231 test 3

"According to the situation model of text processing,"

People create a mental representation of what the text is about in terms of people, objects, locations, and events

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children

Produce sentences they have never heard.

"Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the _______ property of language."

Productive

Which statement below is most closely associated with the early history of the study of imagery?

Thought is always accompanied by imagery

The crucial question in comparing syntax-first and interactionist approaches to parsing is ____ is involved.

When semantics

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the ________.

belief bias

According to the typicality effect

items that are high in prototypicality are judged more rapidly as being in a group

Gestalt psychologists consider problem solving as a process involving

reorganization or restructuring.

Family resemblance categorization

- comparison with a standard representation - Characteristic features, similarities

"A circular plate rests at the center of a small square table. Around the table are a total of four chairs, one along each side of the square table. A person with unilateral neglect sits down in one of the chairs and eats from the plate. After he is ""finished,"" he moves to the next chair on his right and continues to eat from the plate. Assuming he never moves the plate and he continues with this procedure (moving one chair to the right and eating) how many chairs will he have to sit in to eat all the food on the plate?"

3

"Kitchen tables" consists of ____ morphemes.

3

The word "bad" has ____ phoneme(s).

3

"Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify"

50 percent of words spoken by themselves

The rule of the Wason four-card problem is, "If there is a vowel on one side, then there is an even number on the other side." Let's say you are presented with A, 8, M, and 13, each showing on one of four cards. To see if the rule is valid, you would have to turn over the cards showing

A and 13

In the phonemic restoration effect, participants "fill in" the missing phoneme based on all of the following EXCEPT

A mental "skimming" of the lexicon to find likely words

Consider the following syllogism: If p then q. p. q. This syllogism is a(n) ____ syllogism.

Abstract conditional

An experiment on the phonemic restoration effect would most likely include

An extraneous cough

Boxing champion George Foreman recently described his family vacations with the statement, "At our ranch in Marshall, Texas, there are lots of ponds and I take the kids out and we fish. And then of course, we grill them." That a reader understands "them" appropriately (George grills fish, not his kids!) is the result of a(n) _____ inference.

Anaphoric

The finding that people tend to incorrectly conclude that more people die from tornados than from asthma has been explained in terms of the

Availability heuristic

Which of the following is the best example of a garden path sentence?

Before the police stopped the Toyota disappeared into the night.

"Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to"

Buy first class or coach tickets for a spring break trip.

Which property below is NOT one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?

Communication

Donovan volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at Goodman headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman-Hernandez debate on TV. Donovan was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100% sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Donovan's first response to the debate will most likely be

Did you hear how well Goodman answered that question on job creation?

"Cosmides and Tooby tested participants' ability to solve variations of the Wason problem, including ones containing stories about a particular culture. Their results showed that ____ is not always necessary for conditional reasoning."

Familiarity

Paivio (1963) proposed the conceptual peg hypothesis. His work suggests which of the following would be most difficult to remember?

Freedom

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?

Functional fixedness

"When we look at a record of the physical energy produced by conversational speech in a person's native language, we see that the speech signal"

Has breaks within words

Making probable conclusions based on evidence involves _____ reasoning.

Inductive

Most of the coherence in text is created by

Inference

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the ________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

Initial

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

Instrument inference

"Consider the following conditional syllogism: Premise 1: If I study, then I'll get a good grade. Premise 2: I got a good grade. Conclusion: Therefore, I studied. This syllogism is"

Invalid

"Evidence that language is a core aspect of human cognition comes from the fact that when deaf children find themselves in an environment where there are no people who speak or use sign language, they"

Invent a sign language themselves

"Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying"

Language acquisition

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?

Language has a structure that is governed by rules

Olin and Bob are neighbors. Olin loves birds and his father works for the zoo. He has been to a dozen bird sanctuaries, and he and his dad go on bird watching hikes once a month. In contrast, Bob doesn't think much about birds. His only contact with them is in his backyard. One day they go hiking and see many birds which they point out to each other. Which of the following is most likely?

Olin uses subordinate names and Bob uses basic level names

Coherence refers to the

Representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: "Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room." As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. To which of the following words would you expect participants to take the longest to respond to?

SKY

According to the ________ approach, there are certain types of concepts that have specific neural circuits in the brain

Semantic category

The interactionist approach to parsing states that

Semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

Slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.

Which concept is most closely associated with the evolutionary perspective to solving the Wason four-card problem?

Social-exchange theory

A psycholinguist conducts an experiment with a group of participants from a small village in Asia and another from a small village in South America. She asked the groups to describe the bands of color they saw in a rainbow and found that each group reported the same number of bands as the number of primary color words in their language. These results

Support the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A _____ string led to a restructured representation in the two-string problem.

Swinging

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

Syntactic priming

The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the _____ approach to parsing.

Syntax-first

"When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of"

Temporary ambiguity

"Consider the following argument: Observation: Here in Nashville, the sun has risen every morning. Conclusion: The sun is going to rise in Nashville tomorrow."

The argument is strong because there are a large number of observations.

Consider the following syllogism: Premise 1: All dogs are cats. Premise 2: All cats say "meow." Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs say "meow." Which statement below describes this syllogism?

The conclusion is valid

"Cecile has dreamed of owning her own home for years, and she can finally afford a small cottage in an older neighborhood. She notices that she feels more positive about her home when she drives home by the abandoned shacks, but she hates her home when driving past the fancy mansions with their large lawns. Cecile's emotions are influenced by"

The framing effect

"You are conducting a study on how fluency influences the phonemic restoration effect. You study two groups of non-native English speakers, one with a year of English classes and the other with 10 years. All of your stimuli are in English. Who would you expect to show the greatest phonemic restoration effect?"

The group with 10 years of English instruction

"Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, ""Put the apple on the towel in the box."" Their results support"

The interactionist approach to parsing

Which of the following has been used as an argument AGAINST the idea that imagery is spatial in nature?

The tacit-knowledge explanation

The propositional approach may use any of the following EXCEPT

a spatial layout.

"Jonas bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Jonas's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of"

an illusory conjunction

"Mia has lived in New York City all her life. She has noticed that people from upper Manhattan walk really fast, but people from lower Manhattan tend to walk slowly. Mia's observations are likely influenced from a judgment error based on her using"

an illusory correlation

Dr. Curious is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Curious is studying the effect of _____ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

analogies

Derrick purchased a new car, a Ford Mustang, less than a month ago. While sitting in traffic, Derrick says to his girlfriend, Mustangs must be the best-selling car now. I can't remember seeing as many on the road as I have recently. Derrick's judgment is most likely biased by a(n)

availability heuristic.

Wally and Sharon are out on a date. When Sharon asks Wally where they should go for dinner, Wally says "My coworkers keep telling me about that new Japanese place downtown, so it must be a great place to eat." Wally's response illustrates the use of a(n)

availability heuristic.

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the ____ group had the fastest response time.

bread and butter

"If a motorcycle cop believes that young female drivers speed more than other drivers, he will likely notice young female drivers speeding in the fast lane but fail to notice young male or older drivers doing the same. In this case, the police officer's judgments are biased by the operation of the"

confirmation bias

If a system has the property of graceful degradation, this means that

damage to the system doesn't completely disrupt its operation

"An experiment measures participants' performance in judging syllogisms. Two premises and a conclusion are presented as stimuli, and participants are asked to indicate (yes or no) if the conclusion logically follows from the premises. Error rates are then calculated for each syllogism. This experiment studies _____ reasoning."

deductive

Greg was recounting a fishing tale of the one that got away: "I had a huge ahi tuna on my line. I fought for it for a few minutes, then my line snapped. The tuna swam away across the pond." Greg's friend, Matt, didn't believe his story because Matt knew that tuna are salt-water fish and aren't found in ponds. Greg's account contains

descriptive information that is inconsistent with base rate information.

Ali works for Citrus Squeeze, a company that makes orange juice. Sales of their calcium-enhanced OJ have been poor, and the product was cancelled. His factory still had three cases of cartons, and Ali was told he could take them if he wanted them. With the cartons, Ali made several birdfeeders for his backyard and also planted tree seedlings in some of them; he used the remaining ones to build a "fort" for his four-year-old son. Ali's use of the cartons represents

divergent thinking

Research suggests that the _____ approach to categorization works best for small categories

exemplar

"Josiah is trying to decide whether or not to take a new job in a new city. He is worried that if he takes the job and fails, he will suffer from intense anxiety and depression. This is an example of"

expected emotion

Glinda is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an

expected emotion

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _____ may be more important than _____ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

Holyoak and Koh presented different versions of the light bulb problem to assist in solving the radiation problem. They found the ____ version to be more effective, because it had ____ features in common with the radiation problem.

fragile-glass; structural

Perky's experiment, in which participants were asked to "project" visual images of common objects onto a screen, showed that:

imagery and perception can interact with one another.

A researcher records a brainstorming session in an industrial research and development department rather than in an artificial laboratory setting. Later, she analyzes the recorded discussions, identifying certain problem-solving techniques. This research is an example of ____ research.

in vivo problem-solving

Kirk is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Kirk feels is an example of an ________ emotion.

incidental

Sanfey and coworkers' ultimatum game experiment revealed that people tended to make the ____ decision of ____.

irrational; accepting only high offers

Shepard and Meltzer measured the time it took for participants to decide whether two objects were the same (two different views of the same object) or different (two different objects). These researchers inferred cognitive processes by using

mental chronometry

In the semantic network model, a specific category or concept is represented at a

node

Utility refers to

outcomes that achieve a person's goals.

Ganis and coworkers used fMRI to measure brain activation for perception and imagery of objects. Their results showed that

perception and imagery activate the same areas of the frontal lobe, but perception activates more of the back of the brain than imagery does

The application of a(n) ____ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.

permission schema

"Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on"

psycholinguistics

Mr. Huff always passes back exams to his algebra class in descending order (the highest grade is handed out first). Today, Maddelyn was the first to receive her exam. Joy complained, remarking, "Maddelyn, you always get the highest grade in algebra. It was true all last year and so far this year." Maddelyn was not sure if this was correct. To figure out if this was true, Maddelyn should

search her memory for instances when she did get her exam back first and for instances when she did not.

Your text describes the case of M.G.S. who underwent brain surgery as treatment for severe epilepsy. Testing of M.G.S. pre- and post-surgery revealed that the right visual cortex is involved in the

size of the field of view.

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _____ problem.

source

Kosslyn interpreted the results of his research on imagery (such as the island experiment) as supporting the idea that the mechanism responsible for imagery involves ____ representations.

spatial

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the ________ bias.

status quo

If we were conducting an experiment on the effect knowledge has on categorization, we might compare the results of expert and non-expert groups. Suppose we compare horticulturalists to people with little knowledge about plants. If we asked the groups to name, as specifically as possible, five different plants seen around campus, we would predict that the expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level, while the non-expert group would primarily label plants on the _____ level.

subordinate; basic

Based on the information your textbook provided about different category types, jumping from _______ categories results in the largest gain in information

superordinate level to basic level

Experts _____ than novices.

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

In analogical problem solving, the ________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the ________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution. .

target; source

"According to your text, the key to solving the Wason four-card problem is"

the falsification principle

"At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because"

the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population.

"Rosch and coworkers conducted an experiment in which participants were shown a category label, like car or vehicle, and then, after a brief delay, saw a picture. The participants' task was to indicate as rapidly as possible whether the picture was a member of the category. Their results showed"

the priming effect was most robust for basic level categories

The conjunction rule states that

the probability of two events co-occurring is equal to or less than the probability of either event occurring alone.

Failing to consider the law of large numbers most likely results in errors concerning

the representativeness heuristic

"For the category ""fruit,"" people give a higher typicality rating to ""banana"" than to ""kiwi."" Knowing that, we can also reason that"

the word ""fruit"" will lead to a larger priming effect for banana than for kiwi.

Consider the following syllogism: All of the students are tired. Some tired people are irritable. Some of the students are irritable. It is likely that most people will judge this syllogism as

valid because this conclusion is believable.