446 exam 1

Two American computer scientists Vinton G. Cerf and Robert Kahn

invented the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the Internet Protocol (IP), the technologies used to transmit information on the Internet.

Client-server

relating to a computer system in which a central server supports a number of networked workstations

ENIAC

the first large-scale general-purpose electronic computer. ENIAC is an acronym for "Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer,"

Three great eras of globalization

1492 - 1820 Globalization 1.0 Exploration and colonization drive success. Countries think globally to thrive. 1820 - 2000 Globalization 2.0 Collaboration between international companies. Companies must think globally to survive. 2000 - Present Globalization 3.0 Individuals and small groups globalize. Driven by diverse group comprised of all nationalities.

advantages of centralized indexes and search engines

Comprehensiveness -- indexes store information regardless of location, distance from searcher, and so on. Web search engines attempt to index data from the entire web space, and don't require multiple replicated copies to be available. Search within documents -- the indexing process reads the text of the documents, so searchers can find pages on a topic that don't have the term within the title. More search functionality -- search engines let users require or exclude terms Relevance ranking -- search engines sort the search results by relevance, based on search term matching and other aspects such as external links to pages.

advantages of pure p2p searching

Distributed processing -- no need for huge server farms and enormous indexes Freshness of the information -- peer searching is always current and doesn't get stale, unlike robotgenerated indexes or human-generated directories ◄ Debashis "Deb" Aikat 25 CLASSIC QUESTIONS ABOUT THE INTERNET AS A GLOBAL MEDIUM PAGE 17 OF 35 ► ◄ Debashis "Deb" Aikat 25 CLASSIC QUESTIONS ABOUT THE INTERNET AS A GLOBAL MEDIUM PAGE 17 OF 35 ► Ease of sharing -- does not require a publication step (create a web page or upload to a server) to share information Anonymity -- Gnutella, in particular, is designed to obscure the requester's identity File-format agnostic -- not limited to HTML or other text files, any file can be shared and found by name Local control and flexibility -- can be implemented with security permissions and data structures

Vannevar Bush

"Memex," which American engineer and science administrator Vannevar Bush envisioned in a 1945 article in The Atlantic Monthly. Bush's Memex was a vision of what we now know as a desktop device st oring kno wledge a nd memo ry, both o rganized in an eas ily accessi ble way.

disinformation

"The dissemination of deliberately false information, esp. when supplied by a government or its agent to a foreign power or to the media, with the intention of influencing the policies or opinions of those who receive it; false information so supplied." (from Oxford

the theoretical precursor of hypertext

...

strategies for reducing information overload

1. Cut down on clutter. Get rid of all the books, papers and magazines you "might read someday." Throw out junk mail. 2. Let the phone ring. Allow the answering machine to do its job. 3. Focus your attention. Concentrate on whatever task is in front of you. Learn to redirect your worries. Let go of the past, ignore anxiety about the future and keep your mind on the present. 4. When in doubt, throw it out. Make use of the delete button. If the email's subject line doesn't seem important, delete the message. 5. Limit your storage space. Keep only the amount that fits. Each time you add something, throw out an equal amount of items. 6. Allow yourself time for transitions. Sit in the car for a few minutes before getting out; take a moment of silence before entering a meeting, answering the phone or looking at the mail. 7. Don't feel pressured to respond. Ignore requests you don't want to answer. Learn to say, "I don't know," "I need time to think about it" or, most importantly, "no." 8. Stop rushing. Things take time; don't expect yourself to constantly perform faster and better. 9. Protect your time. Schedule free time, and don't let anyone or anything interfere with it. 10. Recognize that life is always unfinished. It is unrealistic to believe you will ever be "caught up."

the ten great levelers

1. Fall of the Berlin Wall The events of November 9, 1989, tilted the worldwide balance of power toward democracies and free markets. 2. Netscape IPO The August 9, 1995, offering sparked massive investment in fiber-optic cables. 3. Work flow software The rise of apps from PayPal to VPNs enabled faster, closer coordination among far-flung employees. 4. Open-sourcing Self-organizing communities, � la Linux, launched a collaborative revolution. 5. Outsourcing Migrating business functions to India saved money and a third world economy. 6. Offshoring Contract manufacturing elevated China to economic prominence. 7. Supply-chaining Robust networks of suppliers, retailers, and customers increased business efficiency. See Wal-Mart. 8. Insourcing Logistics giants took control of customer supply chains, helping mom-and-pop shops go global. See UPS and FedEx. 9. In-forming Power searching allowed everyone to use the Internet as a "personal supply chain of knowledge." See Google. 10. Wireless Like "steroids," wireless technologies pumped up collaboration, making it mobile and personal.

Friedman's remedies to fight

1. The US work force should keep updating its work skills. Rationale: An adaptable work force is more employable. 2. The government should make it easier to switch jobs by making retirement benefits and health insurance less dependent on one's employer. Strategy: The government should also provide insurance to partially cover possible drop in income when changing jobs. 3. Inspire the youth to be scientists, engineers, and mathematicians mathematicians. This will meet the woeful lack in these fields.

information overload: web

A big contributor to this exponentially growing avalanche of information is the Internet and, more specifically, the World Wide Web. According to the study, there are two groups of Web content. The "surface" Web, or what everybody knows as the Web, is a group that consists of static, publicly available web pages. It is a relatively small portion of the entire Web. Another group is called the "deep" Web. It consists of specialized Web-accessible databases, dynamic Web sites, and Intranet sites that are not widely known by average surfers, even though the information available on the "deep" Web is 400 to 550 times larger than the information on the "surface." At the time of the study, in 2000, the "surface" Web consisted of approximately 2.5 billion documents, up from 1 billion pages at the beginning of 2000, with a rate of growth of 7.3 million pages per day. Counting all Web-accessible information, including the "deep" Web, there are 550 billion web-connected documents, and 95% of this information is publicly accessible.

Friedman's lesson five

A bigger problem still is that three billion new players are streaming into this newly flat world, seeking their own version of the American dream, with cars, toasters, and microwaves. "If we don't find a cleaner, more nonemitting way to power their dreams, we're going to burn up, choke up, heat up and smoke up this planet so much faster than even Al Gore predicts."

web portal

A web portal, also known as a links page, presents information from diverse sources in a unified way. Apart from the standard search engine feature, web portals offer other services such as e-mail, personalized home pages, news, stock prices, information, databases and entertainment. Portals provide a way for enterprises to provide a consistent look and feel with access control and procedures for multiple applications and databases, which otherwise would have been different entities altogether. Examples of public web portals are MSN, the Microsoft's portal, Yahoo!, America Online, iGoogle and Netvibes and USA.gov, the U.S. Government's Official Web Portal

Al Gore

Al Gore, on January 14, 1994, became the first U.S. vice president to hold a live interactive news conference on an international computer network. Gore has become the point man in the Clinton administration's effort to build a national information highway much as his father, former Senator Albert Gore, was a principal architect of the interstate highway system a generation or more earlier. The White House has taken a technological leap under Gore, who as a senator was known for his eagerness to embrace technology issues that many of his colleagues were reluctant to tackle.

what can we do about the information overload?

Although technology is causing the information overload, it can also offer ways to combat it. From an article in InfoWorld (Paul Krill, "Overcoming information overload," January 7, 2000), here are some practical tips: Do Develop an information management strategy that works for you. Filter information. Accept that not all pertinent data can be examined prior to a decision when data volumes are exceedingly high. Attempt to recognize quality data. Take control. Don't Let information take control of you by working 60 to 70 hours per week. Take cell phones or computers on vacations. Attempt to examine every piece of data available. Focus on things beyond your control, such as the number of new Web pages being added daily.

What is the web? Is it the same as the internet?

Although the terms Web and Internet are often used synonymously, they are actually two different things. The Internet is a network of networks, a global association of computers that carries data and makes the exchange of information possible. The World Wide Web is a subset of the Internet -- a collection of interlinked documents that work together using a specific Internet protocol called HTTP. In other words, the Internet exists independently of the Web, but the Web could not exist without the Internet. The Web is a metaphor for how individual pages combine to make up sites. Web pages are written in HTML, or Hypertext Markup Language, which tells the Web browser how to display the page and its elements. The defining feature of the Web is its ability to connect pages to one another -- as well as to audio, video, and image files -- with hyperlinks. Before hyperlinks, a computer user had to type in exact Internet (IP) addresses or wade through a series of menus to get where he or she wanted to go. Despite its hyperlinking ability, the early Web labored for a while in obscurity, a little-known alternative to the less technically advanced Gopher protocol developed at the University of Minnesota (the Golden Gophers, hence the protocol name). But in February 1993, Marc Andreessen, then a developer at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications, introduced the first graphical Web browser, called Mosaic. Andreessen went on to co-found Netscape Communications in April 1994, a company later acquired by AOL, making Andreessen wildly rich.

popular magazines

Articles in popular magazines rarely contain citations or footnotes to source materials and they undergo a limited editorial review.

Babbage

As the inventor of the first universal digital computer, Babbage is known to many as the "Father of Computing." The use of Jacquard punch cards, of chains and subassemblies, and ultimately the logical structure of the modern computer all come from Babbage.

Douglas Engelbart

At about the same time, American inventor and early computer pioneer Douglas Engelbart was picking up where Bush left off in leading a team developing hyperlinked menus, pop-up windows, and, most famously for Engelbart, the mouse.

authorship

Authorship is perhaps the major criterion used in evaluating information. Who wrote this? When we look for information with some type of critical value, we want to know the basis of the authority with which the author speaks.

Bill Gates

Bill Gates is chairman and chief executive officer of Microsoft Corporation. Perhaps Harvard's most famous drop-out, Gates was a computer hobbiest before he and Paul Allen founded Microsoft in 1975. The widespread popularity of MS-DOS and Windows was largely responsible for the "PC revolution" of the 1980s. Although Gates was not an Internet pioneer in the sense of seeing the Internet revolution coming and being one of the first to set the pace, he and Microsoft have made major strides and the company's Internet Explorer Web browser is now a strong contender to the marketplace dominance of Netscape. For several years Gates has been listed as the most or one of the most wealthy individuals in the world. Gates is married to a Duke business school graduate, Melinda Gates, and they have a daughter, Jennifer, who was born in 1996. They live in a fabulous "smart house" mansion outside Seattle. Gates authored The Road Ahead, now in its second edition.

logician George Boole's concept of digital computer circuit design in the 1850s

Boole, a self taught mathematician, discussed the analogy between the symbols of algebra and logic to represent logical forms and syllogisms. His formalism, operating on only 0 and 1, became the basis for computer switching theory and procedures. ~

Friedman's lesson four

But the U.S. has a real problem: We've "kind of lost our groove since 9/11," and may end up ceding the global competition to China unless we get our act together. We have tons of natural attributes in this country we should be leveraging.

Codifiability

Codifiability is the extent to which knowledge can be converted into a form that is suitable for transfer across economic agents

Vannevar bush's memex

Consider a future device for individual use, which is a sort of mechanized private file and library. It needs a name, and to coin one at random, "memex'' will do. A memex is a device in which an individual stores all his books, records, and communications, and which is mechanized so that it may be consulted with exceeding speed and flexibility. It is an enlarged intimate supplement to his memory.

information overload: e-mail

Doubtless none of us could imagine life or work without email. According to the study, a white-collar worker receives about 40 email messages in his office every day. Aggregately, based on different estimates, there were from 610 billion to 1100 billion messages sent in 2000 alone. Email traffic is growing every day! For instance, in 2006, a report (Crossman, P. (2006, February 1). Down the e-mail drain. Intelligent Enterprise, 15.) said that 136 billion e-mail messages travel each day; two-thirds of them are spam.

What is the internet?

Dubbed as the "mother of all networks," the Internet is a loose association of thousands of networks and millions of computers across the world that all work together to share information. Like many complex systems, the Internet is easiest to explain through the use of metaphors, and the Internet has inspired its fair share. The one that has stuck is the "information superhighway," and while it has become a cliché, the transportation analogy really does hold up pretty well. Think of the Internet as a mass transit system with primary roads that intersect at certain points. On the Internet, the main lines carry the bulk of the traffic and are collectively known as the Internet backbone. This backbone is formed by the biggest networks in the system, owned by major Internet service providers (ISPs) such as Verizon, Sprint, and America Online. By connecting to each other, these networks create a superfast pipeline that crisscrosses the United States and extends to the rest of the world. But that doesn't mean that the network is equally well developed at every point along the route. The U.S. backbone has so many intersecting points that if one part fails or slows down, data can be quickly re-routed over another part, a feature called redundancy. In less developed parts of the world, the network may have less redundancy and so be more vulnerable to slowdowns or breakdowns. Government agencies and universities are also actively involved in running the parts of the Internet that link supercomputer centers devoted to the research and education communities. While this used to be the main purpose of the Internet, the explosion of private and corporate use has caused a huge traffic jam on the backbone. With help from these communities, as well as financial support from the private sector, there is global initiative to plan the next generation Internet. On such project is Internet2, which seeks to facilitate the development, deployment and use of revolutionary Internet technologies. Internet2 is a not-for-profit advanced networking consortium comprising more than 200 U.S. universities in cooperation with 70 leading corporations, 45 government agencies, laboratories and other institutions of higher learning as well as over 50 international partner organizations.

Emanuel goldberg

He conceptualized a "microfilm rapid selector" in 1931, the theoretical precursor "Memex,"

Herman Hollerith's punch cards of the 1890s

In 1890, Hollerith designed the punch card tabulation machine, allowing the United States Census Bureau to reduce its data calculation time from ten years to two and a half years.

Modularizabiltiy

In a manufacturing context, modularizability involves the decomposition of a product into subassemblies and components

Friedman's lesson two

In our new era, individuals are limited only by their imaginations, so how well universities and schools enable and inspire students will determine who wins in.

types of information that can look like information

Information should always be accurate and either free of bias or making note of its own bias. Information also needs to be useful for a given purpose to have value.

Friedman's lesson three

Innovation will come from "having two or more specialties," from those people able to connect the dots and mash them together.

Is the internet safe?

Internet guru Esther Dyson wryly noted that the Internet suffers from "the same pathologies that affect our daily lives: fraud, incivility, unwelcome advertising, harassment, and even virtual rape. While some netters believe (it) will change human culture, we believe that net culture has so far reflected a small segment of the population, and it will change more toward the mainstream as the mainstream joins the Net" (Release 2.0 A Design for Living in the Digital Age, New York: Broadway Books, 1997, p. 216). On the Web, anyone can construct a shadow identity, a slanderous characterization that sticks to your cyber-identity like glue. It can be done by an ex-husband, former lover, or fired employee. So the Internet is about as safe as a dark alley. Maybe there are thugs lurking in the shadows; maybe there are none. But you are not defenseless. According to futurist Bruce Sterling, the Internet, and in particular its "World Wild Web," is anarchic in the way the English language is anarchic. "Nobody rents English, and nobody owns English. As an English-speaking person, it is up to you to learn how to speak English properly and make whatever use you please of it ... Otherwise, everybody just sort of pitches in, and somehow the thing evolves on its own, and somehow turns out workable ... Would English be improved if 'The English Language, Inc.' had a board of directors and a chief executive officer, or a President and a Congress? There'd probably be a lot fewer new words in English, and a lot fewer new ideas" (in David Brin's The Transparent Society, Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1998, p. 151). Like in the real world, Dyson points out, there is a long list of Internet-civility breaches, including: rumor accidental misinformation negligent or intentional disinformation plagiarism inadequate care with data, especially personal data harassment spam flaming obscenity impersonation and identity theft surveillance abuse of intellectual property rights hacking worms and viruses security breaches So all citizens are not upstanding citizens. This result is at least two major types of trouble on the Internet: threats to security and threats to privacy.

information overload: listservs

It is hard to determine the number of mailing lists in existence, but the researchers put one of the most frequently used mailing list managers -- LISTSERV - at approximately 30 million messages per day in approximately 150,000 mailing lists. A sample of mailing lists has shown that 30% of them are managed using LISTSERV. Using this information, the researchers estimated the total number of mailing list messages at 36.5 billion per year./ The full study can be accessed on the Web at: http://www.sims.berkeley.edu/research/projects/how-much-info/summary.html#intro

John Perry Barlow

John Perry Barlow is co-founder and vice chairman of the Electronic Frontier Foundation, a non-profit organization working "to protect fundamental civil liberties, including privacy and freedom of expression," in the arena of computers and the Internet. Barlow and Mitchell Kapor founded EFF in 1990, with initial funding from Kapor and Steve Wozniak, co-founder of Apple Computer, Inc. EFF has joined litigation on behalf of the rights of "Netizens," including the suit to overturn the Communications Decency Act, and lobbies Congress for broader public access to information. Barlow first used the science fiction term "cyberspace" the way we use it now, to refer to the digital and electronic world of the Internet. His "Declaration of Independence of Cyberspace" has led some to call him the "Thomas Jefferson of cyberspace." He also co-wrote songs with the Grateful Dead for twenty years. He is currently a Fellow at Harvard Law School's Berkman Center for Internet and Society.

Marc Andreessen

Marc Andreessen, a computer designer in his twenties, helped create the path-breaking browser Mosaic in 1993 while an undergraduate student at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. In those days, Mosaic was one of the few graphic-smart programs for viewing WWW pages on the Internet. Andreessen was one of seven members of the original Mosaic development team at the National Center for Supercomputer Applications at the university. In 1994, Andreessen cofounded a company, now named Netscape Communications Corporation, with James H. Clark, founder of Silicon Graphics Inc. One of the primary aims of Netscape Communications is to develop tools for navigating cyberspace.

misinformation

Misinformation differs from propaganda in that it always refers to something which is not true. It differs from disinformation in that it is "intention neutral": it isn't deliberate, it's just wrong or mistaken. One of the most popular forms of misinformation on the Internet, especially e-mail, is the passing along of urban legends. Urban legends are fabricated or untrue stories that are passed along by sincere people who believe them...and feel the need to "inform" others.

Who controls the internet?

No one person, company, institution, or government organization owns the Internet. No one source foots the bill for it. No one entity governs it, or even has a controlling interest. The Internet is truly a collaborative, collective enterprise. Many institutions and companies donate their computer resources in the form of servers and computer technicians to hold up some part of the Internet -- for example, critical links between different regions. Governments around the world are also starting to exert their influence through legislation. And every computer on the Internet has to understand a basic set of technologies, which several organizations are involved in maintaining, updating, and disseminating. There are a handful of organizations that are truly influential and that, taken together, form a sort of checks-andbalances system: World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) sets the standards for HTML and other specifics of the Web. Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) focuses on the evolution of the Internet with an eye toward keeping the Internet running smoothly as a whole. Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG) is a related organization responsible for managing IETF activities and the Internet standards process. Internet Architecture Board (IAB) is responsible for defining the overall architecture of the Internet (the backbone and all the networks attached to it), providing guidance and broad direction to the IETF. Internet Society (ISOC) is a supervisory organization made up of individuals, corporations, nonprofit organizations, and government agencies from the Internet community. The group comments on Internet policies and practices, and oversees a number of other boards and task forces, including the IAB and IESG, which deal with Internet policy issues. Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) and the Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) lead the organizations responsible for assigning IP addresses and domain names (e.g. .com, .edu. org, etc.), respectively. Regional and long-distance phone companies, backbone ISPs, cable and satellite companies, and the U.S. government all contribute in significant ways to the telecommunications infrastructure that supports the Internet. Some of these companies, such as BBN, Sprint, and MCI, have found ways to make lots of money by leasing access to the Internet to other companies.

Criticism of the world is flat

Nobel Prize winning economist and Columbia University professor, Joseph Stiglitz writes: Friedman is right that there have been dramatic changes in the global economy, in the global landscape; in some directions, the world is much flatter than it has ever been, with those in various parts of the world being more connected than they have ever been, but the world is not flat [...] Not only is the world not flat: in many ways it has been getting less flat. Prof. Pankaj Ghemawat of Harvard Business School Friedman grossly exaggerates the significance of the trends: Over 90 % of the world's phone calls, Web traffic, and investments are local. "Despite talk of a new, wired world where information, ideas, money, and people can move around the planet faster than ever before, just a fraction of what we consider globalization actually exists." Frances Cairncross, British economist, journalist and academic Ideas will spread faster, leaping borders. Poor countries will have immediate access to information that was once restricted to the industrial world and traveled only slowly, if at all, beyond it. Entire electorates will learn things that once only a few bureaucrats knew. Small companies will offer services that previously only giants could provide.

Why is the web sometimes slow?

One minute you're flying along the Web, happily swinging from link to link, and the next you find yourself slammed into a tree, "waiting for reply" or ponderously "transmitting data." Why? Part of it is the Internet's fault. Its ability to handle an enormous amount of data every day trades flexibility for speed. Everyone who uses the Internet shares bandwidth -- the data-carrying capacity of a network. Every time you send an email or download a file, you are contributing to the load. Web pages are particularly bad bandwidth hogs because they are loaded down with graphics and multimedia. Any number of things can go wrong on the Web, from a squirrel chewing on your phone line to a breakdown of a Web site's server to a traffic jam on the Internet's backbone, which affects everybody on the Internet. Everything could be peachy again minutes later, and usually everything is. The following are explanations of the most common server error codes and browser error messages you are likely to see: Common server error codes 404: A host server responded to your browser, but it cannot find the requested URL, which usually means the document has been moved or even deleted. Or it could mean that you clicked a bad link; you may be able to fix this by simply starting over and typing the URL into the address field. 403: The requested resource is forbidden, which generally means you do not have the privileges needed to access that page. Re-check the URL and try again, or look around elsewhere on the site for another way to get to the page you need. 503: The server is probably too busy to handle an additional request for service, or it could be some other problem along the Internet. Try back in a few minutes. Common browser error messages Unable to locate server: Your browser was not able to verify that the domain name exists. The server name in the URL you sent is probably incorrect. Host unavailable: The actual wording of this message depends on the browser you are using. Anything similar to this means that the domain name you are attempting to access does exist, but it is currently not responding to your request. This usually occurs when a server is so busy that it is effectively offline, is down for maintenance, or is temporarily unavailable because of some other problem. Wait and try again later.

peer to peer search engines

P2P or "peer-to-peer" means storing files in a directory that is accessible by people outside a local network. Essentially, this is file sharing with the entire Internet. Other uses include reducing corporate server bandwidth bottlenecks, storing enterprise data, distributed processing, knowledge management aggregation, collaboration, automatically distributing updates for software and real-time updating such as auctions and news syndication. There are two prominent models of P2P searching right now:

World is Flat main idea

People from farflung places will become principal players in the marketplace. Viewing the world as a level playing field in terms of commerce and communication, where all competitors have an equal opportunity. Countries, companies and individuals should make a perceptual shift to remain competitive in a global market.

point of view or bias

Point of view or bias reminds us that information is rarely neutral. Because data is used in selective ways to form information, it generally represents a point of view. Every writer wants to prove his point, and will use the data and information that assists him in doing so.

scholarly articles

Scholarly journal articles are written by researchers, scholars, or practitioners who are considered experts in their field. The articles are aimed at other researchers or experts so the language used is often highly technical and may be difficult for an outside or inexperienced researcher to understand. Journal of Modern Literature Scholary journals are also referred to as "peer-reviewed," "blind peer-reviewed," or "refereed" journals. This is due to the rigorous review process that articles go through before they are accepted and published by the journal. You can often tell an article is scholarly by the extensive bibliography, the credentials or affiliation of the author, and the inclusion of technical graphs, charts, and diagrams.

Steve Case

Steve Case is the founder and CEO of America Online. Described as "more management wonk than techie geek," Case has built AOL into the nation's dominant online service provider. Case worked for Pizza Hut before joining the company that became AOL in 1983. Today his holdings are valued at $ 1.18 billion. In November 1998, AOL agreed to buy Internet software maker Netscape Communications Corp., creating a more formidable online rival to Microsoft Corp.

Ted Nelson

Ted H. Nelson, is the inventor of many common ideas related to hypertext, including the words "hypertext" and "hypermedia." Nelson defined hypertext as "a body of written or pictorial material interconnected in [such] a complex way that it could not be conveniently represented on paper." The principle of hypertext is to associate information through "links" into a coherent organization. Nelson has been designing computer text systems on his own since 1960, and may thus be considered one of the inventors of word processing. Nelson's book, Literary Machines 91.1, reports on the

J. C. R. Licklider

The Internet began to take form with a series of memos written in 1962 by American computer scientist J. C. R. Licklider of MIT about what he called the "Galactic Network" concept. He envisioned a global network through which everyone could share and access data and programs, rightly conceiving of the computer as a communications device, not merely the arithmetical aid it was widely considered to be at the time. Only a few months later, Licklider became the head of the computer research program at the United States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), the institution that largely spearheaded and funded the Internet's development.

How does the internet work?

The Internet is a network of networks. The "backbone" of the Internet links supercomputers throughout the country. The secret of the Internet is a network protocol called TCP/IP. The two protocols were developed by the U.S. military to allow computers to talk to each other over long distance networks. TCP/IP refers to the transmission control protocol (TCP) and the Internet protocol (IP). "TCP" is responsible for verifying delivery from client to server. "IP" is responsible for moving packets of data between nodes. TCP/IP forms the basis of the Internet, and it is built into every common modern operating system, including Unix, Mac OS, and Windows. Every computer that hooks to the Internet understands these two protocols and uses them to send and receive data from other computers on the network. TCP/IP creates what is called a packet-switched network, a kind of network intended to minimize the chance of losing any data that is sent over the wires. Individuals connect to the Internet as phones connect to each other via a vast telecommunications network. First, TCP breaks down every piece of data -- such as an email message or instructions from a Java applet -- into small chunks, called packets, each of which is wrapped in an electronic envelope with Web addresses for both the sender and the recipient. The IP protocol then figures out how the data is supposed to get from point A to point B by passing through a series of routers. It is not unlike how regular mail passes through several post offices or distribution centers on its way to a remote location. Each router examines the destination addresses of the packets it receives and then passes the packets on to another router as they make their way to their final destination. If your email was broken into ten packets, then each of those may have traveled a completely separate route. But you will never know it, because as the packets arrive, TCP takes over again, identifying each packet and checking to see if it is intact. Once it has received all the packets, TCP reassembles them into the original. (See Figure 2.) TCP/IP is the most important of a long list of Internet protocols. It is sometimes used as a global term to describe additional protocols, including simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), file transfer protocol (FTP), and Telnet protocol. Obviously, the Internet is not one technology; it is the product and the facilitator of many technologies. For much more on this question, How the Internet Works by Joshua Eddings (Emeryville, Calif.: Ziff-Davis Press) is recommended.

Alan Turing's conceptual computing of the 1930s

The Turing machine was an idealised mathematical model that ~~ reduced the logical structure of any computing device to its essentials.

How does the Web work?

The Web is based on a set of rules for exchanging text, images, sound, video, and other multimedia files, which is collectively known as HTTP, or hypertext transfer protocol (mentioned in Question 6). Web pages can be exchanged over the Internet because browsers (which read the pages) and Web servers (which store the pages) both understand HTTP. Everything would still be chaos if the Web did not have an addressing scheme that every computer on the network understands. An IP address is a 4- to 12-digit number that identifies a specific computer connected to the Internet. The digits are organized in four groups of numbers (which can range from 0 to 255) separated by periods. Depending on how your ISP assigns IP addresses, you may have one address all the time or a different address each time you connect. Web servers have the same kind of addresses. For instance, the listed IP Address is "92.122.18.135" for Host Name: www.whitehouse.gov Internet domain names are the next level of Internet addressing, just as the street name is followed by the city and state. Domain names create a single identity for a series of computers used by a company or an institution. So while there may be 38 servers at a given company, each with its own IP address, they all share a common domain name, such as CNET.COM. The domain name identifies all the computers in a group. If you want to get to a specific page stored on any of those computers, you will need an even more precise address. That is why every Web page on the Internet, and even the objects you see displayed on Web pages, has its own unique address, known as a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), which tells your browser exactly where to go on the server to find a page.

First chapter of world is flat

The first chapter in The World Is Flat recalls the voyage of Columbus, colonization, and industrialization. Are the motivations behind twenty-first century globalization much different from the ones recorded through history?

Thre triple convergence

The global economic playing field is being leveled As Friedman outlines in The World Is Flat, several technological and political forces have converged into a global, Web-enabled playing field that allows for multiple forms of collaboration without regard to geography or distance -- or soon, even language. Vertical (command and control) value-creation model All 10 flatteners converged and created the flat world Horizontalization -practices & infrastructure for productivity India, China, & former Soviet Empire joining the Flat world Horizontal (connect and collaborate) value-creation model

Doug Engelbart

The inventor of many common devices and ideas used in computing today, including "word processing," "outline processing," "screen windows," the "mouse," and the "text link." On November 21, 1969, a computer at Boelter Hall, home of the computer science department at University of California at Los Angeles, hooked up with another hundreds of miles away at Engelbart's lab at the Stanford Research Institute.

the publishing body

The publishing body also helps evaluate any kind of document you may be reading. In the print universe, this generally means that the author's manuscript has undergone screening in order to verify that it meets the standards or aims of the organization that serves as publisher. This may include peer review. On the Internet, ask the following questions to assess the role and authority of the "publisher", which in this case means the server (computer) where the document lives:

How do search engines work?

There are four primary types of search sites on the Web: search engines, Web directories, metasearch sites, and specialized (such as Peer-to-Peer, p2p) search engines. Search engines such as Google and HotBot use automated software called Web crawlers or spiders. (This is why one search engine is called WebCrawler.) These programs move from site to site, logging each site title, URL, and at least some of its content. The object is to drag the Web for new sites and to re-search old ones to reference as much of the Web as possible. The result are long lists of Web sites placed in a database, which users search by typing in a keyword or phrase.

How are online services different from the web?

There would not seem at first blush to be much difference between online services and the Web. There are huge differences, however. Most importantly, the Web, as a technology and application of the Internet, is free (in the sense of freedom, not in the sense of free beer), open, and de-centralized. No one person or entity controls it or the content that is published on it. Online services, however, which include companies such as America Online (AOL) and Microsoft Network (MSN), are closed and proprietary. To become a "member" of one of these online "communities," or to subscribe to their services, a customer agrees to a user agreement, which includes rules and stipulations for the service, the Internet, and the Web's use. This is antithetical to the originating vision for and architecture of the Internet and its Web, which is why there is a battle on legal, intellectual, commercial and policy fronts regarding the future of the Internet - open and free v. commercial and proprietary. Online services pledge to make navigating the Web easier by bundling access with services such as email, chat, Instant Messaging, and online sub-communities where people with similar interests can communicate for business or pleasure. For instance, Google, Yahoo and others now provide these bundled services for free, subsidized in part by search-based advertising. Before the Web took off with the masses, online services operated in closed environments by building and maintaining long stretches of interconnected wires and servers that no one but their customers could use. Each system had a different interface and customers nearly always paid by the hour or by the minute. The companies competed over which one was easiest to use and which one had the best content. Then the public noticed the Web, which offered a vast network with an interface -- the browser -- that was the same for everyone. While the online services relied on vast private networks, the Web is not owned by anyone in particular. To get on AOL's network, you had to pay them. To get on the Web, you had to pay any regional or national ISP for a local dial-up number. Suddenly, the online services were competing with hundreds of ISPs instead of only each other. The online services adapted. They started letting users roam the Web as well as their own networks. And they got cheaper, substituting monthly flat fees for per-hour surcharges. To most users, online services are now simply big ISPs. Of the big four, only one --AOL-- is determined to maintain its own private network. MSN, CompuServe, and some of the others have instead constructed huge Web sites to serve as new homes to all of their exclusive content. They still want you to pay, but for access to the Web and to content you cannot see anywhere else. There still seems to be a market for private networks among users who have never used the Internet before. This is where most of AOL's new customers come from.

the contribution of automatic digital computing by Charles Babbage in 1833

Though he never completed them, Babbage conceptualised mechanical computing machines on principles that anticipated the modern electronic computer. In the early 1820s, he began developing his Difference Engine, so called because it was based on the method of finite differences.eventually abandoned development of the Difference Engine in the 1 830s when he turned his attention to building the more advanced Analytical Engine,The development of the proposed Analytical Engine marked the first leap from simple calculators to computers.

Netscape IPO

Three reasons. Netscape brought the Internet alive with the browser. They made the Internet so that Grandma could use it and her grandchildren could use it. The second thing that Netscape did was commercialize a set of open transmission protocols so that no company could own the Net. And the third is that Netscape triggered the dotcom boom, which triggered the dotcom bubble, which triggered the overinvestment of a trillion dollars in fiber-optic cables.

Chips

Throught the 1980's and into the 1990's, microchips have become more and more powerful. The manufacturers of computer hardware have been in a constant race to produce better and better microchips.

Tim Berner Lee

Tim Berners-Lee is the inventor of the World Wide Web initiative which he started in 1989 for his own use as a researcher at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (known as CERN) in Switzerland.

What is the history of the web? When was it founded?

Tim Berners-Lee is the inventor of the World Wide Web initiative, which he started in 1989 for his own use as a researcher at Switzerland's European Organization for Nuclear Research (known as CERN). Berners-Lee has a background in text processing, real-time software, and communications. He developed his first hypertext system, "Enquire," in 1980. Soon after developing the World Wide Web in 1991, Berners-Lee specified hypertext markup language (HTML) as part of the WWW initiative to facilitate communication among high-energy physicists. The HTML specification quickly evolved to meet the requirements of the Web-linked scientific community. It went mass market in 1995, turning what was an electronic library system for a relatively small group of physicists into an international bazaar of information. Berners-Lee was responsible for the development of three standards that weave documents into the Web: URLs (uniform resource locators): The standard for pointing to documents anywhere on the Internet. HTML: The standard for highlighting documents with URLs to hyperlink them to other documents on the Web. Hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP): The standard for transferring hyperlinked documents from Web servers to Web clients (individual PCs). Berners-Lee left CERN to found the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which has centers at CERN and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Recent development of the Web is due largely to the efforts of Berners- Lee and MIT's Laboratory of Computer Science. The W3C is an independent forum for developing and formalizing Web standards. The goals of the consortium, which Berners-Lee directs, are to coordinate development of the Web and to maintain its interoperability over time, without major discontinuities. The W3C also conducts research to determine the Web's future and provide reference implementations of Web software. The consortium also hopes to address security issues, such as message integrity, authentication, and privacy.

Vinton Cerf

Vinton G. Cerf is a computer scientist who is known throughout the industry as the primary force behind the development of the Internet. He has been called the "Father of the Internet" and the "King of the Internet."

Friedman's lesson one

Whatever can be done, will be done, "and the only question left is will it be done by you or to you."

types of information that can look like propoganda

When you read documents or listen to audio or video files that characterize opinions or positions in terms of their integrity or moral content, you may well be in the presence of propaganda. Remember, the purpose of propaganda is to 'instil a particular attitude': to encourage you to think a particular way. Think for yourself: base your opinion on the facts, not the hype.

Browser

a program used to view HTML documents

Intranet

a restricted computer network; a private network created using World Wide Web software

Graphic User Interface (GUI)

a user interface based on graphics (icons and pictures and menus) instead of text; uses a mouse as well as a keyboard as an input device

five criterion for internet credibility

bias, audience, accuracy, currency, relevance,