6 Memory
>3 stages of memory are sensory memory (momentary storage of sensory impressions), short-term memory (working memory of info held in awareness for up to 30 secs), and long-term (permanent storage of info)
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>declarative memory is brought to mind by conscious effort, whereas procedural memory is engaged without any conscious effort
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>the semantic network model posits that info is held in long-term in networks of interlinking concepts. Through a process of spreading activation, thinking of one concept brings related concepts within that semantic network to mind
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>we encode info by means of acoustic codes (coding by sounds), visual codes (coding by mental imaging), and semantic codes (coding by meaning)
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What are the basic processes & stages of memory?
>3 basic memory processes are encoding (converting stimuli into a form that can be stored in memory), storage (retaining info in memory), and retrieval (accessing stored info)
What is LTP, an what role do scientists believe it plays in memory formation?
>long-term potentiation is the biochemical process by which repeated stimulation strengthens the synaptic connections between nerve cells >scientists suspect that the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory may depend on the production of LTP
Engram
Lashley's term for the physical trace or etching of a memory in the brain
How is recall related to the methods used to measure it?
Recognition tasks (such as multiple-choice questions) generally produce better memory retrieval than recall tests (free recall, serial recall, or paired-associates recall) because they provide more retrieval cues that help jog the memory
Retrieval Theory
belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories
Interference Theory
belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other
Levels of Processing Theory
belief that how well or how long info is remember depends on the depth of encoding or processing
Retrival Cues
cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories
Mnemonic
device for improving memory
Flashbulb Memories
enduring memories of emotionally charged events that seem to be permanently seared into the brain
TOT PHenomenon
experiences in which people are sure they know something but can't seem to bring it to mind
What factors influence the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?
factors affecting the accuracy include ease of recall, confidence in memory, general knowledge about the subject, same-race identification, and leading or suggestive questioning
Proactive Interference
form of interference in which material learned earlier interferes with retention of newly acquired info
Retroactive Interference
form of interference in which newly acquired info interferes with retention of material learned earlier
Misinformation Effect
form of memory distortion that effects eyewitness testimony & that is caused by misinformation provided during the retention interval
What have scientists learned about the genetic basis of memory?
genes regulate production of proteins involved in transforming short-term memory into long-term memory
What is retrieval theory?
holds that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories
What is decay theory?
holds that forgetting results from the gradual deterioration of memory traces in the brain
What is the constructionist theory of memory?
holds that memory is a representation, or reconstruction, of past events or experiences
Repression
in Freudian theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety provoking material
What is interference theory?
is the belief that forgetting results from the interference of memories with each other
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?
it appears to play a key role in the formation & temporary storage of declarative memory, such as memory of events & daily experiences
Eidetic Memory
lingering mental representation of a visual image (photographic memory)
Long-term Potentiation
long-term strengthening of neural connections as the result of repeated stimulation
Retrograde Amnesia
loss of memory of past events
Anterograde Amnesia
loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories
Where are memories stored in the brain?
memories are stored within the circuitry of constellations of nerve cells in the brain called neuronal networks
Implicit Memory
memory accessed without conscious effort
Neuronal Networks
memory circuits in the brain that consist of complicated networks of nerve cells
What is amnesia, and what causes it?
memory loss may be caused by psychological factors or by physical factors such as degenerative brain diseases and brain trauma. There are two general types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde
Declarative Memory
memory of facts & personal info that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind (called explicit memory) Types 1) Semantic Memory: memory of facts & general info bout the world 2) Episodic Memory: memory of personal experiences Timeframe 1) Retrospective Memory: memory of past experiences or events & previously acquired info 2) Prospective Memory: memory of things one plans to do in the future
Procedural Memory
memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills
Short-term Memory
memory subsystem that allows or retention & processing of newly acquired info for a max of 30 seconds (also called working memory)
Recognition Task
method of measuring memory retention that assesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers
Savings Method
method of testing memory retention by comparing the number of trials needed to learn material with the number of trials needed to relearn the material at a later time
Three-stage Model
model of memory that posits 3 distinct stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, & long-term memory
What is motivated forgetting?
motivated forgetting, or repression, is the Freudian belief that people banish anxiety-provoking material from conscious awareness
Overlearning
practice repeated beyond the point necessary to reproduce material without error
Memory Retrieval
process of accessing & bringing into consciousness info stored in memory
Memory Encoding
process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory
Consolidation
process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories
Chunking
process of enhancing retention of a large amount of info by breaking it down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks
Maintenance Rehearsal
process of extending retention of info held in short-term memory by consciously repeating the info
Memory Storage
process of retaining information in memory
Elaborative Rehearsal
process of transferring info from short-term to long-term memory by consciously focusing the meaning of the info
Dissociative Amnesia
psychologically based form of amnesia involving the "splitting off" from memory of traumatic or troubling experiences
Semantic Network Model
representation of the organized structure of long-term memory in terms of a network of associated concepts
Iconic Memory
sensory store for holding a mental representation of a visual image for a fraction of a second
Echoic Memory
sensory store for holding a mental representation of asound for a few seconds after it registers in the ears
Are recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse credible?
some recovered memories may be credible, but others are not. We presently lack the tools to determine which are accurate and which are not.
Sensory Memory
storage system that holds memory of sensory impressions for a very short time
Memory
system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind
Sensory Register
temporary storage device for holding sensory memories
Massed vs. Spaced Effect
tendency for retention of learned material to be greater with spaced practice that with massed practice
Serial Position Effect
tendency to recall items at the start or end of a list better than items in the middle of a list
Primacy Effect
tendency to recall items better when they are first learned
Recency Effect
tendency to recall items better when they are learned last
Decay Theory
theory of forgetting that posits memories consist of traces laid down in the brain gradually deteriorate & fade away over time (trace theory)
Constructionist Theory
theory that holds memory is not a replica of the past but a representation, or reconstruction, of the past
Free Recall
type of recall task in which individuals are asked to recall as many stored items as possible in any order
Acrostic
verse or saying in which the first of last letter of each word stands for something else
What are flashbulb memories?
vivid, highly detailed, and long-lasting memories of emotionally charged personal or historical events
Acronym
word composed of the first letters of a series of words