6 Memory

>3 stages of memory are sensory memory (momentary storage of sensory impressions), short-term memory (working memory of info held in awareness for up to 30 secs), and long-term (permanent storage of info)

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>declarative memory is brought to mind by conscious effort, whereas procedural memory is engaged without any conscious effort

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>the semantic network model posits that info is held in long-term in networks of interlinking concepts. Through a process of spreading activation, thinking of one concept brings related concepts within that semantic network to mind

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>we encode info by means of acoustic codes (coding by sounds), visual codes (coding by mental imaging), and semantic codes (coding by meaning)

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What are the basic processes & stages of memory?

>3 basic memory processes are encoding (converting stimuli into a form that can be stored in memory), storage (retaining info in memory), and retrieval (accessing stored info)

What is LTP, an what role do scientists believe it plays in memory formation?

>long-term potentiation is the biochemical process by which repeated stimulation strengthens the synaptic connections between nerve cells >scientists suspect that the conversion of short-term memory into long-term memory may depend on the production of LTP

Engram

Lashley's term for the physical trace or etching of a memory in the brain

How is recall related to the methods used to measure it?

Recognition tasks (such as multiple-choice questions) generally produce better memory retrieval than recall tests (free recall, serial recall, or paired-associates recall) because they provide more retrieval cues that help jog the memory

Retrieval Theory

belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories

Interference Theory

belief that forgetting is the result of the interference of memories with each other

Levels of Processing Theory

belief that how well or how long info is remember depends on the depth of encoding or processing

Retrival Cues

cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories

Mnemonic

device for improving memory

Flashbulb Memories

enduring memories of emotionally charged events that seem to be permanently seared into the brain

TOT PHenomenon

experiences in which people are sure they know something but can't seem to bring it to mind

What factors influence the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

factors affecting the accuracy include ease of recall, confidence in memory, general knowledge about the subject, same-race identification, and leading or suggestive questioning

Proactive Interference

form of interference in which material learned earlier interferes with retention of newly acquired info

Retroactive Interference

form of interference in which newly acquired info interferes with retention of material learned earlier

Misinformation Effect

form of memory distortion that effects eyewitness testimony & that is caused by misinformation provided during the retention interval

What have scientists learned about the genetic basis of memory?

genes regulate production of proteins involved in transforming short-term memory into long-term memory

What is retrieval theory?

holds that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories

What is decay theory?

holds that forgetting results from the gradual deterioration of memory traces in the brain

What is the constructionist theory of memory?

holds that memory is a representation, or reconstruction, of past events or experiences

Repression

in Freudian theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety provoking material

What is interference theory?

is the belief that forgetting results from the interference of memories with each other

What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?

it appears to play a key role in the formation & temporary storage of declarative memory, such as memory of events & daily experiences

Eidetic Memory

lingering mental representation of a visual image (photographic memory)

Long-term Potentiation

long-term strengthening of neural connections as the result of repeated stimulation

Retrograde Amnesia

loss of memory of past events

Anterograde Amnesia

loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories

Where are memories stored in the brain?

memories are stored within the circuitry of constellations of nerve cells in the brain called neuronal networks

Implicit Memory

memory accessed without conscious effort

Neuronal Networks

memory circuits in the brain that consist of complicated networks of nerve cells

What is amnesia, and what causes it?

memory loss may be caused by psychological factors or by physical factors such as degenerative brain diseases and brain trauma. There are two general types of amnesia: retrograde and anterograde

Declarative Memory

memory of facts & personal info that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind (called explicit memory) Types 1) Semantic Memory: memory of facts & general info bout the world 2) Episodic Memory: memory of personal experiences Timeframe 1) Retrospective Memory: memory of past experiences or events & previously acquired info 2) Prospective Memory: memory of things one plans to do in the future

Procedural Memory

memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills

Short-term Memory

memory subsystem that allows or retention & processing of newly acquired info for a max of 30 seconds (also called working memory)

Recognition Task

method of measuring memory retention that assesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers

Savings Method

method of testing memory retention by comparing the number of trials needed to learn material with the number of trials needed to relearn the material at a later time

Three-stage Model

model of memory that posits 3 distinct stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, & long-term memory

What is motivated forgetting?

motivated forgetting, or repression, is the Freudian belief that people banish anxiety-provoking material from conscious awareness

Overlearning

practice repeated beyond the point necessary to reproduce material without error

Memory Retrieval

process of accessing & bringing into consciousness info stored in memory

Memory Encoding

process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory

Consolidation

process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories

Chunking

process of enhancing retention of a large amount of info by breaking it down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks

Maintenance Rehearsal

process of extending retention of info held in short-term memory by consciously repeating the info

Memory Storage

process of retaining information in memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

process of transferring info from short-term to long-term memory by consciously focusing the meaning of the info

Dissociative Amnesia

psychologically based form of amnesia involving the "splitting off" from memory of traumatic or troubling experiences

Semantic Network Model

representation of the organized structure of long-term memory in terms of a network of associated concepts

Iconic Memory

sensory store for holding a mental representation of a visual image for a fraction of a second

Echoic Memory

sensory store for holding a mental representation of asound for a few seconds after it registers in the ears

Are recovered memories of childhood sexual abuse credible?

some recovered memories may be credible, but others are not. We presently lack the tools to determine which are accurate and which are not.

Sensory Memory

storage system that holds memory of sensory impressions for a very short time

Memory

system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind

Sensory Register

temporary storage device for holding sensory memories

Massed vs. Spaced Effect

tendency for retention of learned material to be greater with spaced practice that with massed practice

Serial Position Effect

tendency to recall items at the start or end of a list better than items in the middle of a list

Primacy Effect

tendency to recall items better when they are first learned

Recency Effect

tendency to recall items better when they are learned last

Decay Theory

theory of forgetting that posits memories consist of traces laid down in the brain gradually deteriorate & fade away over time (trace theory)

Constructionist Theory

theory that holds memory is not a replica of the past but a representation, or reconstruction, of the past

Free Recall

type of recall task in which individuals are asked to recall as many stored items as possible in any order

Acrostic

verse or saying in which the first of last letter of each word stands for something else

What are flashbulb memories?

vivid, highly detailed, and long-lasting memories of emotionally charged personal or historical events

Acronym

word composed of the first letters of a series of words