4.04 The Reformation and Counter-Reformation

Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531)

Another important figure was the Swiss reformer, Ulrich Zwingli, sometimes known in English as Huldrych Zwingli. Zwingli agreed with Martin Luther about many issues. Zwingli attacked corruption in the Catholic Church and developed a new liturgy to replace the Catholic mass. His followers were called the Anabaptists. They believed that adults, and not infants or children, should be baptized. Unlike the Calvinists, the Anabaptists believed the church should be separate from the state. Most of them were pacifists, and they were persecuted for their unpopular views.

Presbyterianism

Bible is supreme authority Do not believe in transubstantiation Influenced by Calvinism

Calvinsim

Bible is supreme authority God's grace, and not human achievement, leads to salvation Christians should build an ideal state

Lutheranism

Bible is supreme authority God's grace, and not human achievement, leads to salvation Should be separation between Church and state

Anabaptism

Bible is supreme authority Promoted baptism of adults, rather than infants Should be separation between Church and state Mostly pacifists

Jan Hus (c. 1370-1415)

Bohemian religious reformer Jan Hus was strongly influenced by Wycliffe. Hus also raised other important issues. For example, he criticized the practice of simony, or the sale of church offices, and he also attacked the sale of indulgences as a sinful practice. The Church allowed people to buy indulgences as a substitute for penance and prayer. These indulgences were believed to decrease or even cancel the time people would have to spend in purgatory as penance for their sins. Hus was convicted of heresy and burned at the stake in 1415.

Desiderius Erasmus (1469-1536)

Desiderius Erasmus was a Dutch Roman Catholic priest. He spent many years in Italy studying Greek, and he also lived in England, where his close friend Thomas More was also a leader of the humanist movement. Erasmus, who was a very learned man, became the first editor of the Greek New Testament. In his theological works, he criticized the papacy and singled out corruption in the Church. He corresponded with Martin Luther, and many contemporaries and later historians believed that Erasmus inspired Luther, at least to some degree. In later life, though, Erasmus maintained an independent position. He struggled to establish a middle ground between Catholics and Protestants.

What Was the Reformation?

Each December, the editors of Time choose a "Person of the Year" for the magazine's cover. This choice identifies the individual who has, in the opinion of the editors, had the greatest impact on the United States or on the world as a whole. In 2011, the honor did not go to a specific person. Instead, it went to "The Protester." Throughout the world, protesters called on powerful people to "walk the walk." They wanted the powerful to live up to ideals of justice and integrity. If Time had existed five hundred years ago in Europe, its editors may have again selected "The Protester" as its Person of the Year or even the century. During this period, people began to protest what they viewed as unfairness and corruption in the Roman Catholic Church, the sole religious power in Europe. By the 1500s, the call for reform became urgent. The calls for reform led to a movement called the Reformation. The leaders and followers of the movement later became known as Protestants . These reformers pushed for an end to religious corruption and an increased focus on religion and the teachings of the Bible.

Puritans:

English followers of John Calvin whose strict code of discipline led them to dissent from the Anglican Church

The Council of Trent

The Council of Trent lasted 18 years and took place under the reigns of five popes. The council's decisions formed the basis of the Counter-Reformation, sometimes called the Catholic Reformation. These decisions mixed traditional and reformist elements. Protestant ideas rejected by the council: -Reaffirmed the supremacy of the pope -Rejected Anabaptist beliefs that individuals should be baptized as adults rather than infants -Determined that people did not have the right to interpret the Bible for themselves -Decreed that salvation was the product of both faith and good works -Confirmed the traditional belief in transubstantiation (that the bread and wine used in the Catholic mass were changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ) Protestant ideas accepted by the council: -Selling of indulgences was forbidden. -Seminaries were built for the training and education of priests. -Bishops were required to live in the regions where they exercised authority. By the late 1500s, most of the abuses that had caused the Reformation had diminished. But the Council of Trent came too late to reverse the adoption of Protestantism by many European Christians.

Reformation and Counter-Reformation

The Roman Catholic Church responded quickly to specific acts of protest, such as those of Martin Luther. But it took the Church longer to organize a comprehensive response to the Reformation. In 1545, Pope Paul III called for an ecumenical council, or meeting, of all Church leaders at the Italian city of Trent.

Thirty Years War:

a European war of 1618-1648 that broke out between the Catholic Holy Roman Emperor and some of his German Protestant states and developed into a struggle for continental hegemony with France, Sweden, Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire as the major protagonists; it was ended by the Peace of Westphalia

Index of Forbidden Books:

a list of forbidden books, published by the Roman Catholic Church

purgatory:

a spiritual region located between Heaven and Hell where sinners were destined to spend some time after death

Seminaries:

an educational institution that prepares students to be church leaders

Inquisition:

an institution of the Catholic Church focused on identifying and punishing heresy

predestination:

doctrine associated with John Calvin, whereby God has chosen in advance those who are eligible for eternal salvation

Council of Trent:

ecumenical (or general) council called by the Roman Catholic Church in 1545 to formulate a response to the Protestant Reformation in Europe

Presbyterian:

of, relating to, or denoting a Christian church or denomination governed by elders according to Presbyterianism

annulment:

official cancellation of a marriage

Jesuits:

priests who belong to the Society of Jesus, a special order of Catholic clergy founded by Ignatius of Loyola in the 1500's

heretic:

someone who departs from orthodox Church doctrine

indulgences:

special grants that released Catholics from the obligation to pray or perform good works as penance for their sins

95 Theses:

statements critical of the church, nailed to a church door in Wittenberg, Germany, on October 31, 1517

Reformation:

the Protestant reform movement that split the Roman Catholic Church

Counter-Reformation:

the Roman Catholic response to the Protestant Reformation

transubstantiation:

the changing of the elements of the bread and wine, into the body and blood of Christ during a mass (a doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church)

Protestants:

the leaders and followers of the effort within Europe to reform the Roman Catholic Church, starting in the 1500's

simony:

the sale of Church offices

heresy:

the willful and persistent rejection of any article of faith by a baptized member of the Church

excommunication:

to expel from the Church

Elizabeth I (1533 - 1603)

For the remainder of the 1500s, Catholics and Protestants competed with each other, sometimes violently, in England. However, under the skillful leadership of Henry's daughter, Queen Elizabeth I, religious rivalries diminished. Although she was a Protestant, she embraced symbols of Catholicism such as the crucifix, or a cross with an image of Jesus on it. Because the Catholic Church did not consider her the legitimate heir to the throne, she embraced the Protestant Church of England. However, to avoid the threat of a Catholic uprising, she needed to find a compromise that would appease both Catholics and Protestants. Elizabeth, therefore, accepted her role as head of the Church of England and passed various laws that made membership and attendance mandatory, while keeping many elements of Catholic ritual intact.

Huguenots:

French Protestants

Henry VIII (1491-1547)

Henry VIII, who ruled as king of England from 1509 to 1547, is most commonly known for his six wives. In England, the Reformation pursued a different course. King Henry VIII wanted his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, to produce a male heir. When she failed to bear a son, Henry asked the pope for an annulment, or cancellation, of their marriage. The pope refused. Henry divorced Catherine anyway and married Anne Boleyn. The pope excommunicated him. Henry then declared himself to be the head of the Church in England in 1534. However, members of the Church of England, called Anglicans, continued to use forms of worship that greatly resembled Roman Catholic practices. Officially, though, Anglicans were Protestants since they did not acknowledge the supreme authority of the pope in Rome.

Who Led the Reformation?

Imagine that you are a member of a non-profit organization that provides food to homeless citizens. You believe in what you're doing and you see the difference your group is making in the community. Over time, however, you learn that the group's leaders are corrupt. They take the money that the group raises to buy food to feed the homeless and, instead, use the money for personal gain. What would you do? How might you deal with the corrupt leaders? In the early 1500s, Martin Luther, a German monk, was faced with similar questions. How did Luther respond? With a hammer and a nail. Luther created a list of complaints about the Catholic Church and its practices and nailed those complaints to the door of a German church. His actions launched what is officially known as the Reformation. Although Luther is credited with igniting the Reformation, criticism of the Church began long before Martin Luther nailed his complaints to the German church door. In the 1300s, two vocal critics of the Church were John Wycliffe and Jan Hus, who questioned the wealth of the Church and the authority of the pope, among other things. Reformers like Wycliffe and Hus were aided by the invention of the printing press in the late 1400s. The printing press was an important tool in the hands of religious reformers. The press made it possible for the mass circulation of the Bible in many different languages. This allowed educated members of the community to read the Bible and interpret it for themselves. Another factor contributing to people's desire for change was Christian humanism, the idea that individualism and human freedoms are linked to Christian teachings and religion. One humanist that campaigned for reform was Desiderius Erasmus. The teachings of Wycliffe, Hus, and Erasmus would influence the ideas of Martin Luther, John Calvin, and other leaders of the Reformation.

John of Leyden (c. 1509-1536)

In 1534, an extreme Anabaptist from the Netherlands, John of Leyden, led his followers in a takeover of the German city of Münster. This group abolished private property and legalized polygamy, or the marriage of a man to multiple wives. They were defeated and executed the following year.

The Counter-Reformation

In addition to the Council of Trent, the Catholic Church took significant steps to spread Catholic doctrine and to fend off what it regarded as dangerous attacks. In 1534, Pope Paul III granted permission to a Spanish priest, Ignatius of Loyola, to organize a new society, or order, in the priesthood. This group was known as the Society of Jesus, and the priests who joined it were called Jesuits. Ignatius, who had served as a soldier, prescribed a strict code of discipline for his new order. Jesuits were rigorously trained and were required to take a special oath of obedience to the pope. Their goal was to spread the Catholic faith as missionaries and to educate the young. Within the Church, Jesuits soon rose to an elite position of leadership, renowned for their energy and intellectual ability. Many renowned institutions of higher learning in the U.S. were in fact founded by the Jesuits, including Boston College, Georgetown University, Loyola University, Marquette University, Xavier University, and Fordham University. The Church also used a variety of methods to deal with what it interpreted as attacks or errors. The Inquisition, for example, was an institution established by the papacy to fight heresy. Its origins lay in the Middle Ages during the Reconquista. During the Counter-Reformation, the Inquisition was used to punish Protestants: for example, the Huguenots, who converted to Protestantism in France. Another tool used during the Counter-Reformation was the Index of Forbidden Books. The Church saw the printing press as a double-edged sword that could lead the faithful into sin and error. Therefore, the authorities in Rome forbade the reading of certain books. The Index was first established by Pope Paul IV in 1559. The Council of Trent approved a revised form of the list. The list, a form of censorship, was finally abolished in 1966.

John Wycliffe (c. 1330-1384)

In the 1370s, English theologian and philosopher John Wycliffe began to attack some of the beliefs and practices of the Church. Wycliffe had three main criticisms. First, he objected to the wealth of many clergy members, arguing that the Church, led by the pope, should give up worldly possessions. Next, Wycliffe believed that the Bible, not the pope, was the highest source of religious authority; people should be able to read the Bible for themselves. Lastly, he attacked the Church's teaching of transubstantiation. According to this teaching, the bread and wine used in the Catholic mass were changed into the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Wycliffe's public attacks on the Church aroused bitter opposition. The Church denounced him as a heretic, or a person who holds beliefs opposed to official doctrine (known as heresy).

John Calvin (1509-1564)

John Calvin was another major leader of the Protestant Reformation. Calvin was born and educated in France. Like Luther before him, he believed in the supreme authority of the Bible. In 1533, political pressures forced him to leave France, and he settled in Basel in Switzerland. Three years later, in 1536, he published his most important work, Institutes of the Christian Religion, in which he explained his religious beliefs. The book was read by Protestants throughout Europe. Unlike Luther, Calvin believed in the idea of predestination. According to this teaching, God has chosen only certain individuals for salvation. Also unlike Luther, Calvin believed that there should be no separation between politics and religion and that Christians should build an ideal state. Calvinism rejected the Church office of bishop. Instead, Calvinist churches were governed by elected groups of elders, called presbyters. During the remainder of the 1500s, Calvin's ideas spread through Europe, notably in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Scotland. Calvinism strongly influenced some English Protestants, as well. These people, known as Puritans, were persecuted in England. In search of religious freedom, they traveled to North America, where they became some of the earliest English transatlantic settlers.

John Knox (1514-1572)

Knox was the founder of the Presbyterian Church in Scotland. While living in Geneva, he was greatly influenced by the ideas of John Calvin and was largely responsible for the elimination of the Catholic Church in Scotland.

Martin Luther (1483-1546)

Martin Luther began his studies in law but soon shifted to theology. He was ordained a priest in 1507. Like John Wycliffe and Jan Hus, Luther was shocked by the Church's great wealth and its sale of indulgences. He also became convinced that humans gained salvation through faith alone, rather than through faith and good works, such as prayer and acts of charity. The grace of God, not human achievements, was the root of salvation. Luther believed more and more firmly that the time for reform in the Church was long overdue. On October 31, 1517, in the German university town of Wittenberg, Luther made his criticisms public by posting a list of 95 Theses, or statements, on a church door. This date is usually considered to be the formal beginning of the Protestant Reformation. Less than four years later, the pope in Rome condemned Luther as a heretic and excommunicated, or expelled, him from the Church. As the movement for reform grew stronger, Luther faced many challenges. He managed to avoid arrest and execution, became involved in numerous theological disputes, and battled against poor health. One of his greatest achievements was his translation of the New Testament into German, published in 1534. Luther envisioned human life as full of conflict. His own life certainly exemplified this vision.

Social and Political Effects of the Reformation

Prior to the Reformation, the Catholic Church was the sole religious power in Europe and had great influence over politics and society. With the Reformation, Europeans began to question the authority of the Church and its leaders. The Catholic Church was governed like the governments of many European countries at the time: one absolute ruler (the pope), who had total authority and to whom all Catholics owed obedience. Protestants denied the authority of the pope. Protestant churches were either organized under a central authority (sometimes elected by church members) or they were independent. Each local church answered to its own members. This new organization was an important step towards federalism, since power was shared with a central authority. It even helped inspire modern democracy, since each parishioner had a role in running the church.

Anglicans:

Protestant members of the Established Church of England

Anabaptists:

Protestant sect that believed in adult baptism

The Wars of Religion

The turmoil of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation began a time of conflict known as the Wars of Religion, which lasted over 100 years. While not every war was fought over religious differences, the Protestant-Catholic divide deeply influenced these conflicts. Possibly the worst of these was the Thirty Years War, which involved nearly every country in Europe. The Thirty Years War began as a conflict between Protestants and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire. Over time, it became a conflict between the House of Habsburg, which controlled Spain, Austria, and the Holy Roman Empire, and France, which wanted to prevent Habsburg control of Europe. The Thirty Years War devastated much of central Europe. Countries used the war as a way to settle their own scores, resulting in widespread fighting throughout Europe. Armies of the time often pillaged farms and towns for food and supplies. The conflict was so brutal and costly that the powers involved signed a set of treaties known as the Peace of Westphalia. The major effects of the Peace of Westphalia were: -Each leader had the right to decide the official religion of their country. -Christians practicing religions other than the official religion of their country had the right to practice their own religion. -Leaders had exclusive authority within their own country and over their own people and were responsible for the actions of any of their citizens abroad.

Anglicanism

Used forms of worship that resemble Roman Catholic practices Does not recognize pope as supreme authority