Abrahamic Religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam)

Haggadah

"Narrative"; history, folklore, and sermons in Talmud

Bar Mitzvah

"Son or daughter of the covenant"; Jewish rituals in which young men and young women, respectively, are officially recognized as adult members of the community.

Methodism

Began in the 18th century as a response to the emotional coolness of the Church of England and the plight of urban dwellers during the early Industrial Revolution

The weakened papacy in the 14th century

Between 1309 an 1377 when the headquarters moved from Rome to Avignon in France—the popes and cardinals were mostly French and the papacy was virtually captive to the king of France which weakened its power and prestige with nations that were not friendly to France

The Kaaba

Black cube-shape structure at the center of Mecca. Pilgrims on the hajj circumambulate the Kaaba and it gradually filled with images, relics, and paintings.

Life of Muhammad

Born in the 7th century and raised by his uncle, Muhammad is a well-known historical figure who had a major impact in Mecca. As a young adult, Muhammad worked as a caravan worker which helped him meet his wife, Khadija, the owner of the caravan. She was a wealthy women and together they had six children. Years after their marriage, Muhammad went out into the surrounding hills of Mecca to help with idolatry and the fate of his people. One day in a cave on Mt. Hira, Muhammad was approached by the angel Gabriel who brought him a command from God. Eventually, Muhammad became the prophet of Allah, and began to preach his new understandings to the people in Mecca.

Maimonides

By far the greatest figure from Spanish Judaism who was an expert in several fields and spent most of his life outside Spain. He was an outstanding philosopher, a Talmudist, and a physician who fled from religious persecution in Spain and wrote two famous works: Mishnah Torah and Guide to the Perplexed

Christmas

Celebrated on December 25th, to mark the birth of Jesus

Baptism

Christian initiatory ritual that includes symbolic cleansing with water.

Sephardim

Jews who fled from Spain and Portugal and took refuge in the Ottoman Empire and elsewhere.

Askenazim

Jews who lived in Europe, especially Eastern Europe.

The problem of defining Judaism

Judaism cannot be defined primarily in terms of religious beliefs, because some people are called Jews but consider themselves atheists.

Reconstructionist Judaism

Judaism is not only a religion but a culture, with its own history, laws, and arts. It is not enough to practice Judaism as only a religion, but the entire Jewish culture must be studied and experienced

Halakhah

Legal material, discussions, and rabbinic decisions in the Talmud

Eucharist

Literally, "thanksgiving"; Christian memorial meal of bread and wine that celebrates the sacrifice of Jesus. It is considered a sacrament by most Christians.

The Temple of Yahweh in Jerusalem

Solomon, the son of David, built the temple as a palace for himself and a temple for his God. Though the main form of worship was animal sacrifice, prayer was offered to God in the temple.

Orthodox Judaism

Strives to preserve traditional Jewish culture and religion and resist the secularizing elements of modernity. Jews attempt to stay as close as possible to the nature of biblical and Talmudic Judaism. Kosher food laws are stressed, along with strict observance of the Sabbath. In worship, men and women are separated in the synagogue and both must cover their heads. In Orthodox worship, Hebrew is the primary language.

Caliph

Successors of Muhammad in leading Islam. At first, the caliphate was limited to the companions of the Prophet Muhammad, but as Islam grew, the caliphate took on the role of dynastic political leadership.

Minyan

Ten Jewish adults (most often men) required for certain religious obligations.

Story of the Exodus

The Book opens up with Abraham, Sarah, and the Israelites crying out from deliverance from their enslavement by the Egyptians. In addition to Abraham and Sarah another great figure found in Exodus was a Shepard boy named Moses. The salvation that comes at the end of the Book came from Moses who lead the Israelites out of Egypt and ended their slavery.

Hasidim

The Hasidic movement was widely accepted by the Jews of Eastern Europe and encouraged them to search within their own traditions and find the resources to maintain Judaism as an independent entity of the midst of Christian societies.

Circumcision

This ritual traces back to a commandment of God to Abraham and is an account and widespread religious custom.

Religions that influenced early Islam

Three major religions that impacted Islam were Christianity, Judaism, and the native religion of the Arab people.

Wahhabis

Traditionalists who opposed all forms of change within the Islamic religion and opposed internal innovations.

Israelite Prophets

Unlike priests, prophets danced, sang, breathed incense, and worked themselves into an ecstatic state to hear the voices of their gods. They healed the sick, cursed, blessed, and produced food for their followers, and worked other miracles. The most important role of a prophet though was to point out infractions of the law and to plead for a return to justice.

Synagogue

"Assembly"; the meeting of the Jews of the Diaspora for study and prayer

Kosher

"Fit", "proper"; that which is ritually clean or acceptable in Judaism; usually applied to food or food preparation.

Shabbatai Zevi

A charismatic figure who was born in Smyrna and studied the mysticism of the Kabbalah and eventually gathered a band of disciples. He married a woman named Sarah who claimed she was destined to be the bride of the Messiah. Shabbatai Zevi was eventually declared the Messiah by his disciples. In 1665, he entered Constantinople for the purpose of dethroning the sultan of Turkey, but instead was imprisoned and given a choice to convert to Islam or death. He chose to convert and crushed the hopes of Jews.

Iblis

A fallen angel and the leader of the evil jinn (the creation halfway between humans and angels).

Mawlid

A feast that celebrates the birth of prophet Muhammad and is established on the twelfth day of the third month. At this feast, the recitation of His bibliography is read as well and prayers are given.

Muslim

A follower of the religion Islam. Muslims can be found in almost every country of the world, however contrary to popular belief, most Muslims are not Arab.

The Ecumenical Movement

Action among modern Christians denominations to attempt to minimize differences among various Christian groups and achieve some form of unity

Story of the Torah being given on Mt. Sinai

After the Israelites crossed the Red Sea, God communicated the law to them through Moses. On top of Mt. Sinai, God gave Moses ten absolute laws (the Ten Commandments) that stress obedience and loyalty to God. These commandments can be found in Exodus and Deuteronomy which make up two out of the five books of the Torah—the single most imprint part of the Bible for Judaism.

The Exile and Return

After the reign of Solomon, the nation of Israel spilt into two nations: Israel (northern nation) and Judah (southern nation). The Assyrians came to raid both nations and destroyed the northern nation, however, Judah survived but was eventually destroyed by the Babylonian Empire. The prophet Ezekiel lead the Jews while in captivity and helped free them and return to Jerusalem. He showed the Jews that YHWH (God) was just as available in Babylon as He is in Jerusalem. When the Jews returned to Jerusalem. a priest named Ezra brought back a copy of Scripture with him to help rebuild Jerusalem. When the temple was rebuilt for the second time, new additions were made which put it far beyond the glory of Solomon's temple.

Mosque

Also called a 'masjid'; Muslin house of prayer

Mormons

Also known as the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints—proud to call themselves Christians and at the same time their beliefs and teaching differ substantially from those of other Christian communities

Koine Greek

Although Latin was the primary language of the Roman Empire, government leaders and business mean would often speak Koine Greek because they found saw it as a more beautiful and expressive language.

John Wycliffe

An Oxford scholar who eventually held many of the ideas that were later representative of the Protestant reformation; Wycliffe is also responsible for for the translation of the Bible of the Church from Latin to English (the Vulgate)

Baal Shem Tov

An uneducated man named Israel ben Eliezer who preached to the Jews that God was not to be found in scholarly research in the Bible or the Talmud but in simple, heartfelt faith. His followers named him Baal Shem Tov because it means "master of the good name," and his beliefs became known as the Hasidic movement.

Gabriel

Angel who is mentioned in both the Hebrew and Christian Bible who brought a command to Muhammad in a cave on Mount Hira.

Jihad

Arabic term meaning "stuggle in the cause of God." Examples range from mission work to armed conflict.

Anabaptists

Attempted to discard all of those elements not expressively found in the New Testament—reject baptism because it is not found in the New Testament

Indulgences

Christians could pay for a sin committed by the living or by the dead who were in purgatory—selling indulgences raised money

Mishnah

Collection of oral laws gathered by Judah ha Nasi; the Mishnah contained the bulk of extra biblical Jewish law up to the 2nd century

Hadith

Collections of traditions concerning the life and words of the Prophet Muhammad.

Gemara

Commentary on the Mishnah; forms second part of the Talmud

Vatican II

Council called by the Catholic Church in 1962; it took broad steps to modernize the Church and mend relationships with Jews, members of the Orthodox Church, and Protestants

Sunday

Early Christians worship on this day in memory of Jesus resurrection being the "first day of the week" ; Sundays are also suppose to be a day of rest and worship

Madrasa

Educational institutions that offer instruction in Qur'an recitation and interpretation, hadith scholarship, theology, law, and in many cases mystical knowledge and practice.

Talmud

Encyclopedic collection of Mishnah and Gemara, the literary source of post biblical Judaism. There are two Talmudic: Palestinian and Babylonian

Pentacost

Established 50 days after the Passover and commemorates the giving of the law on Mt. Sinai after the Exodus

Conservative Judaism

Firmly rooted in the rabbinical tradition but is somewhat more relaxed in the matters of religious practice than is the Orthodox movement. It has a greater concern with the historical and critical study of the Bible and rabbinical material. In its worship, the vernacular is used more often than Hebrew.

Development of the Papacy

First Simon Peter, passed on his authority to the bishops who succeeded him and the Roman church had a very strong tradition. Second, Constantine and other bishops were looked on by Western rulers as being extremely important. Lastly, the churches of the East were split by various doctrinal controversies and no one bishop could speak from all Eastern Christians, however; the West was free from these controversies and the bishop of Rome was the spokesperson for their orthodoxy. The combination of these events is responsible for the development of papacy.

Halal

Foods that are allowed to be eaten in the Islamic religion.

John Calvin

Greatest and most influential man of the Reformation who served as a minister for the Reformed Church and whose writings set the intellectual base for Protestant theology

Augustine

He was born in North Africa and followed the teachings of Neoplatonism. He became a writer and eventually the bishop of Hippo. Two of his writings became Christian literature classics: his autobiographical Confessions and his City of God, an interpretation of history written in response to those who blamed the Christians for the fall of the city of Rome to the Goths.

Conversos

In 1391, thousands of Jews were massacred and forced to convert between religions. The Conversos were the persons who accepted the conversion rather than endure persecution, while others openly converted but continued to practice Judaism secretly.

The Catholic-Counter Reformation

In 1545 the Catholic Church convened the Council of Trent and the Church decided the Catholics had a right to interpret the Bible different than Protestants

Reform Judaism

In 1843, a group of German Hewish leaders met and decided that it was time to distance modern Judaism from historical Judaism and accommodate themselves more to their surrounding societies. Reform Jews began to use more vernacular and less Hebrew in their worship; their synagogues were called temples; Kosher food laws were relaxed; and choirs and organs were introduced. Reform Judaism worship paralleled with many aspects on Protestant Christian worship.

Story of the biblical patriarchs

In Genesis 12, God found it necessary to call out one man (Abraham) and one woman (Sarah) after a series of disastrous events occurred. As a result of these disasters, God chose to communicate with only one nation, the descendants of Abraham and Sarah. The book of Genesis shows Gods promise to Abraham that he would become a father of a great nation and be a blessing to all people if he were to obey God.

Women in Islam

In Islam, men may not treat women as slaves or concubines, therefore sex outside of marriage is forbidden. Women are also not forced to marry. Rather than sharing their inheritance and property with their husbands, Muslim women keep their personal belongings.

Basic Content of the Gospels

In the Roman world, the Gospels were not biographies but they give most of their attention to the last few months of Jesus' life. Though the Gospels were written by different points of view and contain different aspects of His life, they still provide the most reliable information about Jesus.

Roman Empire in the 1st Century

In the first century, Christianity began as a sect of Judaism under the rule of Augustus Caesar. Wherever Caesar and his successors went, they took Roman civilization with them which helped expand the Roman Empire. The Roman government was one a political stability in which Christianity developed, however; the Roman Empire had no set religion.

Roman Religion

In the first century, the Roman world has no major religion commitment, but Judaism was finding many converts from other religions. In addition, many others turned to new religious cults that developed from Eastern cultures including: Mithraism, Osiris, and Dionysus.

Umayyads

Individuals who formed the first dynasty of Islam in 661.

Hafiz

Individuals who have completely memorized and live by Qur'an.

Location of Islam's Religion

Islam originated in the 7th century among the Arabian people in Mecca and Medina and eventually spread to neighboring cities and countries.

Role of James in the Jerusalem church

James was a half-brother to Jesus, and in fact was not a follower of Jesus during his ministry but he eventually came to believe in him after the resurrection. He assumed leadership of the church when Simon Peter moved out to other communities.

Yom Kippur

Jewish Day of Atonement

Chanukah (Hanukkah)

Jewish festival that celebrates the rededicating of the temple by Judas Maccabaeus in 165 B.C.E.

Passover

Jewish holiday celebrated in the spring, commemorating the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery.

Martin Luther

Most outstanding figure of the Reformation who believed humans were unworthy of salvation, but God would pour out his saving grace; Luther's major contribution was the Ninety-Five Theses he wrote as grounds for debate and nailed them to the door of the castle church in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517

Zionism

Movement founded in the late nineteenth century by Theodore Herzl; Zionism sought to find a national home for the Jews scattered throughout the world.

Islamic understanding of Eschatology

Muslim beliefs concerning heaven and hell are similar to those of Jewish and Christianity Eschatology beliefs. They believe heaven is located in a beautiful garden with flowing water and shade while hell is a horrid place filled with fire, scalding winds, black smoke, and brackish water.

Eid al-Fitr

Muslim feast of fast breaking. Celebrates a return to normal life after the prolonged fast of Ramadan.

Eid al-Adha

Muslim feast of sacrifice.

Easter

Oldest and most widely accepted holiday in the Christian community that celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ after being in the tomb for 3 days

Characteristics of Allah

Omnipresent, Omniscient, Omnipotent, power, sovereignty, majesty, justice, and mercy are all characteristics given to Allah in addition to his 99 different names.

Key moments in the life of Paul

Paul was originally anti-christian and observed the stoning of Stephen. On a mission to persecute Christians in Damascus, he was struck down by a light from heaven and was converted into a spokesperson for Christianity. He became a missionary but was eventually arrested by Roman authorities and put on trial by Caesar.

Persecution of Christians

Persecution reached its peak in 303 C.E. under Dioletian in an empire-wide movement that lasted for more than ten years. This period was followed by the reigned of Constantine who was strongly influenced by his wife and mother.

Bishop

Person appointed to oversee a group of priests or ministers and their congregations

Mt. Hira

Place near Mecca in which Muhammad's first revelation took place with an angel named Gabriel.

The events leading to the execution of Jesus

Prior to Jesus' death, He and his followers arrived in Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. On the Sunday before, he entered the city, taught in the temple, and was widely accepted by the citizens. When Thursday arrived, Jesus arrived to the city and took part in his final meal with his disciples. After the meal Jesus and his followers went out to the Garden of Gethsemane where he prayed for hours. It was there where Jesus was betrayed by Judas, and arrested by temple guards. He was put on trial before Pontius Pilate, but around 9am he was sent out of the city to be crucified

Ulrich Zwingli

Reform leader in Switzerland who chose to emphasize the words of Jesus at the Last Supper "Do this in remembrance of me" and therefore made communion a remembrance of Jesus' death

Christian Monasticism

The movement toward asceticism and monastic community began in Egypt and the first monastery is attributed to Pachomius. A monastery is a secluded place where people dedicate themselves to a simple life of hard manual labor, prayer, fasting, and sometimes study. Some scholars have even suggested that the vitality and strength of the monasteries was an accurate gauge of the vitality of the entire church.

Apostles

The original twelve followers of Jesus.

Production of the New Testament

The earliest writings were the letters Paul wrote to the early Christian congregation followed by his letters to the Romans and Galatians. In the years following Jesus' death, Christians wrote their remembrances of the events of his life as well as his sayings. In addition other epistles were written between 90 and 150 C.E. that make up parts of the current New Testament.

Thomas Aquinas

The first Christian scholar who attempted to explain the theory of reason and revelation—used Aristotle's arguments for the existence of God, but believed that reason could only take Christian so far, and that there had to be a divine revelation to complete the message

Constantine

The first Roman emperor to support Christianity, and moved his political capital from Rome to Byzantium in 330 C.E.

Torah

The first five books of the Bible.

Judaism in Islamic Society

The founder of Islam, Muhammad, had connections with Judaism through Jewish tribes in Arabia. Muslims considered Judaism and Christianity to be God-given faiths, not polytheists and had sacred books (Scripture) which they accepted as revelations from God. Though the expected these beliefs, the Muslim toleration of Jews was sometimes uneven; however, Jews became a part of society and Jewish academics flourished, but this 'golden age' did not last long. Some Jewish synagogues were converted into Mosques and new persecution and divisions within the Jewish community came about.

Ummah

The global Muslim community.

Hijra

The literal definition means "flight"; Hijira was the migration of Muhammad and his community from Mecca to Medina in 622 B.C.E.

Sufism

The literal definition means "woolen"; Sufism are Muslim mystical brotherhoods that seek a direct experience and knowledge of God.

The Qur'an

The literal meaning means "reading" or "recitation. It is the Muslim Scripture which was critical in early religion.

Shabbat

The most important and distinctive of all Jewish holidays is the Sabbath. Judaism gave the world the six-day work week, with the seventh day reserved for worship and rest. The Sabbath begins on Friday at sundown and continues until sundown on Saturday.

Apostles Creed

This creed was written to consolidate views about the Trinity and the nature of Jesus. The critical mind cannot believe that this creed was developed by Simon Peter, James, and John although it has the ring of early authority and was written around 340 C.E.

Jewish Diaspora

The scattering of Jewish people all over the world. In the Diaspora, some Jews were forced to move like when the Babylonians destroyed the temple and took many of them into exile, while others moved by choice to places like Egypt or the Roman Empire.

Sabbath

The seventh day, set aside as a day of rest and worship in Judaism

Mendelssohn

The son of Mendel of Dessau whose name was originally Moses but had a great desire to learn. He went to Berlin to study, and eventually wrote essays in German that caused him to be widely accepted by poets and philosophers and was given the germanized name of Mendelssohn. He encouraged Jews to leave ghettos and enter the modern world, to write and speak German rather than Yiddish.

Difference between the Gospels

The two Gospels, Mark and John begin with the ministry of mature Jesus. Only Matthew and Luke speak of his birth, and only Luke contains materials relating to Jesus's childhood.

Guide to the Perplexed

Written in 1190 by Maimonides, was an attempt to harmonize Judaism with the philosophy of Aristotle. This book caused a storm of controversy among the Jews.

7 Sacraments

a) Baptism b) Confirmation c) Penance d) Eucharist e) Extreme Unction f) Marriage g) Holy Orders

Causes of the Holocaust

a) German ethnocentrism and racism b) German troubles following World War 1 c) Nazi madness d) Modern efficiency e) The silence of the rest of the world

Split between the Western Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church

a) Political Differences: Constantine set up his capital in the East and developed, while the West was left without an effective political leadership b) Theological Differences: The East emphasize the divine nature of Christ, while the West emphasized his humanity c) The Papacy: East had outstanding bishops and refused to accept the Western bishops authority d) The Eastern church used icons—Jesus, Mary, etc. while the West eschewed them e) The East used Greek as its language while the West used Latin

5 Pillars of Faith

a) Shahadah (the creed): Declaration of faith b) Salat: Obligatory prayer c) Zakat: Compulsory giving d) Sawm: Fasting in the month of Ramadan e) Hajj: Pilgrimmage to Mecca