ZOO 3731 Exam 4 Ch 24-27

what is the base and what is the apex of the lungs

said the bottom part is what we called the base of the lung so right over here is the base of the lung and if here's the base then the top part is the apex of the lung

Filtration, warming, and humidification of inhaled air

so *filtration* occurs within the nasal cavity because you're going to have these structures that are going to be called nasal conchae and if you guys remember from lab the nasal conchae are going to be these structures that sort of stick up inside your nasal cavity and when we get to the next lecture it's going to be easy for you to visualize. o but basically these structures are going to help out with filtration they're also going to help out with warming up. so when you have the churning of the air inside your nasal cavity it sort of *warms up* o and *humidification* because you're going to have these mucous cells that are going to produce mucus and that's going to humidify the air that you breathe in.

So once the mucus gets to the pharynx what are the pathways it can go?

so once the mucus gets up here you have a couple of choices so you can either take it to your mouth and spit it out or you can actually swallow it and it goes down to your digestive system.

What does the upper respiratory consist of?

so the upper respiratory is going to be all the structures that are going to be located above the larynx. -Nose -Nasal cavity ( nasal conchae) -Sinuses -Pharynx (nasopharynx)

holes of the nose is called? and the tip of your nose is called?

the holes are called *external nares* and the tip of your nose is called the *apex* very little part tip of your nose is called the apex.

so the soft palate is going to be the last structure that's going to separate

the nasopharynx from the oral pharynx

Why is the respiratory system able to perform all of these functions?

the respiratory system is going to perform all of these functions in conjunction with the *cardiovascular and lymphoid systems also your skeletal muscles and your nervous system*. so you can see that it has several different functions and it's going to be able to perform all of these functions because it's going to work together with other systems

the base of the lung on the right side sits a little bit higher than the base of the lung on the left side. you can see how we have like a bigger portion of the base of the lung sticking out below this horizontal line on the left side so there is a reason for this. what is the reason?

the right lung is shorter, broader, and heavier than the left. The right lung is shorter because the right half of the diaphragm rises higher than the left half to accommodate the liver within the abdominal cavity.

main cartilages that form the larynx

thyroid cartilage, then you're cricoid cartilage, and your epiglottis.

respiratory portion

where we're going to have the air exchange is going to be your alveoli.

within your brochioles you're going to have?

your alveoa which is where you actually have the exchange carbon dioxide for oxygen

location of mucus cells and lamina propria

• at the top of course because you have these mucus cells here you're going to have a lot of mucus on the surface •and then anteriorly you might have what we call the lamina propria which is basically connective tissue.

what can the difference between the right and left bronchi cause?

• basically what's gonna happen is that you're right because it's wider and it descends more at a steeper angle then if there's any type of *foreign object that's coming down your trachea it's usually going to tend to go towards the right side* instead of the left side so usually you have more infection on the right lung than you do on the left lung.

Epiglottis which side can you see it more? what shape is it? what is it's function?

• is going to be present and you can see it more *posterior than anterior * • but basically it forms like this shoehorn shaped structure and so the epiglottis is going to prevent food from going into the trachea and actually falling into the esophagus right because when we're eating we definitely want the food to fall into the esophagus which is part of our digestive system instead of it falling into our respiratory system that would be the trachea

cricoid cartilage

• is going to be way smaller than your thyroid cartilage •you can see how it's going to be located right under the thyroid cartilage anteriorly you can see that it's smaller but when you move posteriorly you can see that it's a little bit larger than anterior and it is present posteriorly that's different from your thyroid cartilage that's not present posteriorly at all •okay so the main differences between the thyroid and the cricoid two things the cricoid is smaller and the cricoid is present posteriorly where the thyroid is only present anteriorly.

nasal cavity and nose

• nasal cavity is going to be like the name says a cavity and the nose is going to be located anteriorly to the nasal cavity.

now each individual is going to have about how many tracheal cartilages? why is it important?

• now each individual is going to have about *15 to 20 of these tracheal cartilages* they are important because they sort of *maintain the shape so when you're breathing in or breathing out* it sort of makes sure that it maintains its shape and also it doesn't collapse so we can sort of withhold a little bit of pressure and then it maintains the shape

why is it important to have these cartilages present in your larynx?

• now the cricoid and the thyroid together they're going to *protect the glottis and the entrance to the trachea and their broad surfaces are sort of going to provide a side for attachment of the laryngeal muscles* and ligaments so that's why it's important to have these cartilages present in your larynx.

what divides our nasal cavity into two compartments and how is it formed ?

• now we all know that we have a *septum that divides your nasal cavity into two compartments* this septum is called your nasal septum and we know how the nasal septum is formed by the fusion of two bones so the top bone is called the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid and the bottom bone is called the vomer and both of them together form the nasal septum that separates the nasal cavity into two compartments

Vocal cords

• now with regards to your larynx you're also going to have your vocal cords which we can call it also the glottis and basically I didn't really talk much about the glottis but I decided to add this slide here just for you guys to sort of see how the vocal cords work together so here you're going to have the vocal cords and they basically are going to vibrate to produce the different sounds and there's really not much that you need to know about it I just want you to sort of visualize and see how it works

what happens to your epigottis when you eat?

• once you eat your food so you chew your food here in the mouth you can see how it comes down over here and it pushes your epiglottis down and once your epiglottis comes down over here it blocks the food from entering the trachea and your food goes down through your esophagus

mucus escalator

• so debri gets stuck in the mucus and the cilia beat the mucus into a certain direction .so there are going to be beating in the same direction (Mucous cells in the epithelium and mucous glands in the lamina propria produce a sticky mucus that bathes the exposed surfaces. In the nasal cavity, cilia sweep that mucus and any trapped debris or microorganisms toward the pharynx,* where it is swallowed and exposed to the acids and enzymes in the stomach*. In the lower respiratory system, the *cilia beat toward the pharynx*, moving a carpet of mucus in that direction and cleaning the respiratory surfaces. )

What is the exception for the pharynx epithelium

• so remember when I said that the pharynx is one of the structures that has a different type of epithelium that it has *stratified squamous epithelium* but actually the *nasal pharynx* still has the *pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium* -your nasal pharynx is an exception to the epithelium of the pharynx because it's still going to have the typical respiratory epithelium which is the pseudo stratified columnar ciliated epithelium

what defines the oropharynx?

• so this is what defines the oral pharynx so your soft palate on top and your hyoid bone on the bottom

so starting right over here at your soft palate and moving all the way down all the way to your esophagus you're going to have what type of epithelium?

so starting right over here at your soft palate and moving all the way down all the way to your esophagus you're going to have your *stratified squamous epithelium. *

now when you put the lamina propria together with the epithelium we call this structure a

mucosa

what if we were talking about these boogers being right over here in your nasal cavity so what would be the mechanism of movement of the mucus.

mucus escalator

Outside lungs Called

extrapulmonary bronchi

how does the boogers get filtered?

now these little brown structures here they're representing probably our boogers right that gets filtered and so they get filtered by these the mucus that's released by these mucus cells. so basically they're going to get stuck right over here

Vocal cords (book )

The entire larynx is involved in sound production because its walls vibrate, creating a composite sound. Amplification and echoing of the sound occur within the pharynx, oral cavity, nasal cavity, and paranasal sinuses. The final production of distinct sounds depends on voluntary movements of the tongue, lips, and cheeks.

what bones forms the lateral and superior walls of the nasal cavity? (5)

The maxillae, nasal and frontal bones, ethmoid, and sphenoid form the lateral and superior walls of the nasal cavity.

why would you have a simple squamous epithelium in your alveoli.

These thin, flattened cells permit the exchange of oxygen for carbon dioxide in the pulmonary capillaries.

Respiratory Defense System in the Nasal Cavity

(we're going to have not only the cilia part of the epithelium but we're also going to have these structures that are hair cells ) Nasal cavity -*Stiff hairs (vibrissae)* - removes particles larger than 10mircometer -*Filtration, warming, and humidification of inhaled air*

Tracheal Cartilages function, shape, whats behind the cartilage?

(deep to the submucosa) -Stiffens tracheal walls and protect the airway -Prevent its collapse or overexpansion as pressures change in the respiratory system -C-shaped ( you can see that it's anterior but it's not posterior okay so that's why we say it's a c-shape cartilage.) - on the back it's going to contain a muscle that's called *Trachealis muscle* instead of the cartilage

Trachea AKA? starts and ends? epithelium

-Also known as "windpipe" -Tough, flexible tube with diameter of 2.5 cm (1 inch) and length of 11cm (4.25 inches) -Begins at C6; ends at T5 -Lamina propria + epithelium = mucosa -*pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium*

Paired laryngeal cartilages how many of them?

-Arytenoid -Corniculate -Cuneiform •so these are small little cartilages they are going to be paired so that means we have two of them and you don't need to know their names but you do need to know that you're going to have *six* of them so you're going to have a total of six of these paired cartilages.

Larynx characteristics -begins and ends where? -How are the cartilaginous walls stabilized?

-Cylinder whose cartilaginous walls are stabilized by ligaments or skeletal muscles or both -Begins at C4 or C5 and ends at C7 (what sort of gives the shape of the larynx is going to be a few cartilages we have actually nine different cartilages )

why is that you have these C shaped rings that we call tracheal cartilages why are they C shaped and why are they not a circle and why would you have this trachealis muscle located posterior.

-Each tracheal cartilage is a C-shaped piece of hyaline cartilage. The closed portion of the C protects the anterior and lateral surfaces of the trachea.The open portions face posteriorly, toward the esophagus. *Because the cartilages are not complete circles, the posterior tracheal wall changes shape easily during swallowing. This permits the passage of large masses of food along the esophagus.* -*An elastic ligament and a band of smooth muscle*, the trachealis, connect the open ends of each tracheal cartilage. Contraction of the trachealis decreases the diameter of the tracheal lumen. This increases the resistance to airflow. Sympathetic activation relaxes the trachealis, increasing the diameter of the trachea, lowering resistance to airflow and making it easier to move large volumes of air through the trachea.

Trachealis is made up of

-Elastic ligament -Smooth muscle

Right primary bronchi

-Larger diameter than left -Descends toward lung at a steeper angle -Lodge foreign objects more easily

Thyroid cartilage

-Largest -Forms anterior and lateral wall of the larynx -Laryngeal ridge (Adam's apple)

Epiglottis characteristics

-Shoe-horn shaped epiglottis projects superior to the glottis -During swallowing the larynx is elevated, and the epiglottis folds back over the glottis, preventing the entry of liquids or solid food into the respiratory passageways ( huge when compared to the paired laryngeal cartilages)

cricoid cartilage

-Sits inferior to thyroid cartilage -Complete ring; posterior portion greatly expanded

Name the different type of cartilages of the nose how many different cartilages form the nose?

-so that's why your nose sort of has a shape to it because these flexible tissues that form the nasal vestibule right here on the front is made up of actually a few cartilages so we have what we call *lateral nasal cartilage* which are these right here down the middle - and then we have two pairs of alar cartilages so we have the larger one which is called the *major alar cartilage* and you can see then you're gonna have it on both sides because they're paired -then we have four of the *minor cartilages* which are just small little ones right over here so you can see all these cartilages -so if we were to add them up we're going to have *eight different cartilages* that form our nasal vestibule. so eight different types of cartrilages. -so two that are lateral, six that are alar being two major and four minor.

most of the respiratory tract is covered with this type of epithelium so your pseudo stratified ciliated columnar epithelium but what are the two exceptions:

1) remember that portions of your pharynx are going to contain the stratified squamous epithelium. 2) so you're alveoli has obviously the simple squamous epithelium

Functions of the Respiratory System (6)

1)Providing an extensive area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood; 2)Moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs; 3)Protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes, and other environmental variations; 4)Defending the respiratory system and other tissues from invasion by pathogenic microorganisms; 5)Producing sounds involved in speaking, singing, or nonverbal communication; 6)Assisting in the regulation of blood volume, blood pressure, and the control of body fluid pH

1)Providing an extensive area for gas exchange between air and circulating blood;

1.it's providing an extensive gas exchange area between the circulating blood and the air that's going to be coming. so again we want to make sure that when we're inspiring the air we're getting a lot of oxygen. o the *oxygen goes to our lungs filled with our lungs with air and the blood that's going to be circulating that's gonna be coming from your pulmonary trunk and therefore your heart is going to be filled with carbon dioxide.* o so we need to make sure that we have the exchange of gas occurring in your lungs. o now when we're talking about extensive area we're talking about lots of different branches so if you look at the previous slide we start with let's say a *trachea and your bronchus and then they branched out even further to make sure that we have a big surface area so the gas exchange can occur easier.*

2)Moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of the lungs;

2) so moving air to and from the exchange surfaces of course we need to have a way when we inspire the air for the air to go all the way down to our lungs and then when we're expiring the air* we need to be able to make sure that we clear our lungs of the co2 that's coming from the circulating blood.*

3)Protecting respiratory surfaces from dehydration, temperature changes, and other environmental variations;

3) is important because we need to make sure that the air that we're inspiring is an air that's as *free as possible of pollutants* o we need to make sure that the surface of our nasal cavity and all of our respiratory tract actually stays hydrated o and we're going to talk about how the epithelium is going to have an important function in that o and we also need to make sure that we control the temperature changes so I know here in Florida we don't have a lot of different temperatures but if you go to cold places it's important that when we inspire the air that our respiratory tract warms it up before it gets to our lungs. so sometimes if you're inspiring a very very *cold air it actually hurts especially your sinuses because it's harder to warm it up once it gets to the sinuses* and we're going to talk when you talk about the nasal cavity we're going to talk about how we're able to warm up the air.

4)Defending the respiratory system and other tissues from invasion by pathogenic microorganisms;

4. in terms of this defending the respiratory system against invading pathogens again we're going to talk about specific structures like your *cilia that sort of make sure that you remove any debris that's going to be coming in to your respiratory system.*

5)Producing sounds involved in speaking, singing, or nonverbal communication;

5)producing sounds for speaking singing and nonverbal communication this is going to be done at the level of our larynx. o so our vocal cords are going to be present in our *larynx* and it's going to allow us to speak.

6)Assisting in the regulation of blood volume, blood pressure, and the control of body fluid pH

6)the last one which I think is very important is with regards to regulation of blood volume blood pressure and control of body fluid pH so we do have specific *sinuses that are going to work together with the cardiovascular system and the respiratory system to control all of this.* o now if you guys remember but we have the carotid bodies and the aortic bodies that are going to work via *cranial nerve number 9* if we're talking about *carotid bodies* and via *cranial nerve number 10* if we're talking about *aortic bodies* -*basically these two cranial nerves are going to trigger these reflexive adjustments in your respiratory and cardiovascular activity to control things like changes in pH changes in partial pressure of co2 and in partial pressure of oxygen* so that's how your respiratory system is going to work with regards to your last function over here.

why do you think we would have a stratified squamous epithelium on our pharynx

A stratified squamous epithelium lines the inferior portion of the pharynx, *protecting it from abrasion and chemicals. This portion of the pharynx conducts air to the larynx and also conveys food to the esophagus.*

Pharynx connects what parts? divided into

Connects: -Nose -Mouth -Throat Divided into: -Nasopharynx:between the nasal cavity and the pharynx -Oropharynx:• close to your oral cavity -Laryngopharynx:• division between the larynx and the pharynx (pharynx because it's just this area that's going to connect your oral cavity to your throat and then to your esophagus )

Cystic Fibrosis

Cystic Fibrosis (CF) is a hereditary disorder of the exocrine glands. A mutation in a chloride regulator gene on chromosome 7 causes the *production of abnormally thick mucus. This thick mucus obstructs passageways of the pancreatic and bile ducts, intestines, and bronchial tree. Within the respiratory tract, breathing is impeded and the mucociliary escalator is impaired, leading to frequent infections.* The average lifespan for people with CF who live into adulthood is 37 years.

Respiratory Defense System

Exposure to unpleasant stimuli - noxious vapors, large quantities of dust and debris, allergens and pathogens -Rapid increase in mucus production

Nasal Conchae Function

Function -Filtration -Warming -Humidifying

now what do you think would happen if instead of breathing through your nasal cavity you're actually breathing through your oral cavity

However, the greatest changes occur within the nasal cavity. Breathing through the mouth eliminates much of the initial filtration, heating, and humidifying of the inspired air. Patients breathing on a respirator (mechanical ventilator), which uses a tube to conduct air directly into the trachea, must receive air that has been externally filtered and humidified to prevent alveolar damage.

what would happen if this mucus or boogers were able to get from your nasal cavity all the way down to your lungs

If these made it all the way to the lungs, the lungs could get irritated or infected, making it tough to breathe.

Carina

Internal ridge that lies between right and left bronchi

What does the lower respiratory consist of?

Larynx Trachea Bronchus Bronchioles

Respiratory Defense System in the Nasopharynx

Nasopharynx -Mucus - removes smaller particles nasopharynx is going to be *important because it's going to have a lot of mucus and again the mucus is going to remove these smaller particles.* so the more particles you're able to absorb and get stuck to the mucus the better it is in terms of preventing you from getting an infection

once your trachae splits it is called

Primary Bronchi

Respiratory Epithelium

Pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium with numerous mucous cells

Respiratory tract Conducting portion Respiratory portion

Respiratory tract *Conducting portion* Nose Nasal cavity (nasal conchae is a part of it) Sinuses:little pockets holes Pharynx (nasopharynx) Larynx Trachea Bronchus Bronchioles *Respiratory portion* Alveoli - delicate air sacs

Lobes on the left and right lung

Right lung: -the inferior lobe -the superior lobe -the middle lobe. -horizontal fissure:it separates the superior and the middle lobe -oblique fissure: is going to separate your inferior lobe from the superior, and the middle. Left lung: -superior -inferior lobe -oblique fissure:separates the superior from the inferior lobe

if we want to break down the respiratory system even further we can call it ? which is what?

a *respiratory tract* which is basically going to consist of Airways that are going to carry the air to and from this surface right over here alveoa where the exchange occurs.

we can break the respiratory system even further down into what two portions?

a conducting portion and a respiratory portion

the conducting portion

again is going to be where the air is going to travel to and from. so we have all the structures that we talked about previously so you know your nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx trachea, bronchus, and bronchioles.

Why is the right lung larger than the left lung?

because of the position of the heart The difference in width and weight is due to the heart and great vessels projecting into the left pleural

the base of where the trachae spilts forming your primary bronchi is called the

carina

what happens when you are exposed to an unpleasant smell?

now with regards to mucous production for those of you that are very allergic or even if you're not allergic when you get exposed to a very unpleasant type of smell then your *defense mechanism is actually going to make your nasal cavity produce a lot of mucus and by producing a lot of mucus you're going to try to get rid of whatever unpleasant smell or unpleasant debris that it's coming in through your nasal cavity.* (one of the defense mechanisms is to increase production of mucus when you are exposed to certain allergens or to some type of smell that's very unpleasant)

what is the location of the bronchi in relation to the lungs?

one more thing that's important about the primary bronchi if you notice over here this little structure here in purple are your lungs right so basically *part of your primary bronchi is still going to be situated outside of the lungs* and then part of it sort of goes into the lungs then your secondary and tertiary bronchi are always going to be inside of the lungs

why is cilia important?

• so you're cillier are going to be important because they are basically going to move so if we're talking about the cilia in this case they're talking about cilia that's gonna be located in your trachea down here so before your pharynx. • if you have certain *particles that are going down your trachea these cilia are going to be important because they're going to beat in the opposite direction and move the mucus towards the pharynx.* • these cilia are very important because they prevent these boogers that contain pathogens to go into your lungs.

The anterior part of the nose is called and consist of?

• the anterior part of the nose is called your *nasal vestibule* and your nasal vestibule is going to be constituted of flexible tissues and it's also going to sort of support them or structures that are going to support this flexible tissue are going to be cartilages. Nasal vestibule -* portion of the nasal cavity enclosed by flexible tissues of the nose*

What starts the lower respiratory tract?

• the larynx is what's going to start the lower respiratory system

the mucous cells are going to release mucus to the ?

• the mucous cells are going to release mucus to the *lumen of our respiratory tract.*

the trachae splits into what?

• trachea it splits into two primary anything that splits off the primary will be secondary now anything that will split off of your secondary is what we call it tertiary

why do you think you would have at this area (oropharynx) stratified squamous epithelium instead of pseudo stratified columnar ciliated epithelium

• well basically because sometimes when you eat that chip that you don't chew well enough and it start scraping your throat once it goes down it does scrape the oral pharynx right over here and so that's why you need to have a stratified type of epithelium to be able to protect this area.

Movement of Larynx during swallowing

• when you're eating your food so you're eating your food anteriorly right through your mouth and if the epiglottis sort of goes down because it works like a little lever • so it goes down and it closes the trachae here and your esophagus is going to be running posterior to your trachea so then food comes right into your esophagus. • and you can see on this figure that's to the left that's exactly what's happening so you have your food coming down over here it's going to close the epiglottis the epiglottis closes the trachea and then you can see how food is going to be running posteriorly inside of the esophagus.

where is your glottis located?

• your glottis is going to be located within the larynx it's this little slit right over here so it stays at the level of your thyroid cartilage

annular ligaments

•are like the name says it's going to be a ligament that's going to be present between these C shaped cartilages between your tracheal cartilages. okay so it's called and your ligaments and it does go all the way around.

nasopharynx what is going to connect it to the posterior portion of the nasal cavity? what is going to seperate it from the next cavity? what type of epithelium?

•is going to be the *superior portion of the pharynx* it's going *to be connected to the posterior portion of the nasal cavity* right over here through these structures that we call *internal nares*. •and it's going to be separated from the next cavity which is your oral cavity by the *soft palate * -*pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium* *internal nares:point at which the nasal cavity opens into the nasopharynx*

thyroid cartilage why doe we have this bump right down the middle?

•is going to be the largest laryngeal cartilage • it's going to be present only in the anterior part of the larynx so if you flip it posteriorly on this middle figure you can see that it does not run posterior so it's the only present anterior •and it's also going to be lateral to •right here down the middle we have what we have called a laryngeal prominence or laryngeal Ridge and this is what forms what we know is the Adam's apple so it's that little bump that we usually see in guys •and basically why we have this bump right down the middle *it's because this cartilage it was during embryonic development it was actually formed by two pieces that sort of met down the middle on the anterior and therefore it forms the little prominence*

Oropharynx what seperates this from the lower pharynx? what type of epithelium?

•it's going to be part of the pharynx that's located right over here at the level of the oral cavity -so since the soft palate divides the nasal pharynx from the oral pharynx then the bottom part where that divides the oral pharynx from the lower pharynx is going to be your *hyoid bone*. •so we can say that the oral pharynx goes from your *soft palate to your hyoid bone*. • with regards to the epithelium we are already going to have right over here once we leave the soft palate we are already going to have the *stratified squamous epithelium* that's going to be similar to your oral cavity

Mucous Cells

•so like the name says the mucus cell are going to produce mucus •they actually produce a very sticky mucus •and that's the importance producing this sticky mucus is to make sure that the pathogens and the debris they sort of get stuck so this mucus and therefore the cilia can beat and move the mucus in a certain direction

Nasal Conchae formed by what? Function

•so the nasal conchae is going to be formed by three different structures which are called the *superior ,the middle, and the inferior nasal conchae.* •and these structures are going to be important because they're sort of going to perform all these three functions •so they're going to help with the filtration with warming and humidifying. •because *we have lots of hair cells here and we have mucous* and it sort of holds all the particles that want to come into your respiratory tract •*warming because once the air enters your nasal cavity it's sort of going to undergo of turbulence because once it passes through these different structures that sort of stick out it sort of makes the air tumble and by doing that it warms it up and at the same time it humidifies this air because you're going to have lots of mucus cell in this area and it's going to help with humidifying the air*

why is the trachea known as the windpipe?

•the trachea is known as the windpipe because basically that's what it does it's a pipe where you're going to have the air that you inspire or the air that you're going to be expiring it's going to pass through it.

laryngopharynx starts and ends where? what type of epithelium?

•will go from your *hyoid bone right over here all the way to the beginning of the esophagus* •similar to the oropharynx the laryngopharynx will also have a *stratified squamous epithelium* and it's sort of continuous with the esophagus so we're gonna get to digestive system you're going to see that your esophagus also has the a stratified squamous epithelium (that resists abrasion, chemicals, and pathogens)