A&P Chpt2
what is bicarbonate ion?
(HCO3-)most important base in the body and abundant in blood. ammonia (NH3) is also a base and is a waste product of protein breakdown.
avogrados number
6.02 x 10(23 exponent) is one mole of substance no matter what it is. It always contains exactly the same number of solute particles that is this number.
water makes up how much of the volume of live cells
60-80%
what is neutral pH
7.0 or 10(-7 exponent) the # of H+ = the # of OH-
what two important compounds are ions and electrolytes?
Acids and Bases
what are the 5 N bases that contribute to a nucleotide structure
Adenine Thymine (complementary bases) Guanine Cytosine Uracil (is complementary to A in RNA). Adenine and Guanine are large 2 ring bases (purines) Cytosine, thymine and uracile are smaller single rings bases called pyrimidines.
Inorganic compounds
All other non C containing chemicals which includes water, salts and many acid basis.
Carbon
C = atomic symbol 18.5% body mass a component of all organic molecules including carbs, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. This and the following elements represent 96.1% of mass in body.
nucleic acids
C, O, H, N & P are the largest molecules in the body.
Calcium
Ca 1.5% body mass found as a salt in the bones and teeth. It's ionic (Ca-) form is required for muscle contraction, conduction of nerve impulses and blood clotting. This and the following elements compose 3.9% of wet body mass.
Chlorine
Cl .2% Its ion, Cl-, is the most abundant anion in extracellular fluid.
Organic compounds
Contain C and are covalently bonded molecules. Many are large.
andrenocortical hormones
Cortisol, a glucocorticoid is a metabolic hormone necessary for maintaining normal blood sugar levels. Aldosterone helps regulate salt and water balance of the body by regulating the kidneys.
Iron
Fe .1% Component of hemoglobin which transports oxygen within red blood cells and some enzymes.
Hydrogen
H = atomic symbol 9.5% body mass a component of all organic molecules. As an ion (proton), it influences the pH of body fluids.
why is water the most abundant and important compound in living material?
High heat capacity - absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before changing appreciably in temp itself which is good for homeostatis High heat of vaporization - requires that a large amount of heat be absorbed to break the hydrogen molecules. Perspiration evaps from skin, removing addtl heat. Polar solvent properties - it is the universal solvent allowing chemical reactions, disassociation, creating true solutions. Hydration layers - around large charged molecules like proteins shielding them from other charged substances and preventing them from settling out. Reactivity - it is an important reactant in many chemical reactions. Cushioning - resilient cushioning around body tissues.
Iodone
I .1% Needed to make functional thyroid hormones.
Postassium
K 0.4% It's ion K+ is the major positive cation ion cells. Necessary for conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
RNA Characteristics
Major cellular site: Cytoplasm Major functions: carries out genetic instructions for protein synthesis. Sugar: ribose Bases: A, G, C, U Structure: single strand straight or folded 3 major types are messenger, robosomal and transfer.
DNA Characteristics
Major cellular site: Nucleus Major functions: Genetic material, directs protein synthesis, replicates itself before cell division. Sugar: deoxyribose Bases: A, G, C, T Structure: double strand coiled into a double helix
Magnesium
Mg .1% Present in bone. Important cofactor in a number of metabolic reactions.
Steroid
Molecules made from 4 interlocking hydrocarbon rings. They are fat soluble and contain little oxygen.
Nitrogen
N= atomic symbol 3.2% body mass a component of proteins and nucleic acids (genetic material)
Sodium
Na .2% As an ion, Na+ is the major positive ion found in extracellular fluids. Important for water balance, conduction of nerve impulses and muscle contraction.
oxygen
O = atomic symbol 65% body mass a component of organic and inorganic molecules. Needed for production of ATP.
Phosphorus
P 1% of body mass Part of calcium phosphate salts in bones and teeth. Also present in nucleic acids and part of ATP.
Sulfur
S .3% Component of proteins, particularly muscle proteins.
bile salts
Steriod - these breakdown products of cholesterol are released by the liver into the digestive tract where they aid in fat digestion and absorption.
vitamin d
Steriod hormone - fat soluble vitamin produced by skin on exposure to UV radiation. For bone growth and function.
polar molecule
a covalent bond in which there is unequal sharing of the electrons due to the shape of the molecule, giving a charge to the ends and making it reactive.
carbohydrate
a delicious snack and a group of molecules that include sugars and starches are represent about 1-2% of cell mass. They contain C,H,O and generally the H & O occur in the same 2:1 ratio as in water (hydrated carbon, yo)
radioisotopes
a heavier isotope that is unstable that will decompose spontaneously into more stable forms.
Dehydration synthesis
a hydrogen atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the monomer it joins with. As a covalent bond is formed, water is released. This removal of a water molecule at the bond site occurs each time a monomer is added to the growing polymer chain.
Periodic table
a listing of the known elements.
decomposition reaction occurs when
a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules. It is a reverse synthesis reaction. Bonds are broken. It is a degradative or catabolic process in cells.
what is a biological colloid
a protein water mixture like blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid.
hydrolysis
a water molecule is added to each bond to be brocken down thereby releasing its building blocks
the more H+ in solution the more
acidic
oxidases
add O or remove H during a reaction. All enzyme names end with ase.
hydrolases
add water during hydrolysis
ATP
adenosine triphosphate - is an adenine nucleotide to which two additional phosphate groups have been attached during the breakdown of food fuels. It is the primary fuel immediately usable by all cells. When the terminal phosphate group is cleaved off, energy is released for work and ADP (diphosphate) is formed. When the terminal P group is cleaved off that, a similar energy is released and AMP (monophosphate) is formed. The cells ATP are replenished as glucose and other fuel molecules are oxidized and their body energy is released. The energy that is liverated with ATP drops P groups must be captured and used to reform the P bonds. Without ATP the cell function doesn't happen.
chemical bond
an energy relationship between atoms and reacting atoms.
lipids
are insoluble in water but dissolve readily in other lipids and organic solvents like ether and ETOH. They contain C,H and O but the proportion of O is much lower. P is found on some of more complex lipids. Triglycerides, phospholipids and steriods are lipids.
electropositivity
atoms with only 1 or 2 valence shell electrons, low attraction that they usually lose their valence electrons to other atoms.
the relative proportions
balanced equations indicate the relative proportion of each reactant and product.
the more OH- in solution the more
basic
exchange or displacement reactions involve
both synthesis and decomposition.
amino acids
building blocks of protein. 20 are common types in thousands of different arrangements. All have an amine (-NH2) and and organic acid group (-COOH). It may act as a base or an acid. All aminos are identical except for their R group. They are joined together by dehydration synthesis.
polymer
chainlike molecules made from many smaller identical or similar units (monomers) that are joined together by dehydration synthesis.
Chemical and Physical properties of atoms
chemical - how atoms relate or interact to each other physical - things we can detect with our senses.
ionic bonds
chemical bond formed between atoms by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other. Because opposites attract, these ions stay close together forming the ionic bond.
distinguishing mixtures from compounds
chemical bonding occurs between compounds, not mixtures. Properties of molecules or atoms are not changed when they become a part. they are only physically intermixed. It can usually be separated by physical means. Compounds are separated into constituent atoms by breaking bonds. Some mixtures are homog and other hetero (like a bar of 100% pure elemental iron).
what are buffers?
chemical systems (proteins and other molecules) that resist abrupt swings of the pH of body fluids by releasing H+ when it pH begins to rise and by binding them (being a base) with OH- when it starts to fall.
trace elements: less than .01%
chromium, colbalt, copper, fluoriine, manganese, molybdenum, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium and zinc. Many of these are found as part of enzymes or are required for enzyme activation.
glycolipids
components of cell membranes. lipids associated with carbohydrate molecules determine blood type, involved in cell recognition and in recognition of foreign substances by immune cells.
mixture
composed of two or more components that are physically intermixed. Solutions, colloids and suspensions.
protein
composes 10-30% of cell mass and is the basic structural material of the body. Vital roles in cell function and include enzymes, hemoglobin and contractile proteins of muscle. All contain C,H,O, N and sometimes S.
synthesis reactions are the basis of
constructive or anabolic activities that join molecules, amino acids, into proteins. Conspicuous in rapidly growing tissues.
nucleotides
contains 3 components - a N base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group. The synthesis of a nucleotide involves the attachment of a base and a phosphate group to the pentose sugar.
Oxidation reduction reaction or redox
decomposition reactions that the basis of all reactions in which food fuels are broken down for energy (ATP is made). Electrons are exchanged between reactants. a substance loses H atoms by combing with O.
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid
how much potential energy does an electron have?
depends on the level it occupies. The attraction between electrons is greatest closest to nucleus and falls off with increasing distance. Electrons farthest from the nucleus have greatest potential energy and are most likely to interact chemically with other atoms.
strong acids
disassociate completely and irreversibly in water and can dramatic change the pH of the solution. End up with alot of H+
solute
dissolved in the solvent and present in lesser amounts.
weak acids
do not disassocate completely. Like maybe 10% of H+ will come out. Weak acids play an important role as a buffer in the body.
unsaturated (mono or poly unsaturated)
double bonds between carbon atoms cause the fatty acid chain to kink so they cannot be packed closely to solidify.
disaccharides
double sugar formed when two monos are joined by dehydration synthesis. In this reaction a water molecule is lost as the bond is made. These are too large to be tranported thru cells membranes so they must be digested by hydrolysis to their simple sugar units to be absorbed from digestive tract to blood.
Atoms
each element is composed of identical particles or building blocks called atoms. Every elements atoms differ from those of all other elements and give the element its unique physical and chemical properties.
the pH scale is logarithmic. what does that mean?
each successive change of one pH unit represents a 10 fold change in ion concentration. pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm of the H+ concentration in Moles per Liter. or -log(h+)
nonpolar molecules
electrically balanced molecules - not reactive
what is another name for ion?
electrolyte
Redox reactant that accepts electrons
electron acceptor and is reduced.
electron shell
electron cloud around the nucleus that has 1-7 shells. Each shell contains one or more orbitals and represents a different energy level. electron shell and energy level used interchangeably.
Redox reactant that loses electrons
electron donor and is oxidized.
carbon is what?
electroneutral - it never gains or loses electrons but always shares them. It always forms 4 covalent bonds with other elements, including its own. As a result it makes long chainlike molecules (fats) rings (carbs and steriods). `
endergonic
energy absorbing reactions. Usually anabolic.
kinetic energy
energy in action.
energy form conversions
energy is easily converted from one form to another, but are often inefficient. Some of the initial energy supply is always lost as heat. Not destroyed and can be usable. All energy conversions in the body liberate heat.
Radiant or electromagnetic energy
energy that travels in waves which vary in length called the electromagnetic spectrum. Visible light, infrared waves, ultraviolet waves, xrays. Light energy stimulates our eyes for vision.
Electrical energy
from the movement of charged particles. In the body electrical currents are generated when ions move along or across cell membranes. The nervous system uses electrical currents (nerve impulses) to transmit messages. The heart uses currents to pump blood.
globular proteins
functional proteins are compact, spherical, are terts or quat structures. Water soluble, chemically active. Antibodies, regulate growth (hormones), enzymes are all globs.
enzymes
globular proteins that are biological catalysts which regulate and accelerate the rate of biochemical reactions but are not used up in the reaction. They keep our metabolic pathways flowing. They don't make reactions happen, they only speed them up. They allow reactions to occur at normal body temp by decreasing amount of activation energy required.
names of some monosaccharides
glucose, fructose, galactose, deoxyribose and ribose
eicosanoids (prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes)
group of molecules derived from fatty acids found in all cell membranes. Protaglandins stimulate uterine contractions, regulate blood pressure, control GI motility and secretory activity. Both prostas and leukos are involved in inflammation. Thromboxanes are powerful vasoconstrictors. Their synthesis and imflam actions are blocked by NSAIDS.
dipole
has two poles of charge - water.
what are the qualities of bases?
have a bitter taste, feel slippery and are proton acceptors - taking up H+ in detectable amounts. Common inorganic bases include hydroxides. These dissociate when dissolved in water, but in this case, hydroxyl ions OH- and cations are liberated. This reaction produces water and reduces the acidity of solution.
isotopes
have the same number or protons and electrons as the element, but a different number of neutron. For example, 12C, 13C and 14C are all carbon isotopes that have 6 protons, but 6, 7 & 8 neutrons respectively. Can be written with the mass number following the symbol.
Solutions
homogeneous mixtures of components that may be liquid, gas or solid. Momogeneous means that the mixture has the same composition thru out.
concentration of solution
how we describe true solutions in terms of their concentration, usually in percent (parts per 100).
fat soluble vitamin a
ingested in orange pigment vegs/fruits. Converted in retina to retinal a part of the photoreceptor pigment involved in vision.
fat soluble vitamin e
ingested in plant products. promotes wound healing, contributes to fertility and may help neutralize free radicals.
salts are what kind of compound
ionic containing cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-. When dissolved in water, they disassociate into their component ions.
3 types of chemical bonds
ionic, covalent and hydrogen`
activation energy
is absorbed to prime the reaction. It is needed to alter the bonds of the reactants to they can be arranged to become the product. It is needed regardless of whether the reaction is energy absorbing or releasing.
water
is the body's chief solvent
Matter
is the stuff of the universe - anything that occupies space that has mass.
mass number of an atom
is the sum of the masses of its protons and neutrons. Indicated by a superscript to the left of the atomic symbol.
what does an electrolyte do?
it is a substance that conducts electrical current in solution
mole of an element is = to
its atomic weight or molecular weight (sum of its atomic weights) in grams.
lipoproteins
lipoid and protein based substances that transport fatty acids and cholesterol in blood stream. Major varieties are HDL and LDL (high and low density).
triglycerides are found
mainly beneath skin for insulation. The length of the chain and the degree of H saturation determines how solid it is at a given temp.
what is one of the most crucial roles of the kidneys?
maintaining proper ionic balance in body fluids
carbonic acid-bicarbonate system
major blood buffer . Carbonic Acid (H2C03) disassociates reversibly releasing bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and protons H+. The chemical equilibrium between the weak acid and weak base resists changes in blood pH by shifting to the right or left as H+ is added or removed.
phospholipids
modified triglycerides. They are diglycerides with a phosphorous containing group and two fatty acid chains. The tail is nonpolar and the head is polar. Chief building block for cell membranes. Participate in the transport of lipids in plasma. Prevalent in nerve tissue.
when two of more atoms of same element are together
molecule of that element.
molarity
moles per liter indicated by M.
hydrogen bonds
more like attractions than true bonds as they are too weak to bind atoms together to form molecules. They are important intramolecular bonds (bonds withing molecules) which hold different part os a single large molecule in a specific 3 dimensional shape like protein and DNA. It happens when a hydrogen atom already covalently bonded to another electronegative atom is attracted by another electron hungry atom so that a bridge forms, usually N or O is involved. Common between dipoles
Cholesterol
most important steroid and the structural basis for manufacture of all body steroids. Component of cell membranes. Is the raw material for synthesis of vit d, steriod hormones and bile salts.
true solution
most of the body's solutions. containes gases, liquids or solids dissolved in water. They are transparent and minute. Not visible to naked eye. Do not settle out, do not scatter light.
Energy
moves matter - the capacity to do work or put matter into motion. Matter and energy are inseperable
triglycerides
neutral fats. Large molecules consisting of hundreds of atoms. Most efficient form of stored energy and when oxidized, yield large amounts of energy. Composed of two types of building blocks, fatty acids and glycerol in a 3:1 fatty acid to glycerol. Are linear chains of carbon and hydrogen atoms with an organic acid (-COOH) at one end. Glycerol is at the head. Dehydration synthesis creates them. Non polar due to hydrocarbon chains.
what happens when an acid is mixed with a base
neutralization reaction because the joining of H+ and OH- to form water nuetralizes the solution.
structure of atom
nucleus - central containing protons and neutrons tightly bound together. Protons are positive, neuts are neutral and electrons are negative.
atomic number
number of protons in the nucleus and is written as a subscript to the left of the atomic symbol.
Chemical reaction
occurs when chemical bonds are formed rearranged or broken.
atomic symbol
one or two letter symbol that identifies it on the periodic table.
planetary versus orbital model
planetary depicts electrons moving around nucleus. Orbital shows a grey cloud where they are likely to be.
polysaccharides
polymers of simple sugars linked together by dehydration synthesis. Because they are large, they are good storage products. Size means they lack sweetness of simple and double sugars. Starch and glycogen. Starch must be digested for glucose units to be available and the plants provide cellulose (another polysac) which provides bulk. Glycogen is stored in m/s tissue and works to keep blood sugar stable.
fat soluble vitamin k
prevalent in a variety of foods and made by bacteria in gut. For blood clotting.
structural levels of proteins
primary - sequence that forms the polypeptide chain. secondary - primary chain forms spirals (alpha helices that are coiled and stablized by H bonds) and (beta) sheets. these look pleated and adjacent sheets held together by H bonds too. Tertiary - superimposted on secondary structures - these are folded up to form globulary molecule held together by intramolecular bonds. Quaternary structure - 2 or more polypeps - look big and messy
Exergonic reactions
reactions that release energy. Yields products with less energy than initial reactants along with energy that can be harvested for other uses. Usually catabolic and oxidative.
RNA
ribonucleic acid
octet rule
rule of 8's. The number of electrons that can participate in bonding.
most ionic compounds fall into what category?
salts. In the dry state, they form crystals which are large arrays of cations and anions held together by ionic bonds.
Monosaccharides
simple sugars are single chain or single ring structures that contain from 3-7 carbon atoms. The C, H, O usually occur in the ration 1:2:1 so a general formula for a mono is (CH2O)n where n is the number of carbons in the sugar. They are usually named by the number of carbons they have.
Saturated fat
single covalent bonds between carbon atoms. These are straight and at room temp are solid.
electronegativity
small atoms with 6 or 7 valence shell electrons are hungry and attract very strongly
states of matter
solid, gas and liquid
suspension
solute particles are large and may scatter light, settles out. Heterogeneous mixture. Blood is also one.
colloid
solute particles are larger than in a solution and scatter light. they do not settle out. Also called emulsions and are heterogeneous. Composition is different in parts of the colloid. Can be opaque. They can undergo sol-gel transformations - going from fluid to gel. Cytosol is a semifluid material in cells that does this because of its dispersed proteins.
What are the qualities of acids?
sour taste, can react (dissolve) many metals and burn. It is a substance that releases H+ in detectable amounts. Often called proton donors.
sex hormones
steroid hormone - estrogen, progesterone, testosterone are produced for normal reproductive function
potential energy
stored energy
fibrous proteins
structural proteins that are strandlink and extended like collagen (most abundant protein in body), keratin, elastin and certain muscle proteins. They are long ropelike structures and insoluble in water, very stable.
Biochemistry
study of chemical composition of reactions of living matter.
mechanism of enzyme action - steps
substrates bind to active site, forming enzyme substrate complex. It undergoes internal arrangements that allow the product to form and then it releases. Enzymes can catalyze millions of reactions per minute.
some names of disaccharides
sucrose, maltose, lactose
types of chemical reactions
sythesis, combo, or exchange
to calculate atomic weight
take atomic weight of each atom X # of atoms in the compound to get a gram of molecular weight.
What other factors influence rate of chemical reactions?
temperature increases kinetic energy and force of collisions. concentration - higher numbers of particles so as the concentration declines so do the # of reactions. particle size - smaller particles move faster than smaller ones and tend to collide more often and harder. catalysts - substances that increase the rate of chemical reactions without themselves becoming chemically changed or a part of the product. Enzymes.
peptide bond
the acid end of one amino linked to the amine of the next. This is a characteristic arrangement of the atoms. Two united aminos form a dipeptide, three a tri and so on.
electron acceptor
the atom that gains one or more electrons in the forming of an ionic bond.
1 amu
the atomic mass unit of one proton or one neutron. It's mass size. Accounts for nearly all the mass of the atom. Electrons have none.
atomic weight
the average of the relative weights of all the isotopes of an element taking into account their relative abundance in nature. The atomic weight is usually equal to the mass number of its most abundant isotope.
products
the chemical composition of the result of the reaction
Mechanical energy
the energy that is directly involved in moving matter.
How many electrons does a shell hold
the first shell holds 2. Subsequent shells hold more but the only ones important in bonding are the outershells and when they hit 8 they are considered stable or chemically inert.
chemical energy
the form of energy stored in bonds of chemical substances. Potential energy is released and becomes kinetic. For example, when the bonds of ATP are broken.
reactants
the number and kind of interacting substances
active site and substrate
the part of the enzyme where the catalytic activity occurs is the active site and the substance on which an enzyme acts is a substrate.
radioactivity
the process of atomic decay. It occurs when subatomic particles alpha, beta and gamma (rays) are ejected from nucleus.
pH units
the relative concentration of H+ ions in various body fluids.
surface tension
the result of hydrogen bonding making water molecules cling together.
Solvent
the substance present in the greatest amount
atp mechanisms
the tightly coiled tail of negatively charged phosphate groups has tremendous energy and is very unstable. When its terminal ends are hydrolyzed off, it becomes more stable. Cells use the bond energy during reactions by using enzymes to transfer the terminal phosphate group from ATP to other compounds. These are phosphorylated molecules and said to be primed and temporary have energy to do some work which in the process of, they lose the phosphate group.
half life
the time for the radioisotope to lose one half of its life.
are chemical reactions reversible?
theoretically yes. This is indicated by the arrows between the reactants and the product. If the arrows are of differing length, one of the reactions is dominant. If they are equal - that is chemical equilibrium. Chemical reactions that release energy will not reverse unless energy is put back in.
What influences the speed of chemical reactions?
they must collide with enough force to overcome the repulsion between their electrons.
what do enzymes consist of?
two parts; a holoenzyme which is an apoenzyme (protein portion) and a cofactor. The cofactor may be an ion of metal or an organic molecule needed to assist the reaction in some way, like a vitamin. the cofactor is the coenzyme.
Elements
unique substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means. 118 are recognized. 92 occur in nature. 4 elements, N,H,C,O make up about 96% of body weight and 20 others are present in trace amounts.
noble gases
unreactive group of elements - like helium and neon.
blood pH
varies within a very narrow range 7.35-7.45 and if varies from these limits too much can be fatal.
denatured protein
what happens when a globular protein unfolds and loses its 3 dimensional shape due to environmental conditions like temp too high, pH drops. This is reversible when conditions restored but if so extreme, it can be irreversibly denatured.
single covalent bond
when 2 atoms share 1 pair of electrons.
what determines the acidity of the water?
when acids dissolve in water, they release H+ and anions. It is the concentration of protons that determines the acidity of a solution. The anions have little or no effect on acidity.
double or triple covalent bonds
when atoms share 2 or 3 pairs of electrons
Covalent bonds
when electrons do not have to be completely transferred to achieve stability, they are shared.
anion
when the acceptor acquires a net negative charge by gaining one or more electrons.
cation
when the donor acquires a positive charge by giving up one or more electrons.
molecule
when two or more atoms are held together by chemical bonds.
compound
when two or more different kinds of atoms bond. They are chemically pure and all of their molecules are identical. A molecule is the smallest particle of a compound that still has the specific characteristics of that compound.
weak base
will accept relatively few protons - bicarbonate ion is a weak base.