations of life history and p/a data)

What can you do about microplastics?

1.) Wash less 2.) Avoid "fast fashion" 3.) Use cold water and a front loading machine 4.) Use a microfiber filter in your washing machine

endocrine disruptor

1.) a compound which interferes with the normal hormonal functioning 2.) EX: pharmaceuticals, DDT, pesticides 3.) show atrazine can interfere with cell communication - cell communication by altering stress hormones/thyroid hormones/ sex hormones

FINDINGS OF frog study

1.) all control animals were male 2.) 10% of the animals exposed to atrazine lacked visible male morphology and developed characteristics typical of females 3.) male reverse frogs (now female) mate with males = offspring are gonna be all male 4.) Atrazine exposed frogs were genetically male, exposed to DRMT1 and did not express DMW - results in inhibition of test and promote ovaries - female frogs dont have DMW because they were male and genetically lack it

Atrazine findings

1.) altered structure of larynx (influence calling - for mating/social behavior) 2.) decreased breeding gland area 3.) decreased testosterone 4.) lighter nuptial pads 5.) male size wasn't different - no effect on ability to achieve amplexus 6.) control males achieve amplexus during trails 7.) control frogs had higher testosterone in presence of females

If atrazine isn't banned, then what?

1.) alternative herbicides 2.) change agricultural practices 3.) reduce land dedicated to corn production 4.) reduce ethanol production from corn

What are the population level effects of sex reversal and de-masculation by atrazine?

1.) as sex reversed males can only produce male offspring, the sex ratio will be skewed 2.)could cause an extinction in population

Effects on Individual Organisms - EX: American Pikas

1.) as temp rise, American pikas spend more time in their burrows to escape the heat, and less time foraging for food 2.) Most pika extinctions occur at sites w/ high summer temps and a small area of habitat

How can plastic waste influence disease dynamics? (Ex?)

1.) bacteria colonizes the plastic fragments 2.) coral reefs that are contaminated by a plastic had much higher rates of disease than reefs without plastic. 3.) Plastic can also physically damage the coral or block the coil from accessing like an oxygen, increasing their susceptibility to disease.

Status of atrazine in EU and USA

1.) banned in EU 2.) still applied in USA

Fleshy fruit - types

1.) berry 2.) drupe 3.) pome 4.) hip

HOW do invasive species cause environmental and economic damage?

1.) by colonizing and dominating wherever they find a suitable habitat 2.) invasive species are often freed from their predators (which can be herbivores, pathogens, competitors in their native habitat) and once free from these constraints, they can spread rapidly

Methods of the frog paper: - FINISH WRITING

1.) captive colony generated by breeding wild caught animals 2.) both male and females were injected w/ human chori 3.) treated F1 frogs with estradiol resulted in 100% females (50%ZW and 50% ZZ sex reversed)

How does Light pollution impacts organisms

1.) changes behavior 2.) changes physiology 3.) changes survival 4.) At population level: Influencing reproduction in population size can greatly influence insect survival

what are the drivers in an urban environments? 6

1.) changes to hydrology, changes in streamflow, nutrient loading, ecosystem cycling. 2.) Cities come with roads. Roads bring mortality for organisms. They bring emissions, noise and other contaminants that come off of cars. 3.) Cities are also full of introduced species and cause a change in diversity patterns. 4.) Instead of having the vertical structure that is natural environment - there is a concrete vertical structure 5.) have a series of fragmented habitat patches in cities 6.) period shift that's brought about by artificial light at night (ALAN)

2 types of accessory fruit

1.) dehiscent 2.) indehiscent

IPCC Report Takeaways

1.) everage GHGe over the last 10 yrs = highest in human history 2.) Without fast and deep emission cuts, we are not on track to limit warming 3.) OPtions across all sectors/regions to cut emissions in half by 2030 4.) Broader aspects of sustainable development require addressing CC 5.) Justice is central/low carbon economy = jobs 6.) Goodbye coal/oil/gas 7.) finances need to be dedicated 8.) individual choice alone makes only modest contributions to GHG reductions. Building codes, urban planning, vehicle efficiency standards, carbon pricing, low carbon infrastructure make it easier for individuals to make better choices 9.) VOTE

Seed dispersal: Cheptou et al. 2008 - in Southern France, crevices sancta

1.) examines the evolutionary consequences of the cost of seed dispersal in cities: crevices sancta, produces both heavy and light seeds which are airborne seeds (spread through wind). 2.) found that plants produces a heavy proportion of non dispersing seeds b/c the plants grow in pockets of soil in the sidewalks. 3.) if they produce light seeds, they would be carried by the wind and likely just land into concrete, not survive. 4.) the heavy seeds that fall directly below the parent plant will most likely find that suitable patch of habitat. 5.) in this system, plants that were predisposed to produce more heavy seeds have been favored by urban evolution.

Atrazine exposure and other species?

1.) exposure (either alone or mix w/ other chemicals) been assoc w/ reduced immunity and increased amphibian viral/flatworm/roundworm infections 2.) reduce tolerance of chytrid fungal infections 3.) alters abundance of phytopplankton, macrophytes, and photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic organisms in periphyton (food resource for tadpoles) 4.) increased estrogen in humans - increased cancer

How can combat the nutrient run off and dead zone creation in Mississippi River Basin?

1.) farmers are encouraged to use fertilizers efficiently. 2.) Wetlands are being stored in the area

Aspects of nutrient enrichment:

1.) fertilizers 2.) dumping of sewage

2 types of simple fruit

1.) fleshy 2.) dry

where does excess CO2 come from in human contribution in major green house gases

1.) fossil fuel use - The largest source of greenhouse gas emissions from human activities in the US is from burning fossil fuels for electricity, heat, and transportation. 2.) deforestation

2 types of food from plants

1.) fruit 2.) veggie

Modeling Climate Change

1.) global models use data on factors that affect the absorption of solar radiation on earth and natural factors, and human activities 2.) compare human activities data sets to the natural factors that relate to temp changes - use this to predict Earth's temperature 3.) observed trends, again here in red, can only be explained by the additional radiative forcing that humans have added to the atmosphere through our emissions. 4.) the line that best fits the observed model is one that also includes human factors. This black line.

selection pressures in the urban environment:

1.) habitat fragmentation 2.) loud noise - pollution 3.) light pollution 4.) changes in hydrolity 5.) trophic changes 6.) migration changes 7.) vertical structure/horizontal structure

Environmental toxins -types

1.) human manufactured chlorofluorocarbons 2.) microplastics 3.) pharmaceuticals 4.) fertilizers

Pharmaceuticals

1.) humans and farm animals take Pharmaceuticals 2.) flush them down the tiolet (incorrect disposal) 3.) Pharmaceuticals goes to sewage treatment plant 4.) treated effluent goes into lakes and rivers OR taken away from plant as sludge 5.) sludge then goes to farms. Animal waste w/ Pharmaceuticals used as manure on farms 6.) rain on the farm cause agricultural runoff -> that runoff goes into lakes and rivers

HOW DID THEY TEST the Greater Prairie Chicken and the Extinction Vortex

1.) imported genetic variation by transplanting birds from larger populations of nearby states. 2.) found that the declining population rebounded, confirming that low genetic variation had been caused by this extinction vortex.

What things are subject to biological magnification?

1.) industrially synthesized compounds like polychlorinated biphenyls PCBs. (have been found in the Great Lakes food web) 2.) Many pesticides such as DDT

Invasive species

1.) introduced species that proliferate, spread and persist to the detriment of native species and ecosystems 2.) PROCESS: Introduced -> establishment -> spread -> impact 3.) not all introduced species are considered invasive 4.) cause environmental and economic damage by colonizing and dominating wherever they find a suitable habitat

What are the benefits of green spaces? (Greenroofs - what do they do in cities)

1.) its like grass/plants growing on a roof 2.) function to purify air 3.) removing pollutants 4.) providing oxygen. 5.) provide shade 6.) reduce energy costs. 7.) reduce the urban heat island effect where urban conditions both absorb and trap heat. 8.) reduce or slow stormwater runoff and provide habitats for tons of organisms like pollinators and even ground nesting birds. 9.) support sustainable agriculture. 10.) important for human health and psychological well-being.

What are sources of microplastics?

1.) microfibers shed from our clothes can impact this these concentrations 2.) pollution - improper waste disposal

The Greenhouse Effect - 2 types

1.) natural greenhouse effect 2.) human enhanced greenhouse effect

human manufactured chlorofluorocarbons

1.) once widely used as refrigerants and propellants 2.) CFC's disrupts the natural balance of ozone formation and depletion by repeatedly catalyzing the destruction of ozone 3.) leads to thinning of ozone layer (damage DNA and results in poor phytoplankton growth)

types of berry

1.) pepo 2.) hesperidium

Nutrient enrichment and toxins in the environment - sources/things

1.) pesticides 2.) pharmaceuticals 3.) plastics 4.) CFCs

Carbon Cycle - what to photosynthesizers do and how are humans effecting the carbon cycle

1.) photosynthetic organisms on land and in water convert CO2 into a form that can be used by other organisms and return CO2 into the environment by respiration. 2.) our activities, including the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation that have contributed to it, contributed to a nearly steady rise of CO2 that has been observed (since the Industrial Revolution)

types of accessory fruit

1.) pome 2.) hip 3.) pepo

The Greater Prairie Chicken and the Extinction Vortex

1.) prairies were converted to agriculture because of their fertile soil. 2.) this conversion of land fragmented the population of this species and decreased its abundance rapidly. 3.) As a result of these small sizes. Populations also were found to decrease in their fertility.

Greenroofs do what?

1.) purify air 2.) remove pollutants 3.) prodive oxygen/shade 4.) reduce energy costs 5.) reduce urban heat island effect 6.) reduce/slow stormwater runoff and provide habitats for organisms 7.) support sustainable agriculture 8.) better human health and well being

How can results observed influence the population size of the frogs:

1.) reduced fertility of males -> decreases the population size 2.) can influence recruitment into the population (inability to compete for females, decline in fertility)

Montreal Protocol

1.) regulates the use of these ozone depleting chemicals 2.) resulted in this decrease in ozone depletion 3.) unfortunately, chlorine molecules are already in the atmosphere and they'll continue to influence ozone levels for at least the next 50 years. 4.) following that Montreal Protocol tree in the late 1980s, it appeared that the ozone layer slowly rebuilding itself. However, in 2018, recent reports have highlighted possible ongoing violations of this treaty as researchers detected an unexpected rise and CFCs in the atmosphere (we need enforcement and monitoring)

European starling

1.) released intentionally into Central Park 2.) quickly spread across North America, expanding and increasing and density, expanding and its range and displacing many native songbirds.

Effects on communities and ecosystems - sea urchin example

1.) sea urchin requires water temps above 12 C to reproduce successfully 2.) Warming ocean waters have enabled the urchin to expand its range to the south 3.) as sea urchin expands its range and destroys high diversity kelp communities - leaving "urchin barrens" in its wake

How were all male colony generated?

1.) sex reversed male (ZZ females) identified by breeding them with nonexposed males (ZZ males) which resulted in all 100% ZZ males

Bending Science tools

1.) shaping science 2.) hiding science 3.) Harass scientists 4.) packaging science 5.) spinning science

So some species have responded to changes in climate by ____

1.) shifting either northward or to higher elevations. 2.) changes in phenology - changes over time and the life events of plants and animals with earlier migrations and earlier breeding patterns

3 types of fruit

1.) simple 2.) aggregate 3.) mutliple

The Extinction Vortex: Dangers of Small Population Sizes - what happens?

1.) small populations can push themselves to extinction because they are small. 2.) They are vulnerable to inbreeding and genetic drift, which lead to a loss of genetic variation that's necessary to enable evolutionary response to environmental change. 3.) This reduction and fitness at the individual level, as well as the population adaptability leads to lower reproduction and higher mortality, which continue to drive the population smaller.

How has agricultural practices play a role in doubling nitrogen fixation?

1.) soil nutrients can be removed when taking out farmed crops 2.) then fertilizers are added 3.) if plants aren't able to take up these fertilizers, these nitrates from the soil or of nutrient levels exceed the critical load. 4.) Then these nutrients are often leached out of the system into groundwater or run off into aquatic ecosystems.

How are hotspots identified? Are hotspots biased?

1.) some species have different distributions 2.) designation of hotspots is often bias towards saving vertebrates and plants - which can effect other taxonomic groups

Aspects of climate change

1.) temperature 2.) precipitation 3.) sea levels (more powerful storms) 4.) snow cover (loss of glaciers) 5.) ocean acidity (Co2 reacts w/ water and makes carbonic acid. This decreases the availability of calcium carbonate, which is necessary for the shells and skeletons of many marine organisms)

Ecosystem diversity

1.) the extinction of populations of one species can have negative impacts on other species 2.) Some ecosystems heavily affected by humans or are faced with accelerated alteration (ex: more than half of the US wetlands had been drained and converted to agriculture.)

Case study: Decline of the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker

1.) the red cockade woodpecker requires mature pine forests where the undergrowth of the plants underneath these pine trees is low. B/c 2.) the birds need a clear flight path between their home trees and their feeding grounds. So in these trees, the birds will also drill holes into the living trees to create their nesting cavities. And when they're doing this, it causes the resin of the tree to drip down, which actually serves a purpose. It repels predators like snakes. 3.) breeding birds will abandon their nests when the vegetation is thick and higher than 4.5 meters 4.) in their habitats, in their preferred habitats, periodic fires have kept the undergrowth low, which favors their optimal conditions.

Global climate change - 4 key findings of the intergovernmental panel on climate change

1.) there is 95% certainty that human activities are responsible for global warming 2.) CO2 is at an "unprecedented" level not seen for at least the last 800,000 yr 3.) Sea level is set to continue to rise at a faster rate than over the pas 40 yr 4.) Over the last 2 decades, the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets have been melting and glaciers have receded in most parts of the world

study about clothing microfibers

1.) they experimentally washed fabrics and examined the effluent. 2.) found in the laundry effluent, these plastic fibers also remain after the wastewater treatment process and in the seawater 3.) certain textiles like fleece shed more than natural textiles

Nature Reserves - small vs. large debate

1.) whether to create fewer large reserves or more numerous small reserves. 2.) LARGE RESERVES: large, far ranging animals with low density populations require extensive habitats. Large reserves are less effected by edges 3.) SMALL RESERVES - more realistic and can slow the spread of disease through a population.

Are pharmaceuticals spreading to ecosystems? what drug does this include? Effects?

1.) yes, in low concentrations across the world's freshwater systems (due to incorrect disposal) 2.) estrogens (birth control). 3.) EFFECT: alters sexual differentiation of some fish species and shifted the female to male sex ratio towards females 4.) Psychoactive drugs like antipsychotics and antidepressants are only partially absorbed in digestion. Once excreted, they're not fully removed by wastewater treatment. Prozac are environmental contaminants of sewage and surface waters 5.) EFFECT: influence the behavior, physiology, and survival of aquatic organisms

How have humans 2X the supply of Earth's fixed nitrogen that available to primary producers?

1..) industrial fertilizers 2.) fossil fuel combustion 3.) cultivation of legumes 4.) human activities

EX: In a population of 1000, Let's say we had a 5050 sex ratio. We're all individuals for breeding. Whats the effective population size?

1000 individuals (100% b/c each individual is contributing) Equation: (4(500)(500))/(500 + 500) = 1000

Threatened Species - examples

13% of birds 22% mammals threatened (IUCN)

Climate Change and Disease - Types of effects

Direct effects and Indirect effects

Population Viability Analysis GOAL

Goal: One that will give at least 95% p(persistence) for 100 years despite the forseeable effects of demographic, environmental, and genetic stochasticity and natural catastrophies

biological magnification of PCBs has been found in the Great Lakes food web.

Herring gulls lay eggs w/ PCB levels that are 5000 times greater than the phytoplankton

Are hotspots permanent? How can we protect the most species?

Hotspots can also change with climate. So what might be favorable environmental conditions at this point in time are likely to shift in the future

Landscape Structure and Biodiversity

In response to the growing threats of biodiversity, there's been a dramatic increase in the number of protected areas that have been established.

The impact of atrazine on aquatic animals highlights how activities on land can influence our waterways. Eutrophication is a natural process, but one that can be accelerated by human activities. Name two characteristics of a eutrophic lake.

Two characteristics of Eutrophic lakes is that has high algal growth (poor water clarity) which causes poor light penetration in the water and low dissolved oxygen.

The process by which bacteria convert NH3 or NH4 to NO3- is known as: A.) eutrophication b.) Decomposition c.) nitrification d.) ammonifcation e.) denitrification

c.) nitrification

Population Conservation - critical habitat approach

focusing on the importance of critical habitat, the loss of which can cause populations to decline even if the population is above its MVP

what is the greatest threat to biodiversity?

human alteration of the habitat

habitat loss is caused by

human alteration of the habitat: 1.) losses due to agriculture 2.) urban development 3.) mining 4.) forestry 5.) pollution all contribute to habitat loss.

not all introduced species are considered invasive

if they are able to establish but fail to spread, they can still be introduced species but not yet considered invasive.

In terms of conservation, these population programs attempt to sustain the population size to ____

include the minimum viable number of actively reproducing individuals.

Effective population size is the _____

number of individuals that contribute genes to future populations (always some fraction of the total population.)

what types of species are more vulnerable to overharvesting?

organisms that have small population sizes are large organisms with low reproductive rates.

You are analyzing a population using the mark release recapture technique. Unfortunately the mark you used proved toxic to the individuals, and many marked individuals died prior to resampling. Did you over or under estimate the original population?

overestimate

What is the most common marine debris

plastic waste made from petroleum products are the most common marine debris - The global mass of produced plastic is greater than the overall mass of all terrestrial and marine animals combined - Anthropogenic mass: mass embedded in small inanimate objects made by humans (which increase rapidly vs. biomass which has not changed much in the past 100 years)

Once the MVP is determined that can be used for _____

population viability analysis, which will include things is the risk of extinction, that chance of recovery in the expected time of extinction

what is the best way to control invasive species? whats the mo0st successful?

prevention - Long term, ecosystem-level efforts

september 11th tribute lights

the September 11th tribute lights are impacting birds, causing behavior alterations and disorientation. - FOUND: turning off the lights when the densities of these birds were high minimized potentially fatal interactions.

Critical load

the amount of added nutrient that can be absorbed by plants without damaging ecosystem integrity

NYU greenhouse gas emissions come from___

the buildings

some species also show non acoustic communication

urban squirrels show tail flagging in addition to vocalizing in cities representing this multimodal shift, it to try to overcome the noise of cities.

Unprecedented levels of CO2

which is based on the comparison of atmospheric samples contained in ice cores and more direct measurements. More recent direct measurements provides evidence that atmospheric CO2 has increased since the Industrial Revolution.

Establishing Protected Areas - what are the deciding factors

biodiversity hotspots

FROM HW: Why are controls used in experiments? What is the control in this experiment

- Controls allows us to know if the experiment is actually testing what it is trying to test (increases the reliability of the experiment). - A control minimizes the effects of variables (that are not the independent variable) that could interfere with the experiment and results. - The control in the experiment were non exposed to atrazine male frogs reared to sexual maturity.

Berries

Fruits that come from a single ovary with multiple seeds

Hunting and Harvesting

- Remove individuals from a population

Vegetable

Anything that is a root, stem, or leaf of a plant

Invasion curve (of invasive species)

- by the time public awareness typically begins, a rat of eradication is unlikely. - by the time people see this invasive species as becoming a problem, it's already spread so much that even just trying to remove it by hand is, is going to be effortless. - when you get beyond the area of control: a lot of management and commitment is needed

increase of temp by climate change effects what?

- temperature affects the rate of enzymatic reactions, thus the rate of DNA replication, cell division -increased the risk of overheating in some species leading to reduced food intake and reproductive failure

Atrazine induces complete feminization and chemical castration in male African clawed frogs

- testes: filled with cellular debris - frogs can have multiple testes and ovaries

EX: In a population of 1000, only 400 males and 400 females breed. What does this mean?

640/800 = 0.8, meaning that 80% of the actual total population size. So the effective population size is always some fraction of the total population.

Moving Forward

Business as usual: CO2 emissions continue at current levels - In 2100, Earth's temperature will likely be 4⁰ C higher in than 1900 IF Emissions stopped immediately: the temperature would continue to rise by 0.6 ⁰ C - In 2100, Earth's temperature will likely be 1.5⁰ C higher than 1900 b/c it takes decades for the CO2 that's already been emitted in the atmosphere to warm the ocean

Ozone Depletion - caused by what?

CFC - human manufactured chlorofluorocarbons

Net zero emissions

CO2 produced - CO2 absorbed = 0

parasitic cordyceps fungi caused: A.) starling to display erratic behavior B.) killifish to display aggressive behavior C.) isopods to wonder into open spaces D.) fungus to grow out of the heads of ants E.) ants to eat slime balls from infected snails

D.) fungus to grow out of the heads of ants

Compared to the control animals atrazine-exposed frogs have all of the following excepts: A.) decreased levels of testosterone B.) reduced success in achieving amplexus C.) decreased breeding gland area D.) increased spermatogenesis

D.) increased spermatogenesis

DMW

DMW is a trasncription factor that controls aromatase (which turns on estrogen) - not present in genetic male frogs

How could conservation managers increase Ne and the genetic variation of the Yellowstone population?

Facilitate migration! Track bear movements, determine pathways of natural migration and favorable environmental conditions, establish corridors, encourage natural exchange of genetic information

Population Conservation - what does it focus on?

Focuses on population size, genetic diversity, and critical habitat

effective population size is influenced by ___?

Influenced by genetic variation and life history traits

Is overharvesting just about animals?

NO - any renewable or potentially renewable resource can be overharvested

Minimum viable population (MVP) - equation

Ne = (4NfNm)/(Nf + Nm) 1.) Nf and Nm are the number of females and the number of males, respectively, that breed successfully

Which of the following is an example of Batesian mimicry? a.) a butterfly that resembles a leaf b.) a nonvenomous larva of a moth that moves like a venomous snake c.) a fawn w/ fur coloring that camouflages it in the forest environment d.) a snapping turtle that uses its tongue to mimic a worm, thus attracting a fish

b.) a nonvenomous larva of a moth that moves like a venomous snake

How big does a population have to be to avoid the extinction vortex?

Minimum viable population (MVP) - Requires determining the effective population size, based on the population's breeding potential - it's not just the total population size because that can be misleading

Fruits

Ovaries of a flowering plant that develop after fertilization

Why does the urban white clover evolve to have decreased chemical defenses?

Plant defenses have a lower freezing tolerance - although cities can be warmer than their surrounding areas, the heat and human activities result in decreased snow than in rural areas. So without snow to insulate these plans, the clover in cities would poison itself if it made those chemical defenses.

What does habitat loss result in?

Results in small isolated patches, heavily fragmentated habitats - habitat fragmentation reduces species diversity because of a higher probability of extinction in small patches - loss of biodiversity

EX: male minnows exposed to small doses of Prozac vs. large doses

SMALL: they ignored females, they spent more time under a tile, reproduction decreased, and they took more time to capture prey LARGE: the females produced fewer eggs and males became aggressive, actually killing females in some cases

In the US, atrazine is commonly applied to agricultural areas in the Midwest, including Iowa and Nebraska. Which terrestrial biome best characterizes this area?

Temperate Grasslands (Prairies)

From the HW: List one way that the authors say that atrazine can influence the population size of exposed frogs

The exposure of atrazine results in reproductive issues for the frogs such as sex reversed males are only capable of producing genetic male offspring so the sex ratio in exposed populations would be skewed both by the production of chemically induced females and that those females can only produce genetically male offspring, this could lead to population extinction

The Extinction Vortex: Dangers of Small Population Sizes - definition

The loss of the genetic variation necessary to enable evolutionary responses to environmental change

you place a leaf pack in a forest. After 40 days of decomposition, which of the following components likely represents the majority of the remaining biomass in your leaf pack? a.) proteins and soluble b.) lignin c.) cellulose d.) glucose and simple sugars e.) areas of the leaf rich in N and P

b.) lignin

Can some infrastructure actually facilitate movement and decrease resistance to gene flow?

YES - urban vineyards, rocky substrates will actually facilitate movement and decrease that resistance to gene flow.

What was the genotype of the male frogs used in this study?

ZZ

What was the genotype of the atrazine induced females (sex reversed males) generated in the study?

ZZ - lack the W (DMW but aramotase is still activated)

A new disease has emerged in an isolated community of 500 people. You determine the infectious period to be 2 days and the transmission rate to be 0.002. Do you expect this disease to spread? a.) Yes, b/c R0 > 1 b.) yes, b/c R0 < 1 c.) no, b/c R0 > 1 d.) no, b/c R0 < 1

a.) Yes, b/c R0 > 1 R0 = SBL s = susptible B = transmission rate L = infectious rate

Why is CO2 the major contributor to global warming?

although CO2 is not as potent as the other greenhouse gases, it's found in such high levels, which is why it's the major contributor to global warming.

Biodiversity hotspots

are relatively small areas with a great concentration of endemic species and many endangered and threatened species.

If CO2 concentrations continue to rise at their current rate, what could happen?

corals could become rare on tropical and subtropical reads by 2050.

How does cloudy weather affect NEE? A.) increase GPP relative Re, NEE becomes more negative B.) increase GPP relative to Re, NEE becomes more positive c.) reduce GPP relative to Re, Nee becomes more negative d.) reduce GPP relative to Re, NEE becomes more positive

d.) reduce GPP relative to Re, NEE becomes more positive - rate NEE is more positive as CO2 is released into the atmosphere NEE = -NEP - NEE = carbon sink

What can a thin ozone layer cause?

damage DNA and results in poor phytoplankton growth

aggregate fruit

derived from more than one separate carpel

multiple fruit

derived from multiple flowers

Simple fruit

derived from single or several fused carpels

accessory fruit

derived from tissues other than the ovary - several separate carpels

Controls of frog study:

dilute ethanol (instead of ethanol and atrazine)

For example, in fish swim, in water that's been contaminated with antidepressants, often display_____

display behavioral changes

Changes over time: Phenological Change - Butterflies

earlier appearance of butterflies

Changes over time: Phenological Change - Amphibians

earlier choruses and spawning

how are these aspects of climate affecting ecosystems?

everything is or will be affected by climate change at the individual level, the population level, community and ecosystem level. (at all levels - Organismal, interspecific, ecosystem)

what do all causes of nutrient enrichment do? What does nutrient enrichment cause?

excessive nutrients can lead to eutrophication of lakes and dead zones of low oxygen levels along the coast

urban heat island effect

the heat that cities generate as a result of having many buildings and few trees or other vegetation - urban conditions absorb and trap heat

greenhouse effect is caused by:

the insulating effect of CO2

Bending Science

the process by which the culture of science regulation, and other segments of society can interact to suppress unfavorable or enhance favorable scientific results in many cases to advance economic/political/ideological ends

Case study: Decline of the Red-Cockaded Woodpecker - why are they in decline?

the right copied woodpecker is in decline, in part due to the destruction of the pine forests. So fire suppression, logging, agriculture, urban development, other human factors have reduced long leaf pine forests to 3% of their original area.

Urban Ecology

the study of the link between the physical and social dimensions of cities

why frogs?

they absorb atrazine much higher in their skin - global decline in amphibians (largely derive by fungal disease)

So based upon the knowledge of minimum viable population sizes, conservation biologists have learned that most national parks and reserves are actually _____

too small - nd the areas around these sites buffers will have to be expanded for biodiversity conservation.