A&P2 Quiz 5

The level of testosterone in males drops to near zero between age ________ and puberty. When puberty hits, testosterone secretion increases and then peaks at around ages ______. What is testosterone responsible for during puberty?

1 year; 30-40 years. enlargement of the penis, scrotum, and testes; and development of secondary sexual characteristics.

Capacitation of spermatozoa require _____ to ______ (length of time).

1-10 hours.

What causes detumescence? Give the two mechanisms.

1. Phosphodiesterase-5 breaks down cGMP --> increase in Ca2+ influx --> vasoconstriction. 2. Sympathetic nervous system-mediated response increases cytosolic Ca2+ influx --> smooth muscle contraction --> vasoconstriction and decreased blood flow into erectile tissue.

The positive feedback loop seen in the ovarian cycle has two ultimate results. What are they and what is the response elicited by these results?

1. Very high LH levels 2. very high estrogen levels. The elevated estrogen levels cause even more fluid to be secreted in the theca interna, which causes rapid enlargement of the ovarian follicle. At this point, the follicle is now known as a vesicular follicle. The surge in LH caused by the positive feedback loop is the most critical event for ovulation to occur.

What are the secondary sex characteristics that develop in males during puberty due to rising testosterone levels?

1. body hair growth 2. enlargement of larynx (lowering of voice) 3. increased skin thickness and development of acne 4. increased protein production and muscle development 5. increased bone growth (length) and calcium retention (thickness) 6. increased RBC 7, increased basal metabolism

What are the three layers of the uterine wall?

1. endometrium 2. myometrium 3. perimetrium

What are the causes of osteoporosis? There are five.

1. lack of weight bearing exercise (stresses the bones and stimulates osteoblast activity) 2. malnutrition 3. lack of vitamin C 4. menopause (remember: estrogen increases OPG; without estrogen OPGL predominates and osteoclast activity increases) 5. decrease in growth hormone and other growth factors associated with old age.

What are the four primary functions of sertoli cells in the testes?

1. maintenance of the blood-testes barrier 2. provide support of spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis (nurtures developing sperm) 3. secretion of inhibin 4. secretion of a special nutrient fluid that is essential for sperm maturation following ejaculation.

Around the time of ovulation, a couple of events are occurring. What are they?

1. rapid enlargement of the follicle 2. increase in progesterone secretion

What are the three regions of the penis?

1. root 2. body (shaft) 3. glans

The body has two lines of defense that prevent sudden fluctuations in blood Ca2+ concentration. What are they?

1. the buffer function of the exchangeable (amorphous calcium phosphate salts) Calcium in bones. 2. hormonal control (PTH and calcitonin).

There are two significant results of the female sexual cycle. What are they?

1. the release of one ovum 2. preparation of the uterine endometrium for implantation of fertilized ovum.

There are three major functions of the fallopian tubes. What are they?

1. transport of ovum to uterus 2. maturation and fertilization of ovum 3. provides a nutrient-rich environment which nourishes the spermatozoa and developing pre-embryo.

Describe what happens during capacitation of the spermatozoa.

1. uterine and fallopian tube fluids wash away the inhibitory factors that keep the sperm inactive 2. After ejaculation, sperm move away from cholesterol making the acrosome weaker. 3. membrane of the sperm becomes more permeable to calcium ions and therefore there is a rapid, abundant entry of calcium.

Sperm accounts for _____% of the total semen volume.

10

Together, both testes will produce _______ sperm per day.

120 million.

What is the critical threshold for sperm count?

20 million sperm for every mL of semen

The surge in LH that is essential for ovulation to take place occurs about _______ prior to ovulation.

24 hours.

What is the maximal life-span of sperm once in female reproductive tract?

24-48 hours

Seminal fluid provides ________% of fluid in the ejaculated semen.

60

Development of the male reproductive organs begins around week _______ of gestation.

7

What is the average pH of semen?

7.5

Why is rapid influx of calcium into the spermatozoa important for the process of fertilization? There are two reasons.

Aids in the powerful whiplash movement of the flagellum. Also, calcium helps with exocytosis (increased Ca2+ influx allows for exocytosis) of the enzymes contained within the acrosome that help the spermatozoa degrade the granulosa cells surrounding the ovum.

What is the end result of atresia during the ovarian cycle?

Allows for only one ovum to be released per cycle from the mature vesicular follicle.

How is hypoparathyroidism treated?

Calcium and Vitamin D. Usually, the cholecalciferol (inactive) form of vitamin D is administered since most of the time there is still some PTH being secreted. If absolutely no PTH is secreted then we would want to use 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol (the active form of Vit D) since there would be no way for the body to convert inactive to active Vit D without PTH.

Patients who have had their parathyroid glands removed must be given _______ for the rest of their life.

Calcium and vitamin D.

What is contained within the secretions of the prostate gland?

Calcium ion, citrate ion, phosphate ion, and profibrinolysin.

Why does sperm move away from cholesterol in the female reproductive tract?

Cholesterol incorporates into the acrosome of spermatozoa and makes the acrosome tougher to break open. The acrosome needs to be able to break open once at the ovum in order to release the proteolytic enzymes that help it gain access to the ovum. Therefore, the sperm must move away from cholesterol in order to weaken the acrosome.

What is emission (in regards to the male sexual act)?

Contraction of the vas deferens, prostate gland, and seminal vesicles to propel the sperm and semen into the urethra.

Erectile tissue in the penis consists of ______ and _______.

Corpus cavernosum and corpus spongiosum.

A man who is exposed to high levels of gamma-radiation is sterile due to destruction of the germinal epithelium of the seminiferous tubules, although he has normal levels of testosterone. Which of the following would be found in this patient? A) Normal levels of inhibin B) Suppressed levels of FSH C) Absence of leydig cells D) Normal secretory pattern of gonadotropic releasing hormone

D) normal secretory pattern of gonadotropic releasing hormone.

What is the biologically active form of testosterone?

DHT (dihydrotestosterone).

What hormone is abnormally high in men with male pattern baldness?

DHT.

What is androgen insensitivity syndrome?

Deficiency in 5-alpha-reductase which causes the failure of the development of male sexual characteristics.

What is the difference between male emission and male ejaculation?

Emission moves sperm and semen into the urethra and ejaculation moves the sperm and semen to the exterior environment.

What is the ampulla of vas deferens?

Enlarged portion of vas deferens adjacent to the prostate.

________ cause physical changes to occur in the uterus during the female monthly sexual cycle.

Estrogen and progesterone

Describe the feedback mechanism that occurs during the *follicular* phase of the ovarian cycle.

Estrogen secreted by the theca interna and granulosa cells in response to FSH goes to the anterior pituitary and stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete LH. Then LH goes and acts on the ovaries and stimulates them to secrete more estrogen. This estrogen travels back to anterior pituitary and stimulates secretion of more LH. This positive feedback loop results in large levels of LH and estrogen.

What hormone is essential for conversion of spermatids to sperm?

Estrogen. remember: think of estrogen as a female hormone; females are pretty, so estrogen is responsible for "beautifying" the spermatids (making them look like sperm).

What are the two gonadotropic hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary?

FSH and LH

Ovarian changes during sexual life depend on _______ and _______.

FSH and LH.

Both _______ and ______ are needed to initiate spermatogenesis.

FSH and testosterone.

The early growth of the primary ovarian follicle up the the antral stage is stimulated mainly by _______ (type of hormone) alone.

FSH.

In the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, ______ secretion starts increasing. This causes a rapid development of 6-12 ________. What effect does this have on the ovum?

FSH; primary follicles. This causes the ovum to increase in size, rapid proliferation of the granulosa cells, and the differentiation of the stromal tissue that surrounds the follicle into two zones: theca interna and theca externa.

What is cryptorchidism?

Failure of a testis to descend from the abdomen into the scrotum at or near the time of birth.

What are the two phases of the ovarian cycle and what hormone dominates during each phase?

First phase = follicular phase. FSH dominates during this phase. Second phase = luteal phase. LH dominates during this phase.

What type of feedback regulation does testosterone follow, and what does this mean for the other hormones in the HPT axis?

Follows negative feedback. High testosterone feeds back to the hypothalamus to decrease GnRH. When GnRH is low, LH and FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary will also be low. Low FSH means reduced spermatogenesis.

What hormonal changes occur in females at the time of puberty?

GnRH secretion by the hypothalamus increases which causes an increase in FSH and LH secretion by the anterior pituitary. FSH and LH promote follicular growth.

LH secretion is stimulated by ________ hormone from the ______.

Gonadotropic releasing; hypothalamus.

The vesicular follicle of the ovarian cycle is also known as the _______ or the _______.

Graafian follicle or the dominant follicle. It is this follicle that fully matures.

What effect would hyperparathyroidism have on blood calcium concentration and how does this occur?

Hyperparathyroidism causes an increase in PTH secretion which causes an increase in osteoclast activity. This results in hypercalcemia and, if severe enough, CNS depression.

What effect does hypoparathyroidism have on calcium regulation and osteocyte/osteoclast/osteoblast activity? What would you expect to be some symptoms of hypoparathyroidism?

Hypoparathyroidism causes a decrease in PTH secretion. This means that osteocyte and osteoblast-mediated resorption of amorphous Ca2+ is decreased (taking calcium from bones and depositing it in blood). Also, osteoclasts become almost totally inactive. The combined result is hypocalcemia. This can cause nervous system excitation and bronchospasms that can lead to death.

How does the histology of a resting mammary gland differ from that of an active mammary gland?

In a resting mammary gland, there is only subcutaneous tissue and ductule tissue. There are no alveoli. In an active mammary gland, alveoli are abundant.

Where does fertilization occur?

In the ampulla of the fallopian tubes.

Where in the ovaries does oogenesis occur?

In the ovarian follicles of the ovarian cortex.

The fallopian tubes are divided into three regions. What are they?

Infundibulum (closest to the ovary). Ampulla (intermediate portion of the uterine tube) Isthmus (short segment adjacent to the uterine wall).

What hormone is responsible for communicating the rate of spermatogenesis as a method of regulation of the HPT axis? Explain how this works.

Inhibin. When spermatogenesis rate is too high, the sertoli cells of the seminiferous tubules secrete inhibin. Inhibin provides a direct negative feedback on the anterior pituitary to decrease FSH levels.

The endometrium is divided into what two zones?

Inner functional zone and outer basilar zone.

What is the fate of the corpus luteum if fertilization does occur?

It is retained for the first 3-4 months of gestation and during this time it continues to secrete progesterone and estrogen (still secretes more progesterone than estrogen though).

Luteinization is dependent on _______.

LH.

During ovulation, there is a massive spike in ______ and a slight spike in ______. What is the result of this? hint: what is the result of the combined efforts of the two hormones and the result of the action of one of the hormones alone

LH; FSH. This causes the vesicular follicle to rapidly accumulate fluid and double in size. Also, LH starts converting some of the follicular cells into progesterone-secreting cells.

Luteal phase of ovarian cycle: Under the influence of ______, the remaining follicular cells change rapidly into _______ cells by a process called ______.

LH; lutein cells; Luteinization.

Around the time of ovulation, _______ converts the estrogen-secreting cells to _________. This causes a ________ (increase/decrease) in estrogen.

LH; progesterone-secreting cells; decrease.

What cells in the testes secrete testosterone?

Leydig cells.

Testosterone is secreted by the _______ cells of the testes and is essential for _______.

Leydig; growth and division of spermatogonia.

What happens during Luteinization?

Lutein cells (formed from remaining follicular cells following ovulation) enlarge and get filled with lipids. The lipids give the cells a yellowish appearance. This total mass of cells becomes the corpus luteum.

_______ hormone is secreted by the ________ and stimulates the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone.

Luteinizing; anterior pituitary.

Describe the process of spermatogenesis.

Mitosis of diploid spermatogonium to form diploid primary spermatocyte. Primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis to form a secondary spermatocyte. The secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis 2 to form four *haploid* spermatids.

Describe the histology of the fallopian tubes.

Mucosa of ciliated columnar epithelium surrounded by concentric layers of smooth muscle.

Where in the testes are spermatogonia found?

Near basement membrane of seminiferous tubule.

What causes erection during parasympathetic stimulation? Give the cascade of events.

PS stimulation --> increase in NO --> activation of guanylyl cyclase --> increase in cGMP --> decrease Ca2+ influx --> vasodilation.

What is parathyroid poisoning and what disease is it seen in?

Parathyroid poisoning is the precipitation of calcium and phosphate crystals throughout the body, including the arteries. Excessively high levels of PTH causes supersaturation of calcium and phosphate in the body fluids. This leads to deposition of calcium phosphate crystals in the lungs, kidneys, stomach, and arteries. It can cause rapid death.

What type of hormone is calcitonin and what does this mean for its method of secretion and location of receptors?

Peptide hormone. Secreted from vesicles via exocytosis; receptors are located on cell membrane of target cell.

What two normal physiological conditions can cause an increase in PTH?

Pregnancy and lactation. It's important to note that this increase is normal and is not considered hyperparathyroidism.

Describe the negative feedback mechanism that ends the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle and marks the beginning of the next follicular phase of the ovarian cycle.

Progesterone, estrogen, and inhibin are secreted by the corpus luteum. In the absence of fertilization, the high levels of estrogen and progesterone secreted by the CL feed back to the anterior pituitary and signals the anterior pituitary to decrease FSH and LH secretion. the CL also secretes inhibin, which signals the anterior pituitary to further decrease FSH. When FSH and LH decrease, you get involution of the CL (which is dependent upon LH to survive, so no LH = no CL). When the CL involutes, it can no long secrete estrogen, progesterone, and inhibin. This removes the feedback inhibition of the anterior pituitary gland, which results in increased FSH and LH, which stimulates the growth of new follicles (the start of a new follicular phase). Note: seems like a "duh" thing to say, but remember this all happens only in the absence of pregnancy.

What is contained within the acrosome of spermatozoa?

Proteolytic enzymes and hyaluronidase and a condensed nucleus.

What is the function of the scrotum?

Provides a controlled cooling temperature for the testes (contracts in response to cold environment to warm the testes)

What is the major symptom of hyperparathyroidism, and is usually what leads to diagnosis of hyperparathyroidism?

Repeat or frequent fractures. Because PTH is so high, the bones are being constantly decalcified in order to increase blood [Ca2+]. So people with this condition have very weak bones and are very prone to fractures. On an X-ray, doctors usually see areas of holes in the bones, which leads them to suspect hyperparathyroidism.

What is the function of the bulbourethral gland in the male reproductive tract?

Secretes a thick, sticky, alkaline mucus that helps to neutralize any urinary acids in the urethra. The secretion of this gland also provides lubrication for the tip of the penis

What is the function of the corpus luteum?

Secretes progesterone and estrogen. note that the CL secretes more progesterone than estrogen.

What fluid is the last to be ejaculated?

Seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles.

What are the three accessory glands of the male reproductive tract?

Seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland.

What is the site of spermatogenesis?

Seminiferous tubules

What are the two types of cells that are found in the seminiferous tubules?

Sertoli cells and leydig cells

Why don't we treat hypoparathyroidism with PTH injections?

Several reasons; mostly because it can cause an immune response and it is very expensive.

What are the prolonged effects of calcitonin?

Slows the activity of present osteoclasts and prevents the formation of new osteoclasts.

Mature sperm are defined as what?

Sperm that have the capability of motility.

Describe the process of spermiogenesis.

Spermatids undergo physical maturation to become spermatozoa. They lose most of their cytoplasm and elongate into spermatozoa. The nucleus and chromatin get condensed. The acrosome is formed from the golgi apparatus and contains the enzymes needed once the sperm makes contact with the ovum. Formation of a long tail lined with mitochondria provides energy for flagellar movement.

______ is the cellular formation of spermatid, and _______ is the physical formation of spermatozoa.

Spermatogenesis; spermiogenesis.

How would puberty be affected in a male who is deficient in 5-alpha-reductase and why? How would this affect sexual development?

Stunted or absent puberty. Because there would be little to no conversion of testosterone to DHT. They would be genetically XY, but would have ambiguous sexual organs because DHT is necessary for the maturation of male sex organs.

True or false: The corpus luteum is the *ONLY* structure that secretes progesterone.

TRUE!

Why are testes located in the scrotum rather than in the abdominal cavity where they might be better protected?

Temperature regulation is essential to functional sperm formation. If the temperature is too high, the cells of the seminiferous tubules degenerate and spermatogenesis is defective. For this reason, the testes are located in the scrotum to keep the temperature of the testes 2 degrees celsius below the core body temp.

Describe the intracellular MOA of testosterone.

Testosterone diffuses directly into target cells where it is converted to DHT via the 5-alpha-reductase enzyme. DHT then binds to a receptor protein in the cytoplasm. The DHT:receptor protein complex migrates into the nucleus where it binds with the Testosterone response element to induce gene transcription and protein synthesis.

What is testosterone important for in the first trimester of pregnancy? What about the third trimester?

Testosterone is responsible for the development of male reproductive organs in the first trimester. In the third trimester, testosterone causes the descent of the testes into the scrotum.

What term is used to identify the most mature ovarian follicle?

The Graafian follicle

What layer of the endometrium makes up the bulk of the endometrium?

The functional zone

What are the three parts of the uterus?

The fundus, body, and isthmus.

What is responsible for the formation of the vesicular follicle in the female reproductive cycle?

The positive feedback mechanism of estrogen and LH. Remember: estrogen is secreted by the granulosa cells and the theca interna. LH is secreted by the anterior pituitary.

What accessory gland of the male reproductive tract secretes profibrinolysin and what is the function of profibrinolysin?

The prostate gland. Profibrinolysin is the enzyme that degrades the weak fibrin coagulum in the female reproductive tract once the sperm are activated.

What forms the corpus luteum?

The remaining cells of the ruptured Graafian follicle.

What is ejaculation (in regards to the male sexual act)?

The rhythmic, wavelike increases in pressure in the ejaculatory ducts and urethra, which causes the propulsion of semen from the urethra to the exterior.

What role does the theca interna play in the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle and what is the result?

The theca interna along with the granulosa cells come together to secrete *lots of estrogen* and a follicular fluid. The fluid accumulates within the ovarian follicle, which causes formation of an antrum (fluid-filled space) within the ovarian follicle. At this point, the ovarian follicle is now known as an antral follicle. Note that the more estrogen that is secreted, the more fluid is produced.

What do you expect the levels of estrogen and progesterone to be during and immediately following ovulation? Assume fertilization has not occurred.

They plummet during ovulation.

Why are spermatogonia always undergoing mitosis?

To replenish spermatogonia store as well as to form the primary spermatocyte.

True or false: A small amount of sperm can be stored in the epididymis.

True

Why do men tend to be taller than women?

Unlike estrogen, testosterone does not play a role in the fusion of the epiphyseal plates in bones. So in men, the epiphyseal plates fuse later in life as compared to women.

Describe the mucosal changes that occur in the cervical canal during ovulation.

Up to the point of ovulation, the cervical canal is plugged by a thick mucus plug to protect the uterus from bacterial infection. During ovulation, the mucus plug liquefies in order to allow the sperm access to the uterus.

Describe the process of fertilization (starting at the point where the spermatozoa makes contact with the granulosa cells of the ovum).

When sperm binds to granulosa cells of ovum, the acrosome dissolves and releases hyaluronidase and proteolytic enzymes. The enzymes digest the granulosa cells and zona pellucida of ovum. Then, the DNA of the sperm and the oocyte combine to form a new diploid cell.

What is sperm maturation defined as?

When sperm develop the capability of motility.

What structure of spermatozoa is the first to make contact with the ovum?

acrosome

What part of the mammary glands does oxytocin act on and what is the result?

acts on myoepithelial cells. This causes contraction of the myoepithelial cells and this results in milk letdown.

Spermatozoa activity is highest in what kind of environment?

alkaline.

The lobules of the female mammary glands are comprised of _______, which are surrounded by ________ cells.

alveoli; myoepithelial cells.

FSH is secreted by the _______ and acts on the ______ of the male reproductive tract. What role does FSH play in the male reproductive tract?

anterior pituitary; Sertoli; Stimulates the sertoli cells and leads to conversion of spermatids to sperm. (stimulates spermiogenesis and spermatogenesis).

What is the hemodynamic state of the male erectile tissue during flaccid state?

arterial inflow = venous outflow.

The process by which the non-vesicular ovarian follicles involute is called _______.

atresia.

Straight arteries supply blood and nutrients to the _______ zone of the endometrium.

basilar

What is the outermost layer of the endometrium?

basilar zone

The _______ zone structure of the endometrium remains constant over time, whereas the ______ zone of the endometrium undergoes cyclical changes in response to sexual hormone levels.

basilar; functional.

Calcitonin mainly acts on the _______.

bones.

The secretion of the ________ gland provides lubrication for the tip of the penis.

bulbourethral

What hormone is responsible for controlling the growth and division of testicular germinal cells? a) Growth hormone b) LH c) Testosterone d) Estrogen e) all of the above

c) testosterone

What is the second messenger system that is associated with FSH and LH?

cAMP

Once in the female reproductive tract, spermatozoa undergo several changes in order to become activated. Collectively, these changes are called _______ of the spermatozoa.

capacitation

What is the function of the prostaglandins found within the secretions of the seminal vesicles?

causes a reverse peristaltic contraction in the female reproductive tract (uterus and fallopian tubes). This aids in the transport of sperm to fallopian tubes.

What is the function of the fibrinogen found in the secretions of the seminal vesicles and what is this important for?

causes the formation of a weak fibrin coagulum to hold the semen in the vagina. Once in the reproductive tract, it takes a little bit of time for the sperm to become activated. The weak fibrin coagulum holds the sperm in the vagina during this time (about 15-30 minutes) and provides the sperm with a protected environment while the sperm get acclimated to their new environment.

Erectile tissues in the penis are surrounded by a dense _______ sheath.

collagenous.

The ______ (type of erectile tissue) surrounds each artery branching from the penile artery.

corpus cavernosum.

The _______ is formed during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.

corpus luteum.

In the *ovarian* cycle, inhibin is secreted by the ______ and causes ______.

corpus luteum; decreased FSH secretion by the anterior pituitary gland.

What type of penile erectile tissue surrounds the urethra?

corpus spongiosum.

The ovaries are divided into an outer _______ and an inner ______.

cortex; medulla.

What is the *immediate* effect of calcitonin?

decreases the absorptive activities of the osteoclasts and decreases the osteolytic effects of osteocytes and osteoblasts.

When sperm production decreases, inhibin production by the sertoli cells ________ and FSH secretion from the anterior pituitary ______.

decreases; increases.

The ampullae of the vas deferens meets up with the base of a seminal vesicle. This junction marks the start of the ________, which empties into the urethra.

ejaculatory duct.

The ________ is the inner glandular/mucosal layer of the uterus.

endometrium.

What layer of the uterine wall makes up 10% of the mass of the uterus?

endometrium.

The vas deferens start at the _______ tail and enters the abdominopelvic cavity through the ______ canal.

epididymal; inguinal.

Sperm develop the capability of motility in the ________ after 18-24 hours.

epididymis

What is the site of sperm maturation?

epididymis.

True or false: Calcitonin activity increases with age to protect the bones from age-related degradation.

false! Calcitonin has a weak effect on plasma calcium concentration in adults! The control of plasma calcium levels is predominantly under the control of PTH.

True or false: When the process of maturation is complete, sperm are motile.

false! They have the *capability* of motility, but remain deeply suppressed by several inhibitory proteins in the epididymal fluid. This conserves energy needed to travel to the ovum once in the female reproductive tract.

True or false: Spermatogonia are haploid.

false. Diploid

True or false: Osteoporosis is a disease caused by a normal decrease in function of the parathyroid gland as we age.

false. Osteoporosis does not relate at all to PTH. It is due to a normal decrease in osteoblast activity or elevated osteoclast activity unrelated to PTH.

True or false: CNS depression is the most common symptom of hyperparathyroidism.

false. Those with hyperparathyroidism are usually asymptomatic. They usually only find out they have hyperparathyroidism due to repeat fractures and areas of decalcification being discovered through X-rays. CNS depression is seen in severe cases of hyperparathyroidism.

True or false: A sperm is not haploid until spermiogenesis is complete.

false. They become haploid at the completion of spermatogeneisis (before spermiogenesis begins).

Fallopian tubes capture the ovum via _____ in the _____ and move it in the direction of the uterus via cilia.

fimbriae; infundibulum.

What is semen composed of?

fluid and sperm from the vas deferens (10%), fluid from seminal vesicles (60%), and fluid from the prostate gland (30%), and a small amount of *alkaline* mucous from the bulbourethral glands.

What is the function of the infundibulum of the fallopian tube?

forms an expanded funnel with numerous finger-like projections called fimbriae. Also contains cilia that beat toward the ampulla. These structures of the infundibulum function to capture the released egg from the ovary and deliver it to the ampulla of the fallopian tube for fertilization.

The seminal vesicles secrete a mucoid material containing citric acid, _______, _______, ________, and other nutrients.

fructose, prostaglandins, fibrinogen

What is the innermost layer of the endometrium?

functional zone

What zone of the endometrium contains the uterine glands?

functional zone

Spiral arteries supply blood and nutrients to the _______ zone of the endometrium.

functional.

Spermatogonia are male ______ cells that are always undergoing _____ cell division.

germ; mitotic.

What region of the penis surrounds the external urethral orifice?

glans

The acrosome of spermatozoa is formed from what organelle?

golgi apparatus

Acrosomal enzymes of the spermatozoa digest the ______ cells and _____ of ovum.

granulosa; zona pellucida

What hormone promotes the early division of spermatogonia?

growth hormone

Male erection occurs due to ________ changes. Essentially, these changes are characterized by _______.

hemodynamic; more blood entering the venous sinusoids of the erectile tissue than can leave (blood entering > blood leaving).

What do you expect the levels of LH and FSH to be during ovulation?

higher than at any other point throughout the cycle (particularly LH).

In times of ________ (hyper/hypocalcemia), calcitonin is secreted by the _______ gland. Calcitonin takes calcium from the _______ (blood/bone) and pushes it into the ________ (blood/bone) for conversion to _______.

hypercalcemia; thyroid gland; blood; bone; amorphous calcium phosphate salts.

Formation of kidney stones is seen in ________ (hyper-/hypoparathyroidism).

hyperparathyroidism

A 16 year old male complains of decreased muscle mass, feminine voice, lack of facial hair, and gynecomastia. What condition is responsible? Predict the levels of testosterone, FSH, and LH.

hypogonadism = condition responsible. This causes decreased testosterone levels, but it is difficult to predict FSH and LH.

_______ blood calcium concentration stimulates calcitonin secretion.

increased.

During erection, arterial inflow _______ due to _______, and venous outflow _______ due to _______. These hemodynamic changes cause blood to fill _______ and be trapped in.

increases; vasodilation; decreases; impingement of veins; sinusoids of corpora.

What hormone is secreted by sertoli cells in the testes?

inhibin

The cervix extends from the _______ of the uterus to the vagina.

isthmus

What is the fate of the corpus luteum in the absence of fertilization?

it involutes and becomes scar tissue. At this point, it is known as the corpus albicans.

In the female mammary gland, ducts leaving the lobules converge to form a single ________ in each lobe.

lactiferous duct

Near the nipple, the lactiferous duct expands, forming an expanded chamber called a ______.

lactiferous sinus. A little bit of milk can be stored here.

_______ cells are located in the interstitial area of the testis.

leydig

The female mammary glands are divided into ______ and _______.

lobes and lobules.

The smooth muscle of the myometrium is arranged into what three layers?

longitudinal, circular, and oblique layers.

What phase of the ovarian cycle follows ovulation?

luteal phase

The body of spermatozoa tail is mainly comprised of _______.

mitochondria

What layer of the uterine wall makes up 90% of the mass of the uterus?

myometrium

The conclusion of one ovarian cycle and the beginning of the next ovarian cycle is controlled by a ________ feedback mechanism involving what hormones/organs?

negative; Involves the corpus luteum, estrogen, progesterone, inhibin, anterior pituitary, FSH, and LH.

How might spermatogenesis be affected in a male with cryptorchidism?

no spermatogenesis due to higher temperature.

______ are small, paired organs located near the lateral walls of the pelvic cavity in women.

ovaries

The two phases of the ovarian cycle are separated by _______.

ovulation

Calcitonin is secreted by the _______ cells of the _______.

parafollicular; thyroid gland.

Secretions of the bulbourethral gland is under ________ regulation.

parasympathetic.

The act of male erection is under ________ control. The act of male emission and ejaculation is under _______ control.

parasympathetic; sympathetic.

The action of calcitonin opposes that of ________ hormone. Of the two, which is more dominant?

parathyroid hormone; the effects of PTH on blood calcium concentration are stronger than that of calcitonin.

Which layer of the uterine wall is the outermost layer?

perimetrium (outermost *serous* membrane).

Treatment of osteoporosis mostly focuses on _______ and includes ________, __________, and ______.

prevention; weight bearing exercise; calcium and vitamin D supplements; and hormone replacement therapy (estrogen). Note: estrogen replacement for the treatment of post-menopausal osteoporosis is very controversial and is not the first-line therapy.

A male with low testosterone but high FSH/LH most likely has what condition? What part of the HPT axis is affected?

primary hypogonadism. problem is in the testes.

At birth, only ________ follicles are present. In these follicles is an ovum that is surrounded by ________ layer(s) of _______ cells.

primordial; one; granulosa cells.

What hormone stimulates alveoli of the female mammary gland?

prolactin

The amount of inhibin produced by the sertoli cells is _________ to the rate of spermatogenesis.

proportional

What accessory gland of the male reproductive tract provides 30% of the fluid volume in semen?

prostate gland

The fluid secreted by the _______ of the male reproductive tract is alkaline, which helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina and of other seminal fluids during ejaculation.

prostate gland.

What is detumescence?

return of the penis to flaccid state from erect state.

A male with low testosterone as well as low FSH/LH most likely has what condition? What part of the HPT axis is affected?

secondary hypogonadism; anterior pituitary or hypothalamus.

Fibrinogen from the _______ fluid forms a weak coagulum within the female reproductive tract upon male ejaculation. The coagulum dissolves within 15-30 minutes due to lysis by _______ secreted by the _______ gland.

seminal vesicle; profibrinolysin; prostate gland.

What accessory gland of the male reproductive tract adds bulk to ejaculate?

seminal vesicles

Spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis occur in the ______.

seminiferous tubules.

Tightly adjoined ______ cells act as a blood-testes barrier in the seminiferous tubules.

sertoli

The _______ and ________ cells of testes secrete a fluid that contains nutrients essential for maturation.

sertoli and epididymal

______ cells, also known as seminiferous epithelium, are located inside the seminiferous tubules.

sertoli cells

Who does osteoporosis more commonly affect?

small-boned women.

Testosterone is a ________ hormone. What does this mean about cellular storage of testosterone? Where are the receptors located?

steroid; no storage within the cell; receptors are in the cytoplasm.

When the vesicular follicle begins to rapidly swell during ovulation, there is a small area in the center of the follicular wall that begins to protrude. This is called the _______. What happens next?

stigma. This is the weakest point of the follicle. Fluid starts to leak out from the stigma, and then the stigma ruptures. Upon rupture, the stigma releases viscous follicular fluid as well as the ovum, surrounded by the corona radiata (granulosa cells).

Someone with hypoparathyroidism would most likely have very ________ (strong/weak) bones.

strong

The mammary glands of the female breasts lie within the _______ tissue of pectoral fat pad.

subcutaneous.

Spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis are _______ dependent.

temperature (35C)

What is contained within the basilar zone of the endometrium?

terminal branches of tubular glands.

_________ is the primary spermatogenic hormone secreted by ________ cells.

testosteorne; leydig

Male pattern baldness really depends on what factors?

testosterone levels AND family history.

Estrogens are formed from _______ by _______ cells in the male reproductive tract when stimulated by ______. They are essential for spermiogenesis.

testosterone; sertoli; FSH.

What part of the male reproductive tract serves as a sperm storage site?

the vas deferens

Why do ovaries have a lumpy appearance?

they have ovarian follicles at different stages of development.

What function do the granulosa cells surrounding the ovum of the primordial follicles serve?

they nourish the cells and secrete an oocyte maturation inhibiting factor to keep the oocyte (ovum) suppressed until the time of puberty.

What do you expect the levels of estrogen and progesterone to be immediately following ovulation if fertilization has occurred?

they should remain high because the CL will continue to secrete progesterone and estrogen for the first 3-4 months of gestation.

What effect would hyperparathyroidism have on phosphate ion levels in the ECF?

they'd be decreased because PTH stimulates renal excretion of phosphate.

What is the main function of calcitonin?

to reduce the levels of calcium in the blood.

True or false: Estrogen and progesterone cause very specific changes in the uterine endometrium during the female sexual cycle.

true

True or false: The prostate gland secretes simultaneously with the vas deferens so that it adds secretions to the semen.

true

True or false: Male erection is achieved entirely by parasympathetic regulation.

true!

True or false: Testosterone is ued in older men to treat osteoporosis.

true.

Usually, hyperparathyroidism is caused by a ______. How is hyperparathyroidism treated?

tumor of the parathyroid glands. Surgical removal of the parathyroid glands.

The _____ is a fibromuscular tubular tract leading from the uterus to the exterior of the body.

vagina

The ______ follicle of the ovarian cycle is the only follicle that fully matures each month. What happens to the remaining follicles?

vesicular (a.k.a. dominant or Graafian). The remaining follicles involute (degenerate).

Someone with hyperparathyroidism would be expected to have very _______ (strong/weak) bones.

weak.