Adv Bio Final Prep
How many turns of the Calvin cycle will it take to make one molecule of glucose?
2
Products of Krebs cycle
2 ATP, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2
How many PGAL molecules will it take to make one molecule of glucose?
2 b/c a glucose molecule needs 6 carbons.
Products of glycolysis
2 pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), 2 NADH
Equation for photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2
Reduction
ATP and NADPH provide energy and electrons to reduce PGA to PGAL (H in place of O-); 1 PGAL molecule contributes to the formation of glucose, and the 5 remaining undergo regeneration
DNA bases
Adenine-Thymine, Cytosine-Guanine
RNA bases
Adenine-Uracil, Cytosine-Guanine
Equation for cellular respiration
C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + chemical energy (ATP)
Carbon Fixation
CO2 combines with RuBP, a 5-C compound, to form a very unstable 6-C compound, which then splits into 2 3-C sugars (2*PGA)
Relationship between chromosomes, genes, and alleles
Chromosome > Gene > Allele
Central Dogma of Molecular Biology
DNA ----transcribed----> RNA ----translated----> Protein
DNA charge
DNA has a negative charge because of its negatively charged phosphate group, which means that if an electric current is run through a DNA sample, the DNA molecules will move towards the positive charge. This seperates the DNA molecules by size since smaller molecules (shorter nucleotide chains made of a smaller number of base pairs) move furthest
Genes
DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission
Since DNA is so tiny, how can we see DNA on a gel?
One individual DNA molecule cannot be seen on a gel. However, DNA molecules that are the same size will move the same distance through the gel, forming a band of DNA that can be seen. More DNA will cause the band to be darker.
Point mutations
a change in one base in the DNA; can change the site the restriction enzyme recognizes and prevents it from cutting the DNA, or it could create a new restriction site
DNA markers
a mixture of DNA molecules with known molecular sizes, used to estimate the sizes of the DNA fragments in the sample lanes
Nucleus
a part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
Cell wall
a rigid structure made of cellulose that surrounds plant cells
Trophic cascade
a series of changes in the population sizes of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain
Primer
a short segment of DNA that attaches to the flanking regions and acts as the starting point for a new strand
Keystone species
a species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically
Food web
a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains
Chromosomes
a threadlike structure found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes
Cytoplasm
a watery solution containing dissolved substances, enzymes, and the cell organelles and structures; made of water, salts, and proteins
Resolution
ability to distinguish between close together but seperate objects
PSII
absorbs light and provides excited electrons to the ETC by splitting water
PSI
absorbs light to excite electrons and uses excited electrons to convert NADP+ to NADPH
Krebs cycle
acetyl-CoA (2-C) combines with OAA (4-C) to form citric acid (6-C), which goes through a series of reactions that release energy; happens in matrix of mitochondria; aerobic
Chloroplast
an organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs
Autotroph
an organism that makes its own food
Heterotroph
an organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes
Outputs of cellular respiration
carbon dioxide and water
Organelles unique to plant cells
cell wall, chloroplants, starch granule
Metabolic pathways
chains of linked events where most chemical reactions in a cell takes place; produce key biological molecules like amino acids and nucleotides
Metabolism
chemical reactions that occur inside living cells, including those that store or release energy
Constants
conditions that stay the same in the experiment
Iris diaphragm condenser
controls the amount of light on the slide
DNA
deoxyribonucleic acid; carries genetic info; double stranded, thymine
Phylogenetic tree
diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor
Energy pyramid
diagram that shows the amount of energy that moves from one trophic level to another in a food web
Alleles
different versions of a gene
Osmosis
diffusion of water
Facilitated diffusion
diffusion that requires a transport protein
Importance of DNA for cellular metabolic activities
directs production of enzymes
Prokaryotic
does not have a nucleus
DNA structure
double helix - sugar phosphate backbone with base pairs in the middle
Homeostasis (in an ecosystem)
dynamic equilibrium among the biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem
Trophic level
each step in a food chain or food web; autotroph, primary, secondary, tertiary
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
energy carrier that powers almost all activities in the cell and fuels metabolic and other enzymic reactions; a cell will die if it exhausts its ATP supply
Electron transport chain (in cellular respiration)
energy from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to ATP; happens in inner membrane of mitochondria; aerobic
Catabolism
energy-releasing chemical reactions that break down complex molecules into simpler ones (ex: cellular respiration)
Anabolism
energy-requiring chemical reactions that build complex molecules from simpler ones (ex: photosynthesis)
DNA polymerase
enzyme involved in DNA replication that uses primers as a starting point to copy the DNA
Protists
eukaryotes that cannot be classified as animals, plants, or fungi (ex: algae (autotrophic) & protozoa (heterotrophic))
Procedure of DNA profiling
extract DNA --- PCR --- gel electrophoresis
Focus knobs
fine and coarse focus knobs bring the specimen into clear view
Stroma
fluid portion of the chloroplast outside of the thylakoids; where molecules are stored before photosynthesis and where light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) takes place
Phloem
food transport system (bidirectional)
Nucleolus
found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes
Glycolysis
glucose is broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvate; happens in cytoplasm; anaerobic
Order of cellular respiration
glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain
Chlorophyll
green pigment in thylakoid membranes that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis
Cilia
hairlike projections on the outside of cells that move in a wavelike manner
Eukaryotic
has a nucleus
Heterozygous
having two different alleles for a particular gene
Homozygous
having two identical alleles for a particular gene
ATP's phosphate bonds
hold most of usable energy in ATP
Locus (loci - plural)
location of a gene on a chromosome
Restriction map
location of restriction enzyme cut sites on DNA molecule
Objective lens
lower lens with different magnification levels
Compound light microscope
microscope that allows light to pass through a specimen and uses two lenses to form an image
Nucleotides
monomers of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base
Rubisco
most abundant protein on earth; performs carbon fixation in the Calvin Cycle
Diffusion
movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
Types of symbiotic relationships
mutualism (bees & flowers), commensalism (barnacles & whales), parasitism (mosquitoes & humans)
How energy flows through a pyramid
only 10% of energy move on to the next trophic level; the rest is used up by that organism
Imputs of cellular respiration
oxygen and glucose
Protein complexes of ETC
photosystem II --> photosystem I --> ATP synthase
PCR
polymerase chain reaction, a method used to rapidly make multiple copies of a specific segment of DNA
Mitochondion
powerhouse for the cell; converts chemical energy into ATP
Restriction enzymes
prevent invasion by foreign DNA; cut DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides (usually palindrome b/c it allows the same sequence to be recognized on both strands of DNA)
Gel electrophoresis
procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments
Fermentation
process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic)
Alcohol fermentation (yeast)
produces ethanol and CO2, used to make alchohol and for baking
Splitting of water
produces hydrogen ions, electrons (enters PSII), and O2 molecules (by-product, released into the atmosphere)
Diffusion of protons
protons diffuse across the thylakoid membrane until they are trapped by NADP to generate NADPH
Importance of electrons in LD reactions
provide energy for the synthesis of NADPH and ATP
Before Krebs Cycle
pyruvate (3-carbon) is split apart and combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA (2-carbon), and the third carbon combines with O2 to form CO2 (waste product); high energy electrons are captured in NADH
Short tandem repeats (STRs)
repeating sequences of noncoding DNA; highly variable between individuals
Regeneration
rest of PGAL is used to regenerate RuBP (ATP provides free energy)
RNA
ribonucleic acid; carries info from DNA to protein; single stranded; uracil
Thylakoid
saclike structures found in chloroplasts; where light reactions take place
Electron Transport Chain (ETC)
series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle electrons during light dependent reactions
Food chain
series of steps in an ecosystem in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten
Light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle)
set of reactions in photosynthesis that do not require light; use energy from ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to glucose
Light-dependent reactions
set of reactions in photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH; 2H2O + NADP + ADP ----> O2 + ATP + NADPH
Ribosomes
site of protein synthesis
Energy carrier
something that can move and deliver energy; fuels metabolism
Codons
specific sequences of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provide genetic code information for a particular amino acid; basically 3 nucleotides
Grana
stacks of thylakoids
Sticky vs blunt ends
sticky - does not cut directly across from each other; easy to rejoin to complementary stick ends blunt - cut directly across from each other; impossible to join with other molecule
Starch granule
stores carbohydrates
Vacuoles
stores food, water, wastes, and other materials
Order in which energy flows
sunlight-->electrons-->ATP-->glucose
Flanking region
the DNA sequences extending on either side of a specific locus or gene (ex: either side of STRs)
DNA profiling
the analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual
Eyepiece
the lens at the top that you look through (10x)
Carrying capacity
the maximum number of individuals of a population an ecosystem can support without damage to individual resources
ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
the molecule that is produced when ATP is split to yield energy
Active transport
the movement of materials through a cell membrane using energy (ex: ATP); against concentration gradient
Passive transport
the movement of materials through a cell membrane without using energy (ex: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion)
Magnification
the number of times larger an object appears compared to its actual size
Cellular respiration
the process by which cells use oxygen to produce energy from food
Symbiotic relationship
the relationship of two species that live in close association with each other
Stomata
the small openings on the undersides of most leaves through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move
Control
the standard by which the test results can be compared
Cell membrane
thin, flexible barrier around a cell that regulates what enters and leaves the cell
Agarose gel
used for electrophoresis; DNA is loaded into wells in the gel; full of pores, which means smaller DNA molecules move through more easily
ATP Synthase
uses free energy from the flow of hydrogen ions to convert ADP to ATP
Photosynthesis
using the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars, where energy is stored (light energy-->chemical energy)
Dependent variable
variable that depends on independent variable; y-axis
Independent variable
variable that is manipulated; x-axis
Acetic acid fermentation (bacteria)
vinegar
Xylem
water transport system (roots to stem/leaves)
Stage
where the slide is placed on the microscope
Flagella
whip-like tails that help cells move