2.02 Rulers and Robes

BIG Ideas

-What significant accomplishments did Clovis achieve during his rule? -What were Charlemagne's contributions and strengths as he worked to unify his kingdom? -What effect did the Church's crowning of Charlemagne have on the power structure of the Middle Ages? -How did the Vikings impact medieval Europe? -What was the role of the Church in Medieval Europe? -How did monasteries and convents contribute to arts and academics? (illuminated manuscripts, scholasticism, universities, gothic architecture, music)

Monasticism

After being introduced during the Early Middle Ages, monasticism also took hold in Europe throughout the High Middle Ages. Special groups, or orders, of clergy known as monks and nuns lived and worked together at monasteries and convents. These orders held their own lands, and their members took special vows, devoting themselves to service, poverty, and even silence. Some orders of monks sent out their members, called friars, to travel Europe and preach the faith. Leaders of monasteries were known as abbots, and those of convents as abbesses. Monasteries were financed by farming and charitable contributions. Often, peasants gave gifts to monasteries in the hopes of ensuring their salvation. Over time, monasteries also became centers of production, learning, and trade. The clergy also provided other important services to the people in their parishes and on their lands. They provided religious officials at weddings, births, and deaths and oversaw important Church rituals. They also served as doctors and teachers and played an important economic role.

Alfred the Great

Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, ruled over Anglo-Saxon England from 871 to 899 CE. As king, he drove back the onslaught of the Viking Danes and set about reorganizing the military and the government of his kingdom. A devout Christian, he believed that education was a valuable tool. Not only did he set about codifying English laws, but he also oversaw the building of many schools and had many Latin texts translated into English.

Charlemagne

Carolus Magnus, or Charlemagne, is known as a great king of the Franks who rose to become the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. He oversaw a revival of Germanic culture and learning that came to be known as the Carolingian Renaissance. He also implemented feudalism on a large scale that would lay the groundwork for future kingdoms. In addition to his political and cultural accomplishments, he was also a powerful champion of the Church. Here, Charlemagne rides to the aid of Pope Adrian I in 772 CE against attacks from the Lombards. Then, in 799 CE , when the Romans drove out Pope Leo III, Charlemagne intervened to restore the religious leader to the papal seat. He also gave generously to the Church and oversaw the building of many churches, which often doubled as schools.

The Power of the Church

Christianity played a major role in holding together the people of Europe. In the East, it united the surviving Eastern Roman, or Byzantine, Empire. In the West, it became the guiding force that brought all those warring Germanic tribes back into some kind of order and helped feudalism take hold. This is an example of the misguided power of the "established church." Impressive and powerful? Yes. Identifying primarily with Christ and promoting the true gospel? Sadly, they were not.

Notre Dame of Paris

Construction began on Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France, in 1163. Nearly 200 years later, the cathedral was completed. Today, it remains a functional center of religious worship and a stunning example of Gothic architecture.

How did modern universities begin?

Did you know that many modern universities began as monastic and cathedral schools? In fact, the term university comes from the Latin universitas magistrorum et scholarium, meaning a "community of teachers and scholars." While the concept of such an institution predates the Middle Ages, the modern university has its roots in the medieval version. Even the seemingly modern ideas of academic freedom and unruly students began to take shape during this time. Have you ever seen a graduation ceremony? When people graduate, they usually wear a long, colored gown with serious clothing, such as a suit for men and a dress for women, beneath it. This tradition came from medieval times, when people at universities wore this style of academic dress every day. Among the first universities in Europe were the following: University of Bologna, 1088 University of Paris, 1150 University of Oxford, 1167

Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV

During the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Emperors established a tradition of appointing popes and other members of the clergy. But when in 1054 CE a young Henry IV became king of Germany, papal authorities saw an opportunity to assert their power over lay rulers, including the Holy Roman Emperor. A papal council declared that the Catholic cardinals would select the pope-a practice that remains in effect today. However, disputes arose between the pope and Henry IV over the appointment of other clergy, especially bishops. In 1075 CE, Pope Gregory VII declared that only the pope could appoint bishops and other clergymen to office. Henry IV objected and continued investing his own bishops. Pope Gregory VII finally not only excommunicated Henry but also said he was no longer king or emperor! When German knights flocked to support the pope's decision, Henry IV was forced to back down. He traveled across the realm to personally ask Pope Gregory VII's forgiveness, famously kneeling in the snow.

The Vikings' Decline and Legacy

For nearly three centuries, the Vikings were a powerful force. Despite many efforts, however, the Vikings never penetrated the Carolingian Empire and failed to establish an empire of their own. In the West, they blended with Celts and Germanic tribes. In the East, the Vikings blended with Slavic peoples. Over time, they exchanged pillaging for trading and polytheism for Christianity. By the 12th century, the Vikings had ceased their raids. Some had merged with other kingdoms in the east and west, while those who remained turned inward to rule their northern kingdoms. Their mythology, as well as their craftsmanship, literature, and seafaring skill, became a part of the European inheritance. The Vikings were one of several invading peoples, along with Arabs, Persians, and Turks, who caused medieval European rulers to rally their forces.

Cluny Abbey, France

Founded in 910 CE by William I, Duke of Aquitaine, Cluny Abbey grew to become the center not only of the Benedictine Order but also of western Christian monasticism. Its monks followed the Rule of Benedict closely and launched the Cluniac Reforms, meant to restore the principles of devotion and service to monastic life. Admired for their works, the Cluniac monks became noted advisors and diplomats among the rulers of Europe. Under the leadership of its most famous abbot, Saint Hugh of Cluny, more than 2,000 monasteries were founded in Italy, England, and Spain. Cluny Abbey became the heart, or parent monastery, of a vast network of abbeys.

Angles and Saxons:

Germanic peoples that emerged from north-central Europe circa the second century to conquered and settled in the British Isles in the 5th century

Charlemagne: The Restored Western Empire

Have you ever felt used by a friend, or as if a friend is helping you only because he or she will benefit as well? In a way, this is the position Charlemagne found himself in with respect to the Church. Charlemagne was conscious of the role the memory of Rome played in his conquests. In his conquests, he thought of himself as a champion of the Roman ideals of law, universality, and justice. Indeed, Charlemagne came to view himself as a new Roman emperor. As a champion of the Church, Charlemagne expanded Christian influence as he expanded his empire. He himself was a devout Christian and believed that as a powerful king he should work to strengthen the institution of the Church. To this end, he issued reforms and appointed bishops. In 800 CE, Pope Leo III took actions that, on the surface, appeared to benefit only Charlemagne. However, upon closer inspection, his actions were revealed to benefit himself and elevate the position of the Church. Pope Leo III took the bold step of surprising Charlemagne by crowning him Emperor of the West. This action seemed like a unifying vote of confidence in Charlemagne from the Church, and the fulfillment of Charlemagne's greatest ambition. However, ulterior political motives were at play. With this move, the Pope accomplished two things. First, he gained a defender of Italy. Second, by performing the action of crowning the emperor, he put the Church in the superior position. Having given this title to the king, the Church reserved the right to take it back. The Church had made Charlemagne the Emperor, and yet at the same time undermined his power by confirming itself—the Church—as the true decision-maker. Nevertheless, as emperor, Charlemagne used his power to build schools, sponsor artistic and literary works, issue money, encourage trade, and spread his faith. In particular, he levied many religious reforms meant to bring public behavior more in line with Church teachings. Throughout his rule, he was closely allied with the Church. Charlemagne, in his attempt to establish dominance over much of Eastern, was wise in some regards, like making sure he built strong alliances. One of these alliances was with the church. He distorted the purpose of an already distorted institution. Charlemagne's ability to use the sway of the church matched the strategy of Muslims, who were using religion to their benefit to the south and east of him.

In the Wake of Rome

Imagine for a moment that the U.S. government crumbles. Weakened by economic hardship, armies that are spread too thin, and political and social divisions, the United States becomes vulnerable to outside threats. The capital is besieged and then destroyed. Without the central government to hold the nation together, the country breaks apart into numerous smaller states, some of them ruled by invading forces. Think it couldn't happen? About 1,600 years ago, no one thought that the Roman Empire would collapse—but it did. In 476 CE, the embattled Roman Empire, which had ruled much of Europe, North Africa, and Southwest Asia for 500 years, fell. The empire lasted more than twice as long as the United States has existed so far. The Empire's fall to so-called barbarians left a vacuum of power in much of Europe. It also marked the start of the Middle Ages, which lasted roughly from 500 CE to 1500 CE. The first half of this period, or the Early Middle Ages, was considered a kind of hole in European economic, military, and intellectual power. The High and Late Middle Ages weren't considered as lacking, but they were still thought of as less culturally vibrant than subsequent eras. This is why the Middle Ages are sometimes referred to as the Dark Ages. As you have learned before, the Dark Ages weren't really that dark. European civilization didn't just stop. In this lesson, we will look deeper into the people and institutions of medieval Europe.

Pope Gregory VI and Holy Roman Emperor Henry III

In 1044 CE, Pope Benedict IX, who had been given the papal seat by his family, the lords of Tuscany, decided that he wanted to give up the honor so that he might wed. His advisor, then Archbishop Gratian, thought that he would make a better pope. Gratian offered to pay the unhappy pope to step down. In 1045 CE, Gratian became Pope Gregory VII in place of Benedict. Gregory VII's deal ignited conflict. The new pope's rival accused him of simony, a religious crime in which spiritual favors or items are bought and sold. The clergy called on Holy Roman Emperor Henry III to solve the matter. Pope Gregory VII, seeing little choice left to him, resigned the papal seat. Henry III then nominated one of the bishops of the council to become pope. Pope Clement II began his leadership by enacting some new laws against simony.

William the Conqueror

In 1066 CE, William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, led a powerful force of Frenchmen across the English Channel and into England. Within the year, William and the Normans defeated the English, and William became William I, King of England. By then, Europe's feudal kingdoms had become a complicated mess of familial ties and William was one of two lords who laid claim to the English throne. William reigned for 22 years and imposed a stronger central rule on the English shires. He also started many important reforms.

Pope Urban II

In 1095 CE, at the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II seizes on a plea for help from the Byzantine emperor and calls on European lords to launch the Crusades. This move not only results in 200 years' worth of military expeditions to the Holy Land in Southwest Asia but provides common cause for European rulers to unite and stop warring among themselves. It also increases the power of the pope. The Crusades enjoyed initial successes but ultimately failed to wrest control of the Holy Land from Muslim Turks. However, they did increase the power of monarchs such as Richard the Lionheart of England and Frederick I of the Holy Roman Empire, at the expense of their vassals. They also opened Europe to an influx of trade and ideas from the East. Later, Pope Innocent III would launch the Fourth Crusade, which resulted in the sacking of Constantinople rather than the conquest of the Holy Land.

Citeaux Abbey, France

In 1098, a group of disenchanted Benedictine monks from Molesme Abbey left to found a new monastery and a new order. They established the Cistercian Order at the Citeaux Abbey to better follow the rule of St. Benedict. The order grew rapidly to include hundreds of affiliated abbeys, particularly under the rule of St. Bernard of Clairveaux. The Cistercians emphasized the ethic of hard work and labored primarily as farmers. Their agricultural production and innovation helped prop up the medieval economy of the 12th century. However, in later years, the order began accumulating wealth and soon began to abandon some of its stricter practices.

Charlemagne: Conquest and Organization

In 768 CE, Charlemagne decided to follow Charles Martel's example. He understood that splitting his father's lands with his brother would diminish his power, so he allied with the neighboring Lombards to overpower his brother and again unite the Franks. Then, when the king of the Lombards died, he took control of their lands, too. For the next 30 years, Charlemagne set about establishing his rule over a large area of Europe. He also continued traditions begun by Clovis I and Charles Martel, working to create an effective central government and to build a large standing army. A regular army required payment, and a central government required local officials to rule parts of the kingdom. Charlemagne began using land grants and oaths of fealty to build his army and government and to hold his kingdom together. Charlemagne's ability to run an organized, efficient kingdom was an integral part of his many military successes. This was important, since he was almost constantly at war with barbarian tribes over territory. Charlemagne was known for his meticulous planning of military expeditions across Europe. Ultimately, Charlemagne's careful planning and desire for unification paid off. By 814 CE, his empire stretched from the Pyrenees in the southwest, to the border with Britanny in the northwest, to Bohemia in the east. The empire that Charlemagne built, however, did not last long. His son, Louis the Pius, inherited the throne. While he proved to be a good ruler, he lacked the organization of his father and struggled to keep the local authorities in line. When Louis died, his sons continued the earlier tradition of dividing up the territory amongst themselves. Though the expansive empire he created was fleeting, Charlemagne's rule had laid the groundwork for political and economic patterns that would dominate the rest of the medieval period in Europe. The developments of the Carolingians helped propel Europe into the High Middle Ages.

Thomas Aquinas

In the 13th century, the Dominican priest St. Thomas Aquinas began applying reason to questions of religion. He used logic and scientific study to defend the faith. He was one of many monks who contributed to the scholarship of the period. Stained glass windows and artwork in medieval monasteries, cathedrals, and churches also retold stories of the Christian faith and honored important historical figures, such as St. Thomas Aquinas.

Glendalough, Ireland

In the sixth century, Saint Kevin, or Saint Cóemgen, led a group of monks to settle in the valley of Glendalough. From their modest beginnings, one of Ireland's greatest monastic centers grew. Around 1131, the monks recorded the Book of Glendalough. The first of these manuscripts records world historical events to that date. The second contains a collection of Irish poems. In the 11th and 12th centuries, several other churches were built throughout the valley. The monastery at Glendalough rose to become a place of scholarship as well as religious devotion. Its abbots exercised a great deal of influence on religious matters and politics in the region and withstood numerous Viking and other raids.

Book of Kells

Medieval scribes, most often monks, created beautifully handwritten and illustrated texts called illuminated manuscripts. One of the most famous, the Book of Kells, records the Gospels of the Biblical New Testament. The monks of the Abbey of Kells, in Ireland, made the manuscript in the ninth century.

Melk Abbey, Austria

Melk Abbey, on a promontory over the River Danube, got its start as a castle. Then, in 1089, an Austrian lord made a gift of his castle to the Benedictine monks. Within a century, a renowned monastic school, Stiftsgymnasium Melk, was established there. The scribes of Melk Abbey were among the most productive in the Middle Ages, and its library came to hold one of the largest collections of the era.

Otto I

Otto I began by uniting the feudal kingdoms of Germany under his reign. Although some rebelled, he succeeded in gaining the loyalty of many of his vassals, or dukes, and set about taking control of the fragmented Italian states and other neighboring lands. He became emperor after pushing back the Magyars (Hungarians) who attacked from the east. His reign saw the solidification of the Holy Roman Empire, which would last in one form or another until the 19th century. Otto ruled in part by granting greater power to Church authorities, specifically bishops and monastic abbots, in order to weaken the power of the dukes. This meant that religious authorities not only gained land and wealth but also swore fealty to Otto, a lay ruler. In time, this would lead to conflict with the pope.

Pope Gregory I

Pope Gregory I led the Church from 590 to 604 CE. A Benedictine, he emphasized devotion and missionary work. His missions to Anglo-Saxon England succeeded in converting the island's pagans. From there, missionaries went to work in Germany and the Netherlands. His reforms solidified the division between the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church and elevated the Roman papacy in western Europe. He worked to make peace with and among the Germanic kingdoms.

The Church as a Unifier

Some Germans had already adopted Christianity by way of their association with Rome. In the early medieval period, others followed as missionaries and other clergy spread the faith across Europe. As Germanic rulers converted, so too did the people they ruled. Charlemagne's strong support of the Church helped strengthen its presence in the emerging feudal kingdoms. By the High Middle Ages, the Church had come to dominate the feudal kingdoms of most of the rest of Europe. Charlemagne and later kings justified their right to rule through the blessing of the Church. This idea manifested itself as the Medieval notion of the divine right of kings. That is, the belief that just as God has granted spiritual power to the pope, God has granted secular or political power to Europe's kings.

Monte Cassino, Italy

St. Benedict of Nursia, founder of the Benedictine Order, chose a rocky hilltop just 80 miles outside of Rome for his monastery. There, around 529 CE, St. Benedict established the monastery of Monte Cassino. Reportedly, Benedict built his monastery over the top of an ancient pagan temple to the Greek god Apollo. As the home of the Benedictines, the monastery was one of the original hearths of scholasticism, and the abbots had great influence in the medieval world. In the 13th century, the monastery served as home to St. Thomas of Aquinas, one of the leading monastic scholars of the Middle Ages. The monastery was nearly destroyed as a result of World War II bombings, but it was rebuilt in the 1960s.

The Franks Sow New Foundations

The Byzantine Empire continued to thrive in the eastern part of Europe, preserving Greek and Roman traditions, arts, and laws. But what about the rest of the continent? To understand what occurred in the western region, imagine a piñata breaking at a child's party. The candy and treats release in a huge heap on the ground. Children flock from all around to grab up their treats. Following the fall of Rome, the land was grabbed up among groups in the region, much like the candy from a piñata. Much of Western Europe fragmented into a patchwork of competing Germanic and other kingdoms. Franks dominated one area, while Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Angles and Saxons controlled other regions. A group called the Vandals actually took over the Italian peninsula and displaced what remained of the Roman leadership. At the same time, Muslim Arabs from North Africa pushed into the Iberian Peninsula. From the perspective of the Roman Empire at least, Europe seemed a messy, uncivilized place to be. For about 200 years, the Merovingian dynasty had ruled the Franks in Gaul, or what is now France. The most notable Merovingian ruler was Clovis I, who united most of the Franks under his rule in the late fifth century, shortly after the collapse of Rome. His attempt at building his own united empire fell apart, however. When he died, his four sons each took a piece of the kingdom. For several centuries, war raged across Europe among competing kings and their peoples, each jockeying for a bit of land to call home. The Merovingians constantly competed to keep control of their lands, and their power kept dividing as sons inherited and split their fathers' kingdoms. By the eighth century, they held power in name only, and the rule of their lands had largely passed to officials known as mayors of the palace. In 732 CE, one such ruler was Charles Martel. Martel played a very large role in briefly reuniting the Franks to fend off Muslim invaders moving north from Spain at the Battle of Poitiers. It was his achievements that made it possible for his grandson, Charlemagne, sometimes called "Charles the Great," to begin the Carolingian Empire. So, what was it that made him so great?

Canon Law

The Church governed its body, which included various levels of the clergy, through canon law. These laws were doctrines debated, agreed on, and recorded by early Church fathers, or priests, and then by councils of bishops and the various popes. They gave order to the Church and laid out the structure and the hierarchy. They also decided important matters of faith and gave shape to Church rituals and other practices. The Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic Churches split in large part over questions of canon law. Canon law also determined matters of simony and investiture, which were points of controversy in the medieval period.

Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi, Italy

The Franciscan Order was started by St. Francis of Assisi. Homeless, the Franciscan monks, known as friars, traveled the continent, preaching and doing good works, living lives of poverty and prayer. They sought to emulate the life of Jesus Christ as they understood it from the Gospels. St. Francis himself helped repair many churches but did not establish a monastery himself. The ranks of the Franciscans grew faster than any other medieval order, and their friars were widely respected throughout Europe. In 1228, construction began on the Basilica of San Francesco d'Assisi. The friary was intended to provide a home monastery for the wandering monks and to honor their founder.

Fierce Warriors

The Vikings were fierce warriors who wreaked havoc across European kingdoms, plundering villages and towns. However, they also began settlements of their own, particularly in Rus, which would become Russia, and in the British Isles. At home, they were farmers and artisans, with a rich poetic tradition. In 793 CE, the pagan Vikings descended on Lindisfarne, the Holy Island, off the English coast. The religious scholar Alcuin records this description of the attack in a letter to his king, Ethelred: "'Lo, it is nearly 350 years that we and our fathers have inhabited this most lovely land, and never before has such terror appeared in Britain as we have now suffered from a pagan race, nor was it thought that such an inroad from the sea could be made. Behold the church of St Cuthbert spattered with the blood of the priests of God, despoiled of all its ornaments; a place more venerable than all in Britain is given as a prey to pagan peoples."

The Viking Threat

The early Germanic tribes who conquered parts of the Roman Empire were not the only "northmen" to leave their mark on Europe. In the late ninth century, the Vikings—also called Norsemen—swept out of Scandinavia. Skilled sailors, they traveled along coasts and across deep seas in their longboats raiding eastern and western Europe. They even ventured across the Atlantic Ocean, reaching first Iceland, then Greenland, and finally North America.

Robin Hood and King Arthur

The legends of famed characters such as Robin Hood and King Arthur were made popular in medieval ballads. Despite their acclaim, historians debate whether the legends of Robin and his Merry Men or King Arthur and his Knights of the Round Table are based on actual historical figures. The tales of Robin Hood take place during Richard the Lionheart's absence from England, when his brother John ruled; however, no specific figure has been associated with him. Rather, historians have suggested that the legends evolved during a later time of unrest, in the 14th century, when peasants, workers, and artisans resisted unfair taxes and wages. The Arthurian legends first appear among 9th and 10th century British and Welsh authors; however, they were popularized later by French troubadours and then written down in the late Middle Ages by Sir Thomas Malory in Le Morte d'Arthur.

The Clergy

The pope was not the only influential member of the Church. The rest of the clergy was largely responsible for spreading the Christian faith throughout Europe, and they exercised a great deal of local influence.

Church Structure

The structure of the Church was similar to the feudal secular structure, as you will recall. The pope sat at the head of the Church, ruling from his seat in Rome. However, lesser officials, including archbishops, bishops, and priests, took charge of lands and led the faithful at a more local level. Priests led small parishes, preaching in less ornate churches and chapels. Groups of parishes under the guidance of one bishop were known as dioceses, and groups of dioceses and their bishops, under the leadership of an archbishop, were known as archdioceses. Bishops and archbishops lived and led religious services from larger, wealthier cathedrals.

The Art and Power of the Monasteries

Throughout the High Middle Ages, medieval monasteries were not only centers of religion but also centers of learning. Monks studied language, mathematics, music, and other subjects and arts and began schooling others in their realms. Many monks doubled as artisans or as scribes. The most remarkable illuminated manuscripts, including the Book of Kells, came from the hands of the monastics. The Book of Kells was written by Celtic monks and contains the New Testament of the Bible, including the four Gospels, which recount the life of Jesus. Monastic scholars copied ancient Greek and Roman texts and recorded new histories. Some, such as St. Thomas Aquinas of the Dominican Order, tried to bridge the gap between ancient Greek and Roman philosophies and Christian faith. They started a school of thought known as scholasticism. Convents, the homes of female clergy, gave medieval women an opportunity to expand their knowledge and learn crafts and other skills. Monasteries housed a great deal of medieval knowledge, in the form of literature. They also paid tribute to faith and history through their magnificent stained glass windows, tapestries, and other artistic works. During the High Middle Ages, as monks taught these skills to laypeople, a new class of artisans arose. Stained glass and other artwork played an important role in medieval Europe—they passed on religious and other teachings to the masses of illiterate peasants in Europe. Review the interactive map to see images and descriptions of some of the great monasteries of Europe. The clergy was not the only group of people busily making music, art, and literature in the Medieval Period. Despite low rates of literacy, the Middle Ages produced many such works. In addition to stained glass, medieval artisans produced wonderful textiles as well as works in stone, metal, and wood. Castles, cathedrals, and churches became the homes of many such splendors. Bards, or poets, and troubadours traveled the kingdoms, reciting poems, singing songs, and telling tales of history, romance, and chivalry. Many verses that began as oral poems and songs were eventually written down, especially during the High and Late Middle Ages. In 750 CE, the first recorded copy of the Norse saga Beowulf is believed to have been written—in Old English, a Germanic language. Then, in 1098, the oldest French language epic, The Song of Roland, was written about a knight's experiences in the Crusades. Stories about Robin Hood and King Arthur also originated from the Middle Ages. Read more about the influence of medieval troubadours and authors. The High Middle Ages also witnessed an impressive movement in building—of castles and fortresses and of cathedrals, churches, monasteries, and convents. The period even evolved its own architectural style—the Gothic. Many examples of medieval architecture remain in use today. The most notable cathedral in this style is that of Notre Dame in Paris. Clearly, art, architecture, literature, and craftsmanship thrived in medieval Europe. Both the Greco-Roman and Judeo-Christian traditions inspired much of this creativity, resulting in works that reflect a rich blend of cultures and worldviews.

Troubadours

Troubadours carried on the earlier traditions of bards. They played musical histories in the forms of poetry and song.

Religion and Politics

Unlike most western societies today, there was no separation of church and state in the Middle Ages. Religion and politics were deeply intertwined. Under the feudal system, the Church controlled a great deal of land and wealth. It also held the keys to Heaven, making it a formidable force. In order to hold up their divine right to rule, most kings and lords wanted the pope and the rest of the clergy on their side. In particular, the pope exercised the power of excommunication, which could be used to bring unruly kings and lords back in line. This could be devastating for a ruler: once he was banished from the Church, maintaining control of his kingdom could be difficult. The power of the popes was such that they even managed to unite European lords and kings who normally fought amongst themselves. Beginning in 1095, with Pope Urban II, they called on Christian rulers to lead armies to reclaim the Holy Land from Muslim Turks. These Crusades lasted nearly 200 years and resulted in new alliances among European kingdoms, as well as increasing the power of the Church.

land grants:

a gift of land made by a lord to a vassal in exchange for loyalty, service, and taxes

Franks:

a group of Germanic peoples that first arose along the Rhine River in the 3rd century and grew to occupy Gaul, of what would become France

illuminated manuscripts:

a handwritten document in which the text is adorned with decoration, borders, and illustrations

Merovingian:

a line of Frankish kings beginning with Clovis I in 481 CE through having its roots in earlier tribal leaders

friars:

a monk, or member of a religious order, who disavows property and fulfills monastic service by traveling abroad and preaching

troubadour:

a poet-musician who first emerged during the Middle Ages and specialized in the performance of long poems and songs about chivalry and romance, or courtly love

scholasticism:

a school of thought that used reason to defend religious faith and emerged in medieval Europe around the 12th century

Crusades:

a series of military expeditions undertaken between the 11th and the 13th centuries on behalf of the Roman Catholic Church to reclaim the Holy Land in Southwest Asia from Muslim Turks

Charles Martel:

also known as Charles the Hammer; military leader among the Franks who served and advised the Merovingian rules and assumed most duties of leadership between 737 and 743 CE

epic:

an especially long narrative poem, generally one that recounts the deeds of a hero

Vikings:

group of Norse warriors, explorers, and merchants who emerged from Scandinavia in the late eighth century

Carolingian:

line of Frankish kings and descending from Charles Martel that officially began with Charlemagne, or Charles the Great, in 747 CE

Charlemagne:

powerful king who united the Franks and conquered neighboring lands, forming the basis of what would become the Holy Roman Empire and earning the title Emperor of the West from Pope Leo III in 801 CE

Gothic:

referring to a style of architecture that arose in France during the Middle Ages, characterized by pointed arches and vaulted ceilings

monasticism:

system in which religious figures take special vows and live together in group homes known as monasteries

simony:

the buying and selling of religious or spiritual favors or items

divine right of kings:

the doctrine that kings derive their authority from God, not from their subjects

High Middle Ages:

the period of the Middle Ages that lasted from 1000 to 1300 CE.

Late Middle Ages:

the period of the Middle Ages that lasted from 1300 to 1500 CE.

Early Middle Ages:

the period of the Middle Ages that lasted from 500 to 1000 CE. was considered a kind of hole in European economic, military, and intellectual power.

dioceses:

the territory under the religious guidance of a bishop

archdioceses:

the territory under the religious guidance of an archbishop

excommunicated:

to banish of exclude from church membership, especially within the Roman Catholic Church

besieged:

to be attacked by invading forces who wish to gain control of a given territory or city

investing:

to grant a person the powers of a speicifc office, especially religious office

plundering:

to take goods by force, generally through raids and piracy

pillaging:

to take goods by force, usually as spoils of war