Adv Bio Final Prep

How many turns of the Calvin cycle will it take to make one molecule of glucose?

2

Products of Krebs cycle

2 ATP, 8 NADH, 2 FADH2

How many PGAL molecules will it take to make one molecule of glucose?

2 b/c a glucose molecule needs 6 carbons.

Products of glycolysis

2 pyruvate, 2 ATP (net), 2 NADH

Equation for photosynthesis

6CO2 + 6H2O ------> C6H12O6 + 6O2

Reduction

ATP and NADPH provide energy and electrons to reduce PGA to PGAL (H in place of O-); 1 PGAL molecule contributes to the formation of glucose, and the 5 remaining undergo regeneration

DNA bases

Adenine-Thymine, Cytosine-Guanine

RNA bases

Adenine-Uracil, Cytosine-Guanine

Equation for cellular respiration

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + chemical energy (ATP)

Carbon Fixation

CO2 combines with RuBP, a 5-C compound, to form a very unstable 6-C compound, which then splits into 2 3-C sugars (2*PGA)

Relationship between chromosomes, genes, and alleles

Chromosome > Gene > Allele

Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

DNA ----transcribed----> RNA ----translated----> Protein

DNA charge

DNA has a negative charge because of its negatively charged phosphate group, which means that if an electric current is run through a DNA sample, the DNA molecules will move towards the positive charge. This seperates the DNA molecules by size since smaller molecules (shorter nucleotide chains made of a smaller number of base pairs) move furthest

Genes

DNA segments that serve as the key functional units in hereditary transmission

Since DNA is so tiny, how can we see DNA on a gel?

One individual DNA molecule cannot be seen on a gel. However, DNA molecules that are the same size will move the same distance through the gel, forming a band of DNA that can be seen. More DNA will cause the band to be darker.

Point mutations

a change in one base in the DNA; can change the site the restriction enzyme recognizes and prevents it from cutting the DNA, or it could create a new restriction site

DNA markers

a mixture of DNA molecules with known molecular sizes, used to estimate the sizes of the DNA fragments in the sample lanes

Nucleus

a part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction

Cell wall

a rigid structure made of cellulose that surrounds plant cells

Trophic cascade

a series of changes in the population sizes of organisms at different trophic levels in a food chain

Primer

a short segment of DNA that attaches to the flanking regions and acts as the starting point for a new strand

Keystone species

a species on which other species in an ecosystem largely depend, such that if it were removed the ecosystem would change drastically

Food web

a system of interlocking and interdependent food chains

Chromosomes

a threadlike structure found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes

Cytoplasm

a watery solution containing dissolved substances, enzymes, and the cell organelles and structures; made of water, salts, and proteins

Resolution

ability to distinguish between close together but seperate objects

PSII

absorbs light and provides excited electrons to the ETC by splitting water

PSI

absorbs light to excite electrons and uses excited electrons to convert NADP+ to NADPH

Krebs cycle

acetyl-CoA (2-C) combines with OAA (4-C) to form citric acid (6-C), which goes through a series of reactions that release energy; happens in matrix of mitochondria; aerobic

Chloroplast

an organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs

Autotroph

an organism that makes its own food

Heterotroph

an organism that obtains energy from the foods it consumes

Outputs of cellular respiration

carbon dioxide and water

Organelles unique to plant cells

cell wall, chloroplants, starch granule

Metabolic pathways

chains of linked events where most chemical reactions in a cell takes place; produce key biological molecules like amino acids and nucleotides

Metabolism

chemical reactions that occur inside living cells, including those that store or release energy

Constants

conditions that stay the same in the experiment

Iris diaphragm condenser

controls the amount of light on the slide

DNA

deoxyribonucleic acid; carries genetic info; double stranded, thymine

Phylogenetic tree

diagram showing evolutionary relationships of organisms with a common ancestor

Energy pyramid

diagram that shows the amount of energy that moves from one trophic level to another in a food web

Alleles

different versions of a gene

Osmosis

diffusion of water

Facilitated diffusion

diffusion that requires a transport protein

Importance of DNA for cellular metabolic activities

directs production of enzymes

Prokaryotic

does not have a nucleus

DNA structure

double helix - sugar phosphate backbone with base pairs in the middle

Homeostasis (in an ecosystem)

dynamic equilibrium among the biotic and abiotic factors of an ecosystem

Trophic level

each step in a food chain or food web; autotroph, primary, secondary, tertiary

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

energy carrier that powers almost all activities in the cell and fuels metabolic and other enzymic reactions; a cell will die if it exhausts its ATP supply

Electron transport chain (in cellular respiration)

energy from NADH and FADH2 are transferred to ATP; happens in inner membrane of mitochondria; aerobic

Catabolism

energy-releasing chemical reactions that break down complex molecules into simpler ones (ex: cellular respiration)

Anabolism

energy-requiring chemical reactions that build complex molecules from simpler ones (ex: photosynthesis)

DNA polymerase

enzyme involved in DNA replication that uses primers as a starting point to copy the DNA

Protists

eukaryotes that cannot be classified as animals, plants, or fungi (ex: algae (autotrophic) & protozoa (heterotrophic))

Procedure of DNA profiling

extract DNA --- PCR --- gel electrophoresis

Focus knobs

fine and coarse focus knobs bring the specimen into clear view

Stroma

fluid portion of the chloroplast outside of the thylakoids; where molecules are stored before photosynthesis and where light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle) takes place

Phloem

food transport system (bidirectional)

Nucleolus

found inside the nucleus and produces ribosomes

Glycolysis

glucose is broken down to form 2 molecules of pyruvate; happens in cytoplasm; anaerobic

Order of cellular respiration

glycolysis, krebs cycle, electron transport chain

Chlorophyll

green pigment in thylakoid membranes that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis

Cilia

hairlike projections on the outside of cells that move in a wavelike manner

Eukaryotic

has a nucleus

Heterozygous

having two different alleles for a particular gene

Homozygous

having two identical alleles for a particular gene

ATP's phosphate bonds

hold most of usable energy in ATP

Locus (loci - plural)

location of a gene on a chromosome

Restriction map

location of restriction enzyme cut sites on DNA molecule

Objective lens

lower lens with different magnification levels

Compound light microscope

microscope that allows light to pass through a specimen and uses two lenses to form an image

Nucleotides

monomers of nucleic acids made up of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base

Rubisco

most abundant protein on earth; performs carbon fixation in the Calvin Cycle

Diffusion

movement of molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration

Types of symbiotic relationships

mutualism (bees & flowers), commensalism (barnacles & whales), parasitism (mosquitoes & humans)

How energy flows through a pyramid

only 10% of energy move on to the next trophic level; the rest is used up by that organism

Imputs of cellular respiration

oxygen and glucose

Protein complexes of ETC

photosystem II --> photosystem I --> ATP synthase

PCR

polymerase chain reaction, a method used to rapidly make multiple copies of a specific segment of DNA

Mitochondion

powerhouse for the cell; converts chemical energy into ATP

Restriction enzymes

prevent invasion by foreign DNA; cut DNA at a specific sequence of nucleotides (usually palindrome b/c it allows the same sequence to be recognized on both strands of DNA)

Gel electrophoresis

procedure used to separate and analyze DNA fragments

Fermentation

process by which cells release energy in the absence of oxygen (anaerobic)

Alcohol fermentation (yeast)

produces ethanol and CO2, used to make alchohol and for baking

Splitting of water

produces hydrogen ions, electrons (enters PSII), and O2 molecules (by-product, released into the atmosphere)

Diffusion of protons

protons diffuse across the thylakoid membrane until they are trapped by NADP to generate NADPH

Importance of electrons in LD reactions

provide energy for the synthesis of NADPH and ATP

Before Krebs Cycle

pyruvate (3-carbon) is split apart and combined with coenzyme A to form acetyl-CoA (2-carbon), and the third carbon combines with O2 to form CO2 (waste product); high energy electrons are captured in NADH

Short tandem repeats (STRs)

repeating sequences of noncoding DNA; highly variable between individuals

Regeneration

rest of PGAL is used to regenerate RuBP (ATP provides free energy)

RNA

ribonucleic acid; carries info from DNA to protein; single stranded; uracil

Thylakoid

saclike structures found in chloroplasts; where light reactions take place

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

series of electron carrier proteins that shuttle electrons during light dependent reactions

Food chain

series of steps in an ecosystem in which organisms transfer energy by eating and being eaten

Light independent reactions (Calvin Cycle)

set of reactions in photosynthesis that do not require light; use energy from ATP and NADPH to convert CO2 to glucose

Light-dependent reactions

set of reactions in photosynthesis that use energy from light to produce ATP and NADPH; 2H2O + NADP + ADP ----> O2 + ATP + NADPH

Ribosomes

site of protein synthesis

Energy carrier

something that can move and deliver energy; fuels metabolism

Codons

specific sequences of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provide genetic code information for a particular amino acid; basically 3 nucleotides

Grana

stacks of thylakoids

Sticky vs blunt ends

sticky - does not cut directly across from each other; easy to rejoin to complementary stick ends blunt - cut directly across from each other; impossible to join with other molecule

Starch granule

stores carbohydrates

Vacuoles

stores food, water, wastes, and other materials

Order in which energy flows

sunlight-->electrons-->ATP-->glucose

Flanking region

the DNA sequences extending on either side of a specific locus or gene (ex: either side of STRs)

DNA profiling

the analysis of DNA samples to determine whether they came from the same individual

Eyepiece

the lens at the top that you look through (10x)

Carrying capacity

the maximum number of individuals of a population an ecosystem can support without damage to individual resources

ADP (adenosine diphosphate)

the molecule that is produced when ATP is split to yield energy

Active transport

the movement of materials through a cell membrane using energy (ex: ATP); against concentration gradient

Passive transport

the movement of materials through a cell membrane without using energy (ex: diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion)

Magnification

the number of times larger an object appears compared to its actual size

Cellular respiration

the process by which cells use oxygen to produce energy from food

Symbiotic relationship

the relationship of two species that live in close association with each other

Stomata

the small openings on the undersides of most leaves through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move

Control

the standard by which the test results can be compared

Cell membrane

thin, flexible barrier around a cell that regulates what enters and leaves the cell

Agarose gel

used for electrophoresis; DNA is loaded into wells in the gel; full of pores, which means smaller DNA molecules move through more easily

ATP Synthase

uses free energy from the flow of hydrogen ions to convert ADP to ATP

Photosynthesis

using the sun's energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into sugars, where energy is stored (light energy-->chemical energy)

Dependent variable

variable that depends on independent variable; y-axis

Independent variable

variable that is manipulated; x-axis

Acetic acid fermentation (bacteria)

vinegar

Xylem

water transport system (roots to stem/leaves)

Stage

where the slide is placed on the microscope

Flagella

whip-like tails that help cells move