west civ essay

1. What was the role of the Christian church in medieval Europe? What problems and challenges did it face? How did its leaders such as Pope Gregory VII, Pope Urban II and Pope Innocent III etc. try to improve its quality and defend its authority from secular powers?

The Medieval Church played a far greater role in Medieval England than the Church does today. In Medieval England, the Church dominated everybody's life. All Medieval people - be they village peasants or towns people - believed that God, Heaven and Hell all existed. From the very earliest of ages, the people were taught that the only way they could get to Heaven was if the Roman Catholic Church let them. Everybody would have been terrified of Hell and the people would have been told of the sheer horrors wait for them in Hell in the weekly services they attended. The control the Church had over the people was total. Peasants worked for free on Church land. This proved difficult for peasants as the time they spent working on Church land, could have been better spent working on their own plots of land producing food for their families. They paid 10% of what they earned in a year to the Church (this tax was called tithes). Tithes could be paid in either money or in goods produced by the peasant farmers. As peasants had little money, they almost always had to pay in seeds, harvested grain, animals etc. This usually caused a peasant a lot of hardship as seeds, for example, would be needed to feed a family the following year. A failure to pay tithes, so the peasants were told by the Church, would lead to their souls going to Hell after they had died. This is one reason why the Church was so wealthy. One of the reasons Henry VIII wanted to reform the Church was get hold of the Catholic Church's money. People were too scared not to pay tithes despite the difficulties it meant for them. You also had to pay for baptisms (if you were not baptized you could not go to Heaven when you died), marriages (there were no couples living together in Medieval times as the Church taught that this equaled sin) and burials - you had to be buried on holy land if your soul was to get to heaven. Whichever way you looked, the Church received money. The nobility died off from plague, during the plague the Church lost power-blamed for the deaths, the monarchs were the ones people looked for help with. They unified the people and promised a better life. Christians rituals and faith were part of everyday life; people received sacraments so they could have everlasting life with God -priests guided the people on moral issues and offered assistance to the sick and needy -church was largest building in village -main events of a person's life (Baptism, Marriage) took place at the Church -Christians required to pay tithe (1/10 of income), also papal supremacy authority that medieval popes claimed over all secular rulers including kings and emperors; -pope headed an army of churchmen who supervised church activities, pope had his own territories and armies. Also the cannon law -body of laws developed by the Church, based on religious teachings that governed many aspects of life including wills, marriages, and morals, if you disobeyed then you faced penalties. Even on women they were equal to men before God but on Earth they were seen as weak and easily led to sin. Gregory VII former monk who in 1073 became a pope and began another push for reform -wanted to limit the secular influence on the Church -insisted that the Church alone choose Church officials such as bishops -outlawed marriage for priests and prohibited simony, the selling of Church offices. Pope Urban II Leader of the Roman Catholic Church who asked European Christians to take up arms against Muslims, starting the Crusades, Urban II's movement took its first public shape at the Council of Piacenza, where, in March 1095, to capture Jerusalem, used famous slogan of gods will. Pope innocent III (c. 1160-1216) one of the most powerful and influential popes in history; exerted wide influence over the Christian regimes of Europe, claiming supremacy. Called upon Christian forces to begin The Fourth Crusade (crusaders ended up sacking Constantinople) via the fourth Lateran council 1215, called by Pope Innocent III, was a summons to spiritual reform; among things established: secrecy of the confessional, Real Presence, fixing the number of the sacraments at seven, enforcement of clerical celibacy. Presented 71 decrees, among these organizations of a 5th Crusade. those catered in Council engaged in little discussion and generally approved the decrees presented by Pope Innocent II. Council met at Rome's Lateran Palace in Nov 1215. Pope Innocent III believed secular power to be inferior. Pope Innocent III believe the pope was the undisputed head of the church. Pope Innocent III expanded the church by:, sending missionaries to Prussia, expanded and reformed the catholic church in Poland, and Pope Innocent III said pope is successor of Christ and has control over all secular authorities.

6. What was the Protestant Reformation? Why and how did it take place? Who were its champions? What did reformers such as Martin Luther and John Calvin advocate? What was the response of the papacy to the Protestant Movement? What is the enduring legacy of the Reformation?

The Protestant Reformation was a major 16th century European movement aimed initially at reforming the beliefs and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Its religious aspects were supplemented by ambitious political rulers who wanted to extend their power and control at the expense of the Church. The Reformation ended the unity imposed by medieval Christianity and, in the eyes of many historians, signaled the beginning of the modern era. A weakening of the old order was already under way in Northern Europe, as evidenced by the emergence of thriving new cities and a determined middle class. Over the centuries there had been many reform efforts within the Catholic Church, most notably a series of largely unsuccessful church councils. Popular support existed in some quarters for simplifying worship services and requiring a more dedicated clergy. In 1517, in one of the signal events of western history, Martin Luther, a German Augustinian monk, posted 95 theses on the church door in the university town of Wittenberg. That act was common academic practice of the day and served as an invitation to debate. Luther's propositions challenged some portions of Roman Catholic doctrine and a number of specific practices. Luther argued that the Bible, not the pope, was the central means to discern God's word — a view that was certain to raise eyebrows in Rome. Further, Luther maintained that justification (salvation) was granted by faith alone; good works and the sacraments were not necessary in order to be saved. Luther had been especially appalled by a common church practice of the day, the selling of indulgences. These papal documents were sold to penitents and promised them the remission of their sins. To Luther and other critics it appeared that salvation was for sale. Rome enthusiastically supported the use of indulgences as a means to raise money for a massive church project, the construction of St. Peter's basilica. There was nothing secret about Luther's challenges. He sent a copy to his bishop, who in turn forwarded the theses to Rome. The details of the development and spread of what would become Lutheranism are outside the confines of U.S. history, but it is important to note that the movement quickly gained adherents in the German states, the Netherlands, Scandinavia, Scotland and portions of France. Support came from sincere religious reformers, while others manipulated the movement to gain control of valuable church property. Not surprisingly, a Counter-Reformation developed to combat the new reforms and bolster the doctrine and practices of the Roman Catholic Church. The undisputed leader of this movement was Spain, then enjoying its "golden century." With wealth looted from New World sources, Spain was the dominant world power and closest ally of the pope. For a time England, too, remained loyal to Rome. Henry VIII used his writing talents to launch an attack on Lutheranism and was awarded the title of Defender of the Faith by the pope. Henry's loyalty, of course, later gave way to the more pressing need to preserve the Tudor dynasty. The term Protestant was not initially applied to the reformers, but later was used to describe all groups protesting Roman Catholic orthodoxy. Lutheranism would have some impact on the development of American history, but far more important were the efforts of the reformers of the reform movement. Ideas set forth by John Calvin, a French theologian living in Geneva, were particularly influential. The Puritans, Huguenots and Presbyterians played prominently in the settlement of America and in the molding of colonial beliefs and values. The Swiss Reformation began in 1519 with the sermons of Ulrich Zwingli, whose teachings largely paralleled Luther's. In 1541 John Calvin, a French Protestant who had spent the previous decade in exile writing his "Institutes of the Christian Religion," was invited to settle in Geneva and put his Reformed doctrine—which stressed God's power and humanity's predestined fate—into practice. The result was a theocratic regime of enforced, austere morality. Calvin's Geneva became a hotbed for Protestant exiles, and his doctrines quickly spread to Scotland, France, Transylvania and the Low Countries, where Dutch Calvinism became a religious and economic force for the next 400 years. Calvin is the father of the Reformed Church, which asserts the Calvinist doctrine that God is the absolute authority and believes in predestined salvation for a select few. The early reforms instituted by Calvin in Geneva called for religious authority over moral behavior, but at the same time sought to make religious authority and clergy independent of state control. Calvin's reformed theology has five principle points: the total depravity of humans; predestination; limited atonement; irresistible grace; and perseverance of the saints. Calvin and Reformation In 1536, Calvin published "Institutes of the Christian Religion" and established his Reformed Protestantism in Geneva. He wanted to create the ideal Protestant community in much the same way the Roman Catholic Church established its seat of power in Rome. Calvin urged the separation of church and state in Geneva, but he gave ultimate control to the church. He influenced the Reformation in two important ways. First, his concept of predestination and his popular postulate that God is the supreme authority became the theological hallmarks of future Protestant denominations such as the Huguenot, Puritan, Presbyterian, and the Reformed churches. Second, he influenced future Protestant-led governments to incorporate church authority into the affairs of the state. The Protestant Reformation in Europe in the first half of the 16th century seriously challenged the Roman Catholic Church. Before Martin Luther publicized his "95 Theses" attacking church corruption in 1517, virtually all Europeans belonged to the Catholic Church, but just 20 years later much of the continent belonged to the Reformed, or Protestant, church. Luther's critique of the existing church had become a new denomination in its own right. The Catholic Church was forced to respond, and did so in several different ways during a period known as the Counter-Reformation. Reforming the Catholic Church The Catholic Church recognized that some Protestant criticisms were valid, and successive sessions of the Council of Trent, held between 1545 and 1563, aimed to tackle these issues. No church council, as the Catholic Encyclopedia puts it, "has had so many questions of the greatest importance to decide." The council looked at some of the corruption then plaguing the church, including issues such as the sale of indulgences, a system in which rich people could effectively buy forgiveness for their sins. Ultimately, the council defined many important aspects of church life, such as the nature of original sin, the number of sacraments and Christ's presence in the Eucharist. New Organizations New organizations were founded as part of the reaction to the Reformation. Some, like the Italian-based Oratory of Divine Love, which focused on developing its members' spirituality and encouraging good works, were open to both clerics and lay people. Other organizations were purely religious societies, only open to clerics. One important example is the Society of Jesuits, founded in 1540 to spread Catholic beliefs. It was responsible for creating Catholic schools and colleges across the world to bring young people into the faith. Military Force Military expeditions become part of the secular reaction to the Reformation, as Catholic kings and princes sought to capture the territory of Protestant monarchs and at the same time enlarge their own estates. King Phillip II of Spain, backed by the king of France and Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, led a decades-long campaign against Protestants in the Low Countries (present-day Belgium and the Netherlands) and England, although he was ultimately unsuccessful in deposing England's Protestant Queen Elizabeth. His huge armada of 122 ships, launched in 1588 to invade England, was defeated by a combination of the English navy and British weather. Roman Inquisition Pope Paul III founded the Roman Inquisition in 1542 to deal with academic issues relating to theological thought. In 1559 the Inquisition published its first Index of Forbidden Books, effectively an act of censorship attempting to prevent Catholics being exposed to what the church regarded as heretical writings. The Inquisition also tried people deemed to have broken the church's rules and held the power to condemn those found guilty to death. Historian Francisco Bethencourt believes the Roman Inquisition achieved its aims; by 1580 Protestant resistance had been eradicated in Italy, and other groups operating on the edge of the church's rules had been brought into line.

2. How did national monarchies develop in medieval England, France and Germany? What were the accomplishments of the English monarchy? How did the French monarchy grow under rulers such as Louis IX? Why did the Holy Roman emperors fail to achieve political centralization?

The emerging national monarchies in late medieval Europe resulted in greater militarization and more warfare. After the Council of Constance, the papacy entered into a series of agreements with national monarchies called concordats. The result of these concordats was the granting of extensive authority to monarchs over the churches in their domain. The French king started out as a figurehead. After the collapse of the Carolingian Empire, the French nobility elected Hugh Capet, a great magnate in the Île-de-France, to be king in 987. This election saw the beginning of the Capetian line of kings. However, at the beginning, the Capetians had no real power outside of the Île. They were largely figureheads. This began to slowly change, beginning with Louis VI (reigned 1108-1137) who began to move to solidify royal power in the rest of his theoretical kingdom. This process was accelerated by Philip II (1180-1223), who reclaimed Normandy from the English kings and otherwise massively expanded the royal demesne. These expansions led to the implementation of a stronger bureaucracy, as the kings now needed to send representatives in order to carry out basic functions of government like the collection of taxes. Since the seat of power for the Capetians was still in Paris, this meant that France eventually became very centralized, with Paris as the focus. A secondary but important point, the Capetians were a long and very successful dynasty, followed by the Valois, were a cadet branch that also was very long and very successful. This meant that there were a minimum of succession crises, the royal power was consolidated in one region, and fathers and sons might work together and carry on specific political goals. Now in Germany, things started out similarly, maybe even a bit more favorably toward centralization than in France. Henry I, the Fowler, was elected king in 919, and he went on to found the Ottonian dynasty (named after his father, Otto duke of Saxony). The Ottonians had their power consolidated mostly in Saxony, which was actually larger than the Île-de-France. They also seem to have had more serious influence outside of their personal territory. The Ottonians fought several wars with the help of the rest of the German nobility, and they largely weren't challenged for control. However, Otto II (the third king in the dynasty) died suddenly, and the rule of Otto III was less stable because of this. Otto III died young and without heirs, and the next king was actually a cousin from Bavaria, Henry II. Henry II was also childless. This meant that there was no clear successor to the German throne. A new election was held, and Conrad I was elected king, marking the beginning of the Salian dynasty, originally based in Franconia. These dynastic shifts continued throughout the Middle Ages, moving the center of power around Germany as they happened. On top of this, the fact that the king had to keep being re-elected meant that the king couldn't necessarily alienate the other great magnates in Germany. All of this led to less centralization in Germany than in France. Because Germany was less centralized, a centralized government did not form. Instead, the kings ruled by traveling, a form of kingship known as peripatetic kingship (in English sometimes called the Royal Progress). Although they had bureaucrats just like the French, they didn't all centralize into one location. Instead, the king went to where the problems were, and his bureaucrats came to him. This meant that no centralized institutions of power, like the exchequer in England for example, developed. It also meant that more power was retained locally by the local lords. Ultimately, when the HRE began to break down as a unified political system in the early modern period, there weren't mechanisms in place to retain a centralized power, because there had never been a centralized power the holy roman emperors had with the popes and the catholic church in general, and their interest in Italy that took up a lot of their attention. Many bishops and abbots in the HRE had a territory over which they were worldly rulers, under the emperor. The pope in a sense was one of them, but important other ones were the three bishop-electors of the empire itself. The popes and the emperors needed each other, but in many conflicts between them the popes seemed to come out on top. And if the emperors couldn't curtail the powers of the prince-bishops, he couldn't really limit the powers of the other princes either. And then there's the problem of Italy. While we now tend to think of the HRE as the predecessor of Germany, for most of its history it extended into Italy, sometimes encompassing nearly all of Italy in fact. A number of emperors spent the larger part of their lives in Italy, trying to get or keep it under control. And also there they gradually gave a lot of local lords and cities more and more autonomy. In a sense the fragmentation of the HRE is clearly the failure of the emperors. But in another sense it is the way they kept the game going, of trying to rule a seemingly impossibly large and diverse empire. As an adult, Louis IX faced recurring conflicts with some of the most powerful nobles, such as Hugh X of Lusignan and Peter of Dreux. Simultaneously, Henry III of England tried to restore his continental possessions, but was defeated at the battle of Taillebourg. His reign saw the annexation of several provinces, notably Normandy, Maine and Provence. Louis IX was a reformer and developed French royal justice, in which the king is the supreme judge to whom anyone is able to appeal to seek the amendment of a judgment. He banned trials by ordeal, tried to prevent the private wars that were plaguing the country and introduced the presumption of innocence in criminal procedure. To enforce the correct application of this new legal system, Louis IX created provosts and bailiffs. According to his vow made after a serious illness, and confirmed after a miraculous cure, Louis IX took an active part in the Seventh and Eighth Crusade in which he died from dysentery. He was succeeded by his son Philip III. Louis's actions were inspired by Christian values and Catholic devotion. He decided to punish blasphemy, gambling, interest-bearing loans and prostitution, and bought presumed relics of Christ for which he built the Sainte-Chapelle. He also expanded the scope of the Inquisition and ordered the burning of Talmuds. He is the only canonized king of France, and there are consequently many places named after him.

3. What major crises did Europeans face in the Late Middle Ages (14th and 15th centuries)? How did they cope with them? What was the impact of these crises? How did the humanists in this period react to the crises of their time?

The first disaster to hit Europe was famine. Some of the agricultural success of the High Middle Ages had been due to improved weather conditions, what's called the Medieval Warm Period (800-1300). Around 1300, Europe begins to cool off, and there is the beginning of what is called the Little Ice Age (1300-1870). Bad weather conditions meant bad harvests, particularly in 1315, 1316, and 1317. Harvests were so bad farmers ended up eating their seed corn, and, with no seed to plant, future harvests weren't going to be much good either. Food shortages led to widespread malnutrition, increased vulnerability to disease, and shorter life expectancy. Another disaster to hit the Europe at this time: out of control diseases. The worst of these diseases was the Black Death, a disease that hit around 1348 and, within a couple of years, wiped out 1/3 of Europe's people. In addition to killing lots of people, the Black Death had a lasting and very negative effect on medicine. The Black Death was really three different diseases: Bubonic, Pneumonic, and Septicemia Plague. Each form was spread in a different way: the first via rats and fleas, the second through the air, and the third through exchange of bodily fluids. No wonder the doctors were mystified! And, unfortunately, the disease tended to kill the best of the doctors, the ones who cared most about their patients. This opened the door to the medical charlatans, the miracle-cure pushers. And once that door opened up, it was mighty hard to close again. Similar was the effect of the Black Death on religion. The disease tended to kill off the best of those in religious life, those who cared most for others. The best priests tended to be carried off first by the Black Death because they visited the sick, giving the victims the last rights or other spiritual solace. Their high-level exposure rates meant a great chance that they too would catch the disease and die. The death of such individuals opened up the door to religious quackery. Groups like the flagellants traveled from place to place whipping one another, trying to punish themselves so God wouldn't punish them with the Black Death. And a small love offering from you would help you share in the work--and, hopefully, help you avoid God's wrath as well. The Black Death also tended to aggravate social tension. Jews and Christians had, for the most part, gotten along well before the Black Death. But the Jewish community was not affected as greatly by the Black Death as their Christian neighbors. A kosher lifestyle is a cleaner lifestyle. More cleanliness meant fewer rats, fewer fleas, and not as much likelihood of the disease spreading. Christians didn't understand this. They thought the Jews were poisoning the wells, and, to get even they attacked Jews. This helped lead to lasting anti-Semitism in Europe. Likewise, people on the margins of society (widows, poor people) became suspect during the Black Death. Thinking that the disease might be brought on by the curse of "witches," Europeans began hunting down and exterminating those who they though were trafficking with the devil. And fear of witches just doesn't go away: it's still around centuries later. In addition, the Black Death had a negative impact on morality. The good, helpful people tended to die. Why bother being good if you were going to die tomorrow anyway? A third disaster hitting the High Middle Ages was war. As an example, the Hundred Years' War (1337-1453). This war was fought over who would be king of France. The English king (Edward III) had a good claim to the throne, but the French nobles preferred a candidate of their own (Philip VI). This led to a war that couldn't be ended. The English had the advantage in direct battle do the long bow, but not enough troops to effectively control the country as a whole. The French knights avoided the direct battles that were disastrous to them, so the English tried to force them to fight be devastating the countryside. Horrible for the peasants! In 1415, the battle of Agincourt resulted in another English victory, and, finally, it seemed that France and England would end up ruled by the same king, Henry V of England. But shortly after the death of Henry V, France Joan or Arc rallies the French, and helps her candidate for King (Charles VII) regain control of a substantial part of France. Joan is eventually betrayed into the hands of the English who burn her as a witch, but her work survives, and the English never regain the upper hand in France. The war drifts on until 1453, and it's really hard to find anything good to come out of the 100 plus years of fighting. There is a certain amount of class tension in all societies, but it's usually manageable. It's a sick, sick society where class hatreds get as out of control as they do in the Jacquerie. Making it hard for Europeans to deal with disasters like the above is the fact that Europe at this time did not have the kind of strong leadership it had had earlier. After the death of Philip IV, France has a string of weak, sometimes mentally incompetent, kings. England has able kings, but they are busy trying to add France to their dominions and don't govern as effectively as they might have. The power of the Holy Roman Emperors had been broken as a result of disputes with the papacy. The pope had gone so far as to declare a crusade against one of the last strong emperors, Frederick II (d. 1250), and Frederick had ended up giving up too much of his authority to his nobles. By the 14th century, the emperors were weak--sometimes little more than figureheads. Even more of a problem for Europe, though, the fact that the popes were in no position to provide spiritual leadership. The popes made the mistake of moving their center of operations to Avignon in France, and, from 1309-1376, the popes resided in France rather than Italy. During this period (the Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy or, perhaps better, the period of the Avignon Papacy), the pope seemed a tool of the French king. Further, while one can make a good case that the bishop of Rome has special authority as the "vicar of Peter," there is nothing special about the bishop of Avignon. By moving out of Rome, the papacy lost considerable claim to authority. In 1376, the college of cardinals went to Rome to elect a new pope. They chose an Italian pope, popular with the people of Rome. But, once in office, the guy turned out to be a reformer--and he started his reform at the top, with the cardinals themselves. Resenting this, the cardinals claimed they had made a mistake. They select a different pope, a man more to their liking. But the first guy won't step down, and so, from 1378 to 1409, there were two popes. This is the beginning of the Great Papal Schism, another episode the weakened papal authority. In 1409, church officials at the Council of Pisa tried to solve the problem by deposing both popes and setting up a third "compromise" pope. But neither of the other popes would give up their claims, and so for a time there were three popes. Finally, the council of Constance ended the dispute (1415), but the damage had been done: the popes prestige and influence was permanently weakened. A real shame for Europe in a peril The Birth of Humanism and Individualism in Learning: Renaissance scholars engaged in a new philosophy of learning, that of Humanism, which emphasized the "humane" literature of the ancient classical writers who had regarded man as a living person interacting in a vital, dynamic world. These "Humanist" scholars initially studied rhetoric, or literary prose composition and exposition. They soon began to delve into other areas such as history, astronomy, physics, mathematics, chemistry, medicine, poetry, philosophy, politics, and the fine arts. The entire focus of scholarship thus shifted away from otherworldly contemplations to more mundane, or secular ones. Thus, by extension, the focus was away from God and religion, to man and society. Individualism became the byword of the Humanists. Whatever study contributed to the better understanding of the individual in his life in the here-and-now was fodder for the Humanists. Renaissance individualism was characterized by the search for great heroes and great accomplishments--the person was elevated over the spirit. 3. The Ideal of the "Renaissance Man:" The ideal Renaissance man was one who had an insatiable curiosity, broad interests and many talents. He should be the master of all he undertook or studied, and he should be engaged in studying many things. He should work toward developing a sharp, critical, questioning mind which did not rely on unquestioning faith; and, he should work toward maximizing his potential throughout his lifetime. Even now, we have a certain awe and respect for someone who is talented in several different pursuits simultaneously. The most famous Renaissance men during the time were Lorenzo de Medici "The Magnificent" of Florence--capitalist, banker, politician, and patron of the arts; Leonardo daVinci--painter, sculptor, architect and inventor; Michaelangelo--painter and sculptor; Galileo--physics (discovered the law of falling objects), mathematics (dynamics and motion), astronomy (developed the telescope and produced evidence to support Copernicus' theory that the Earth revolves around the sun); and, Niccolo Machiavelli--formulated early principles of scientific statesmanship and founded the modern study of political science. Other notables are Dante (Divine Comedy); Petrarch ("the Father of Humanism"); Boccaccio (The Decameron).

4. What was the Renaissance? Why and how did Renaissance writers and artists revive classical traditions? How did the political and church leaders during this time make use of the forms and styles of the Renaissance?

The renaissance was the cultural rebirth that occurred in Europe from roughly the fourteenth through the middle of the seventeenth centuries, based on the rediscovery of the literature of Greece and Rome. Artists, architects, and writers used realistic techniques. Their work reflected the Renaissance ideals of humanism, an appreciation of the classics, and curiosity. The medieval worldview was shaped by religion; it accepted tradition and the idea that only God was perfect. In contrast, the Renaissance worldview was shaped by inquiry, exploration, and the idea that humans could perfect themselves. But the Renaissance was much more than a rebirth of classical art. It was a rejection of the Middle Ages, which were just ending. During medieval times, the arts were concerned mainly with religion, with the life of the spirit, with the hereafter. Little importance was given to life on earth except as a preparation for the next world. But as the 15th century began, Italians were turning their attention to the world about them. People started to think more about secular, or nonreligious, matters. They began placing faith in their own qualities and their own importance. This new spirit was called humanism. Discipline, unquestioning faith, obedience to authority--these medieval virtues were no longer blindly accepted. People asked questions and wanted to find their own answers. Artists were among the first affected by the new spirit of humanism. In their work they began to focus on human life on earth. The spirit of humanism was expressed by the painter Giotto di Bondone (1267?-1337) a century before the Renaissance actually began. Giotto's religious pictures were painted with great sympathy for the human qualities of his subjects. Holy figures are shown in countryside settings, dressed in worn and commonplace clothing. Giotto's lovely paintings seem to have been created especially for the common people of his time. Never before in Christian art had viewers been reminded that the saints of their religion were peasants like them. The climax of late 15th-century painting came in the work of Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519). Leonardo studied painting in Florence, but he spent much of his life working in Milan. The last few years of his life were spent in France in the service of King Francis I. Martin Luther was one of the most notable reformers in history, was one of the key reformers during the renaissance. October 1517 95 faults saw within the roman catholic church, called the protestant reformation. Saw that the catholic church was unfit for the religious duties and needed reform. Luther stepped uo to present his beliefs against the established church, where he had been excommunicated with creating a new division of Christianity. Henry VIII due to nullifying his marriage had to strip the power of the church of England, when henry split off the papal authority in England, the church forebade henry should marry someone other than royal blood.

5. What motivated Europeans in their maritime explorations in the 15th and 16th centuries? What were the results of their voyages and explorations? How did European explorations change the world?

There were many factors that influenced Europeans to pursue maritime explorations. During this time European resources were depleting, and they needed resources as well as new land to colonize. Europe had also been rebounding from the plague, and trees were needed to rebuild homes and ships. Finding abundant resources of timber were critical for all European nations. The "New World" was the perfect candidate because it offered an abundance of timber. Other resources such as precious metals, specifically gold, drove expeditions. In 1519 Hernan Cortez was made famous for this by conquering the Aztec empire in Mexico, one of the largest deposits of gold in the world. In addition to natural resources, conquered territories were also used for slave labor, making slaves work in agriculture, building, and mining producing commodities for export to the Old World. Rivalry among European monarchs also drove competition in finding lands. Once a land was claimed by a European nation, higher status and prestige was received by the monarchs. The period of European exploration introduced the people of Europe to the existence of new cultures worldwide. Before the fifteenth century, Europeans had minimal knowledge of the people and places beyond the boundaries of Europe, particularly Africa and Asia. Before the discovery of the Americas, Europeans did not even know of its existence. Europeans presumed that the world was much smaller than it was in actuality. This led early explorers such as Columbus and Magellan to believe that finding new routes to the Far East would be much easier than it turned out to be. Profound misconceptions about geography and the cultures of local populations would change very slowly throughout the early centuries of European exploration. By the sixteenth century, European maps started to expand their depictions and representations to include new geographic discoveries. However, due to the intense political rivalries during the period, European states guarded their geographic knowledge and findings from one another. Religious Factors: One of the tenets of Catholicism decreed that Christianity ought to be the universal religion and faith among all mankind. The Crusades in the centuries preceding the Age of Exploration exposed Europeans to new places, people, and goods. It also reflected the zealous nature of medieval Christianity and foreshadowed the fervent missionary work that would form a major part of all early global expeditions. The pope played an important and validating role in these voyages by sanctioning and encouraging worldwide exploration. This often included the approbation of enslaving Africans and indigenous peoples. Missionaries were frequently a part of the early expeditions of Spain with the aim of bringing Christianity to the native inhabitants. Europeans typically viewed indigenous populations as barbaric heathens who could only become civilized through the adoption of Christianity. Summary: The age of European exploration and discovery represented a new period of global interaction and interconnectivity. As a result of technological advancements, Europeans were able to forge into new and previously undiscovered territories. They understood this to be a "New World." European exploration was driven by multiple factors, including economic, political, and religious incentives. The growing desire to fulfill European demand for luxury goods, and the desire to unearth precious materials such as gold and silver, acted as a particularly crucial motivation. The period of European global exploration sparked the beginning phases of European empire and colonialism, which would continue to develop and intensify over the course of the next several centuries. As European exploration evolved and flourished, it saw the increasing oppression of native populations and the enslavement of Africans. During this period, Europeans increasingly dealt in African slaves and started the transatlantic slave trade.