Women and Gender Studies Final Study Guide

Explain the two masculine rules of Roman sexual conduct.

The prime directive of masculine sexual behavior stated that the male should play the insertive role. The rule of masculine self-restraint said that a free-born man would limit his sex to his wife, or, if single, non-citizens.

In what ways do white males control the knowledge validation process? How does this process suppress Black feminist thought?

When white males control the knowledge validation process, political criteria automatically works against Black Feminist thought. General culture is permeated by inferiority and new claims would seem to violate those assumptions and be viewed as anomalies. White men fail to challenge notions of inferiority in the academic community because of questions that could be asked and explanations that might be found.

What three kinds of individual homophobia does Herek identify?

defensive-expressive homophobia, social-expressive homophobia, and value-expressed homophobia

How do academic institutions use Black women to further exclude the majority of Black women from the knowledge validation process?

Academic Institutions permit some Black women to hold authority positions and encourage them to work within inferior assumptions of the culture. Those who accept these assumptions are rewarded while remaining in a suppressed environment, but those who challenge the system run the risk of losing authority entirely.

How have Asian Americans, African Americans, Latinos, and Native Americans faced discrimination throughout American history?

Asian Americans were placed in internment camps during WW2 as well as the the Chinese Exclusion Act which made them not be able to naturalize. African Americans were enslaved, discriminated against, killed, and segregated from the white people. Latinos were and still are deported everyday and not allowed into the US. Native Americans were kicked off their lands when colonization began and were killed off.

Why does hooks draw a distinction between media coverage of gender issues and media coverage of feminism?

The portrayal of gender issues in media is often proactive and positive. Issues are urgently addressed and seen as something to fix. However, feminism in media is a negative, risky word. The term is radicalized to the point it is seen as wrong and over-the-top.

Explain the difference between the following stereotypes of Black women: jezebel, mammy, Black lady. Which of these does Springer find problematic and why?

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In what ways do Black women face both hypersexualization and desexualization? How are Black women "damned if they do, damned if they don't"?

***Black women face the double-bind of sexualization. By owning sexuality, they appear to conform to the "Jezebel" label, while rejecting or suppressing sexuality puts them in the other, asexual categories.

How did perceptions of the insertive and penetrative roles in male same-sex relations differ in ancient Rome? How are these similar in many Latin American cultures today?

***In Rome, masculine sexual behavior was of utmost importance. Being the penetrating partner as a male was the defining factor of being the dominant individual. In modern Latin American culture, the "activo sex role" or penetrative role is manly or not truly gay. The pasivo role or penetrated person is seen as effeminate.

How and why does evidence differ regarding male and female same-sex relations in ancient Greece and Rome?

***Women didn't keep the records in ancient Greece or Rome. Men were the primary record keepers; therefore, their sexual encounters were sometimes recorded in history.

Does hooks believe any woman could be called a feminist regardless of her political beliefs?

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How has the expanded use and self-application of the term "feminist" potentially undermined its meaning and the goals of the feminist movement?

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How do the Kinsey Scale, Klein Grid, and Storm's Scale measure sexual orientation differently?

-The Kinsey Scale is a rating of sexuality from exclusively heterosexual to exclusively homosexual. It does not represent the range in between. -The Klein Grid is seven dimensions that take into account factors including (but not limited to) sexual attraction, behavior, fantasies, and emotional preference. -Storm's Scale is based on the type, extent, and frequency of sexual fantasies. It is a chart that categorizes individuals into 4 categories: homosexual, bisexual, asexual, and hetero.

How have changes in the nature of sexual bonds within heterosexual couples affected domestic responsibilities for household chores and childcare?

At first it appeared that changes in the nature of sexual bonds would lead to other changes in domestic relationships (that men would also do an equal share of household chores and child care). Nowadays so many males acknowledge that they should do house-hold chores, whether they actually do them or not, that young women see no need to make sharing chores an issue; they just accept this as a norm.

Why does hooks cast doubt on the assumption that women are inherently more caring?

Because that is a stereotypical way of thinking about women. Hooks says that women, toward others outside of their circle, don't extend the care. Men can be caring as well, sometimes even more than women.

What were potential benefits of female sexual liberation?

Before sexual liberation, most women found it difficult, if not impossible, to assert healthy sexual agency. Sexist thinking taught to females made it clear that the domain of sexual desire and pleasure was always and only male, that only a female of little or no virtue would claim having sexual needs. Females had no basis on which to construct a healthy sexual self. Luckily the feminist movement challenged sexist sexual stereotypes. Today, females face few obstacles inhibiting their expression of sexual desire and freedom, pleasure, and delight.

Why do bisexuals often face discrimination from some gay people?

Bisexual individuals are sometimes discriminated against within the gay community because they are often overlooked or told they have it easy. The primary focus is heterosexuality or homosexuality, and gay rights is encouraged over bisexual rights. This action is called bisexual erasure.

According to Hill, what are the key features of an Afrocentric feminist epistemology?

Black societies have elements of core value systems that existed before and independent of oppression. As a result of colonialism, slavery, and other issues, Blacks share a common thread of oppression. Similarities in their conditions foster values that permeate family, religion, and culture. Like Black oppression, gender discrimination built a connection to cultural and social structures that influence Black feminism today.

How did capitalism and industrialization provide more opportunities for same-sex relations and undermine the norms that made heterosexual relations compulsory?

Capitalism and industrialization created importance in urban areas. The closely connected society offered easier opportunities for same-sex relations. Norms started in rural cultures became undermined because children had been necessary to work on farms, but in the city they were less important. Same-sex couples would not suffer economically as they might have in rural communities.

What are the requirements of positivist methodological approaches, and why might Black women be inclined to use an alternative epistemology?

Collins is critical of the removal of bias in studies on topics such as racial inequality. She believes it is critical to generate knowledge from personal experiences as this will create effective, real evidence. It fights against studies in which neutrality is often forced.

How are the cultural representations of Black women and men deeply associated with the history of slavery and continued racism in American society?

Discrimination of Black women and men throughout history influences the treatment of Black people in modern society. Slavery and servitude set a tone of inferiority toward Black people at an early time. This carried into anti-Black attitudes and laws in the mid-1900s. People of color were othered, and this resulted in the othering of Black people today. This "total discrimination" is a combined effect of past and present discrimination.

Why did early feminists focus so heavily on marriage?

Early feminists focused on marriage because they saw an injustice and inequality within the marriage construct. It encouraged a patriarchy that women were controlled physically, financially, and sexually in. They highlighted the way traditionally sexist bonds led to marriages where elements of intimacy, care, and respect were sacrificed so that men could be on top - could be patriarchs ruling the home.

What were the features of early consciousness-raising groups in the feminist movement, and how have those features changed as the movement has progressed?

Early groups in the feminist movement banded together to share experiences that affected them in a gender situation. These groups were often racially exclusive (white women meeting with other whites, black women with other black women, etc.) and very private. As the movement has progressed, solidarity and support groups have extended to include all races, genders, and sexualities. The issue of feminism is not only observed by women, it is a movement with allies that extend outside of the affected group. The constant is the encouragement through shared experiences and practical discussion of the current state of feminism.

How can feminist theories be made more accessible?

Exposing people to feminist theories from an early age is a way to make it more accessible. Implementing it in children's books, television, and curriculum is key in encouraging early feminist thought. Another way to spread feminist theory is making it more available to those who can't afford or decide to not pursue higher education. Currently, feminist theory is only available on college campuses in certain courses.

Why does feminism require an examination of class and race, as well as gender?

Feminism encourages all of us to courageously examine our lives from the standpoint of gender, race, and class so that we can accurately understand our position within the imperialist white supremacist capitalist patriarchy. For years many feminist women held to the misguided assumption that gender was the sole factor determining their status. Breaking through this denial was a crucial turning point for feminist politics. It enabled women to face the way biases of race and class had led to the formation of a women's movement that was not mass-based.

What are the three categories of homophobia identified in the text?

Internalized homophobia, homophobia/sexual prejudice, and institutional homophobia

In what ways did feminist movements ignore or erase race, and how did this benefit white women?

Feminist movements focused on issues that predominately affected white, middle to upper-class women. Suffrage, abortion rights, and equality in the workforce were agendas pushed by white feminists when minorities simply needed basic rights, sexual healthcare, and jobs in general.

Why did ancient civilizations lack a term for homosexuals as a category or group?

Foucault wrote that before the late 19th century, homosexuality was unrecognized. This doesn't mean homosexuality didn't exist; it means up until this point, homosexual people were not labeled as a distinct kind of person.

In what ways is heterosexuality compulsory or centered in our culture? What are common forms of heteronormativity?

Heterosexuality is the primary focus if society's sexual gaze. Film, television, books, and media are saturated with heterosexual content. Heteronormativity is common in traditional marriages, children's media, high school proms, etc.

Why does hooks believe racial critiques of the women's movement strengthen the movement rather than weakening it?

Hooks demanded that we look at the status of females realistically, and that realistic understanding serve as the foundation for a real feminist politic. The intent was not to diminish the vision of sisterhood. She sought to put in place concrete politics of solidarity that would make genuine sisterhood possible. There could no real sisterhood between white women and women of color if the feminist movement were not fundamentally anti-racist.

What does hooks mean by "Feminists are made, not born"?

Hooks quotation "Feminists are made, not born." is an observation of the learned feminists beliefs. In a society pressed by patriarchy and gender inequality, it is difficult to form these beliefs and ideas for action. The making happens through personal injustices rooted in anti-feminism and the collecting of knowledge. Feminists are taught through shared experiences, women's studies, and empowering female content the basis for a feminist lifestyle.

Which parents does hooks believe are more often the transmitters of sexist thinking?

Hooks says the more common transmitters of sexist thinking are female parents. Even in situations where there is not a male parent present, women taught children sexist thinking.

Explain how race and ethnicity are socially constructed in American society.

Society has made up cultures, personalities, and traditions, assigned them to races and ethnicities, and then said "this is what race/ethnicity mean." The construct is so ingrained in our world that these racial and ethnic categories are recognized on a government, educational, and social level.

Hooks identifies the dream of radical/revolutionary feminism in the quote below. What does this mean? "The dream was of replacing that culture of domination with a world of participatory economics grounded in communalism and social democracy, a world without discrimination based on race or gender, a world where recognition of mutuality and interdependency would be the dominant ethos, a global ecological vision of how the planet can survive and how everyone on it can have access to peace and well-being."

Hooks' descrition of revolutionary feminism emphasizes community and unified, peaceful thinking. She paints a picture of a non-sexist, non-racist world in which the primary goal is to better the planet and its inhabitants.

In early modern England, why was chaste femme love relatively acceptable? Why was heterosexuality not always compulsory for women, even if marriage was?

In England at the time, marriage was important while heterosexuality was not. Erotic activity between women was normal and often encouraged as it was seen as a preservation of chastity for their future partner. Femme love was labeled "chaste" because the women weren't having "real sex." Therefore, they remained pure while fulfilling sexual desires.

According to hooks, how are children viewed and treated within the patriarchal culture of domination?

In a culture of domination where children have no civil rights, those who are powerful, adult males and females, can exert autocratic rule of children. This domination, often physical, enforces the patriarchy designed by hegemonic masculinity.

Why does hooks believe the disparagement of single mothers is anti-feminist?

In a culture which holds the two-parent patriarchal family in higher esteem than any other arrangement, all children feel emotionally insecure when their family does not measure up to the standard. A utopian vision of the patriarchal family remains intact despite all the evidence which proves that the well-being of children is no more secure in the dysfunctional male-headed household than in the dysfunctional female-headed household.

Why were celibacy, lesbianism, non-monogamy, and rejection of marriage viewed as potential solutions to male domination?

In a sex-dominated culture that orbits around male satisfaction, these practices rejected satisfying males and promoted self-pleasure and partnership outside of the male circle.

How did domestic heterosexuality reshape ideas about marriage and by doing so render chaste femme love unacceptable?

In the 17th century, society began to push erotic desire in marriages in which emotions between partners could be expressed through sex. With this shift, romantic relationships between women began to be viewed as taboo and unchaste.

Why was Alfred Kinsey opposed to the use of terms "homosexual" and "heterosexual" as nouns?

Kinsey disagreed with using "homosexual" and "heterosexual" as nouns. He believed the terms should be used as adjectives because homosexual and heterosexual, in his opinion, were not sexual types.

What does each letter in LGBTQQIAA stand for, and what does each of these terms mean?

Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans, Queer, Questioning, Intersex, Asexual, Allies. Lesbian- woman + woman Gay- man + man Bi- man + woman or man, vise versa Trans- assigned gender different from current gender identity; crossing gender boundaries Queer- anti-binary thinking of gender and sex categories Questioning- unsure of their sexual identity Intersex- have sexual characteristics of male and female Asexual- little to no sexual attraction to others Ally- supporters of the LGBT+ movement

How have the issues affecting a relatively small group of privilege white women been emphasized at the expense of issues affecting lower-middle-class and working-class women? How does this reflect capitalist patriarchal ideas?

Mainstream patriarchy reinforced the idea that the concerns of women from privileged-class groups were the only ones worthy of receiving attention. Feminist efforts to grant women social equality with men of their class neatly coincided with white supremacist capitalist patriarchal fears that white power would diminish if nonwhite people gained equal access to economic power and privilege.

Why has the transgender movement been closely allied with the gay community and gay activism?

Many of those who identify as transgender are not automatically gay, but they are closely linked to the gay community. This is because many transgender people feel socially and politically at home in this group. Some do identify as gay, lesbian, etc. while others find connection in the shared battle against discrimination.

How do men who adhere to the "Playboy norm" view lesbianism through the lens of their own heterosexual desire?

Men who follow this norm prefer casual, sexual encounters with multiple women and no commitment. This norm results in what seems an acceptance of lesbian women, but is rather a sexualization of lesbians and lesbian sex. In doing this, they take a concept outside of their own sexual orbit and pull it in through erotic views and a reduction of lesbianism.

Why has feminism critiqued the cultural emphasis on mothering? How has this affected the nature of marriage and long-term partnerships?

Once a woman's worth was no longer determined by whether or not she birthed and raised children it was possible for a two-career couple who wanted to remain childless to envision a peer marriage (a relationship between equals.) The absence of children made it easier to be peers simply because the way in which society automatically assumes certain tasks will be done by mothers almost always makes it harder for women to achieve gender equity around child care.

What is the process of "othering"? How does this process explain why middle-class white people often regard themselves as the norm or unmarked group?

Othering is the process of making distinctions between groups with the intent of one being superior and the other inferior or "other." Those in the majority or more powerful group are automatically unmarked and ordinary. The different, smaller minority groups are othered and their differences are focused on.

Why does hooks believe patriarchal domination is primarily responsible for divorce, rather than feminist critiques of traditional marriage?

Patriarchal male domination in marriage and partnerships has been the primary force creating breakups and divorces in our society. All recent studies of successful marriages show that gender equity creates a context where each member of the couple is likely to be affirmed. This affirmation creates greater happiness, and, even if the marriage does not last forever, a peer friendship that has been the foundation of the bond continues.

How are ideas about sex often phallocentric?

Phallocentrism means that everything involving sex is penis- based. For example, in early Europe, women who engaged in sexual activity not involving a penis were not considered sexually active. This implied that sex was only definable by phallic penetration.

How and why are physical and emotional abuse against children normalized and accepted, even by women?

Physical and emotional abuse against children is normalized because society frames it as discipline rather than abuse. Often it is a tactic used by both male and female parents to punish children for stepping out of line behaviorally or displaying "incorrect" gender roles.

Do races have essential phenotypic or genetic traits properties?

Races do not have essential, defining traits or properties. The phenotypes we identify with certain races are not exclusive to that race. They are a social construct and categorization. Skin color, bone structure, etc. vary within each group of people.

How does hooks think the visions of radical/revolutionary feminists and reformist feminists differ?

Reformists wanted to work within the current system to change smaller oppressive constructs. This tactic felt safer, but it made the movement more vulnerable to assimilation by mainstream capitalist patriarchy. Radicals wanted to start a new system entirely.

In what ways and under what conditions were same-sex relations accepted in ancient Greece and Rome?

Same-sex relations had "rules" that as long as the one being penetrated was of lower status, class, or vocation, then it was decent to have these relations. If the superior male was penetrated, this was seen as inappropriate.

According to Springer, what does queering Black female heterosexuality entail?

Springer believes to "queer" black sexuality is to not conform to the given boxes and express individual sexual interests and needs. She encourages speaking openly and honestly about personal sexuality so that one can determine it for themselves.

How do straight male and straight female homonegativity typically differ?

Straight male homonegativity often comes from a place of insecurity and defense of their own masculinity. They treat gay men as threats to patriarchal privilege and gay women are erotic figures. Straight female homonegativity is less intense as women do not express the phobia as a defensive-expressive proof of femininity.

Identify the advantages and disadvantages of the institutionalization of women's studies.

The advantage of institutionalized women's studies is bringing awareness to the issues surrounding gender inequality. School courses and safe spaces for discussion of these issues gives women a voice to shared their own experiences and learn about others. Disadvantages include the inaccessibility of this education. Those who can't afford higher education (where this form of study is most prevalent) don't benefit from its institutionalization. Another danger is the possibility that men can control what is taught in these courses. They are often the administrative superiors, so it's easy for them to control this information.

What does it mean to want civil rights without feminism?

The desire for civil rights without feminism means that today many women want civil rights without feminism. They want the system of patriarchy to remain intact in the private sphere even as they desire equality in the public sphere.

What were common double standards for men and women in marriages?

The double standard in relation to sexuality condemned females who were not virgins or faithful lovers and spouses while allowing men the space to do whatever they desired sexually and have their behavior condoned.

How did non-monogamous relationships inadvertently benefit sexist males?

The emphasis on monogamy in heterosexual bonds within patriarchy was often harder for couples to break with sexist ideals. Within patriarchy many feminist women found that non-monogamous relationships simply gave men more power while undermining women. Women would freely choose to have sex with a man who is partnered with another woman, men would often show no sexual interest in a woman who is partnered. Or they would continually give power to the male the woman is partnered with, even going so far as to seek his approval of their involvement.

How does the gender-based model of sexual identity differ from the object choice model of sexual identity?

The gender-based model of sexual identity is based on gender enactment rather than the sex of an individual. Object choice model of sexual identity is where homo, hetero, and bisexuality are determined based on the sex of the person and the person one is attracted to.

What happened at the Stonewall riots?

The modern Gay Rights movement began with the Stonewall Riots in New York City. Police officers tried to close down the Inn and arrest several Mafia members and transvestites. The patrons began to resist and Molotov cocktails were thrown at police in the Inn. Fights between police and patrons lasted for 6 days. The riots were said to have changed the small movement into a massive one.

Why is there a growing socioeconomic divide in contemporary American society?

The socioeconomic divide is growing because the top 1% of Americans controls 43% of the total wealth. The 1% is able to promote their own interests and push other issues aside. This control affects middle and lower class families by slowing their income growth and subjecting them to poverty.

Why is term "model minority" problematic for describing the various Asian-American populations?

The term model minority is problematic because it generalizes the Asian-American population. While some of the group is high in academic achievement, another large group is not. Another reason the term is problematic is that it legitimizes the oppression of other minorities and opposes affirmative action policies which creates tension amongst groups.

How and why might marginalized racial groups deploy strategic essentialism?

Using essentialist labels is helpful in mobilizing resistance to the discrimination said labels create. This strategy can help with short-term political objectives powered by ending oppression of the labeled, marginalized groups.

Why is converting men a necessity?

Visionary feminists have always understood the necessity of converting m\n. We know all the women in the world could become feminists but if men remain sexist our lives would still be diminished. Gender warfare would still be a norm. Those feminist activists who refuse to accept men as comrades in struggle -who harbor fears that if men benefit in any way from feminist politics women lose -have misguidedly helped the public view feminism with suspicion and disdain.

In what ways have women who've gained class status and power failed to use it differently than men?

When women acquire greater class status and power without conducting themselves differently from males, feminist politics are undermined and lots of women feel betrayed. Middle-and lower-middle-class women are suddenly compelled to enter the workforce and do not feel liberated once they face the truth that working outside the home does not mean total equality.

Why does hooks argue that white women in the U.S. either know they benefit from white privilege denied to women of color or repress that knowledge?

White women in the U.S. are often aware of their privilege, but refuse to take responsibility or draw attention to it. They repress the fact so there is no risk of losing the privilege or being obligated to fix the problem.

Why have some women been unwilling to relinquish the status of motherhood?

Women enjoyed the special status and privileges motherhood gave them, especially when it came to parent-child bonding, and were not as willing to relinquish pride of place in parenting to men. Individual feminist thinkers who critiqued biological acceptance in every other area often embraced it when it came to the issue of mothering. They were not able to fully embrace the notion that fathers are just as important as mothers, and can parent just as well. These contradictions, along with sexist thinking, undermined the feminist demand for gender equity when it comes to child care.