Altius P/S

optic disc (blind spot)

*site where optic nerve leaves the eye *lacks photoreceptors

Pigeon A is placed in a Skinner box and rewarded with food for pecking a key. On average, the reward appears every 6th peck, but the number of pecks between rewards varies. Pigeon B is yoked to Pigeon A such that whenever Pigeon A gets rewarded, Pigeon B gets rewarded, regardless of Pigeon B's behavior. What reinforcement schedule is being utilized for Pigeon A and Pigeon B, respectively?

A fixed interval schedule of reinforcement is one in which rewards (in this case food) occur after predictable (i.e. fixed) intervals of time. In a fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement occurs following a predictable (fixed) number of responses. In this case, Pigeon A is on a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement in which the food reward occurs after differing numbers of responses. This is true even though, overall, the rewards appear an average of every 6th peck of the key. Because Pigeon B is only rewarded when Pigeon A is rewarded, but this reward is NOT tied to its own behavior, this bird is on a variable interval schedule. Because of the yoking of the two pigeons, Pigeon B cannot be on a ratio schedule, given that his rewards are independent of his behavior. To Pigeon B, rewards randomly appear at various time intervals (based on Pigeon A's behavior, NOT his). This is a variable interval reinforcement schedule.

familiarity

A general sense that a certain stimulus has been encountered before. People like familiarity; music that is perceived to be familiar may evoke positive emotions.

predictor variable

A predictor variable is causing a change in the dependent variable and thus would be considered an independent variable, or sometimes a quasi-independent variable.

During a study of malnutrition in northeastern Africa, one native woman told a psychologist "If a pregnant woman eats eggs during pregnancy, the child will be mute, dumb, or stuttering." This woman's statement is best categorized as an example of a:

A taboo is defined as a prohibitory rule based on custom or tradition. Folk taxonomy refers to a system of disease classification. Although the woman does reference conditions in the future child that might be classified as diseases, she is presenting a cultural belief, not a taxonomy. Folk taxonomy - system of disease classification Myth - Sacred story that embodies core cultural beliefs Syncretism - cultural practice that blends two cultural traditions increasing levels of "strictness" Folkway: A norm that is on the level of common courtesy. If you break it, people might be irritated or weirded out, but there are usually no real consequences. Examples include saying "good morning" to a cashier, or shaking someone's hand when you meet them. More: A norm based on societal sense of right and wrong. There might be harsher consequences for breaking a more than a folkway, but still relatively light. Examples include lying or adultery. Law: There are formal consequences enforced by a governing body for breaking it, but it's not necessarily grounded in morality or right/wrong. Examples include not killing people and not smoking weed. Taboo: Strongly socially enforced deviant behavior. There may not be formal consequences, but you will be ostracized for breaking this. Examples include eating feces or interracial marriages in some areas.

Ponzo illusion

An illusion of size in which two objects of equal size that are positioned between two converging lines appear to be different in size. Also called the railroad track illusion. This illusion illustrates the importance of monocular depth cues in our judgment of size.

A critic of the Atlanta study noted that the city is located in a state that has both historically high incarceration and poverty rates. Which methodological issue is being addressed by this critic? Validity Reliability Generalizability Experimental manipulation

The critic is questioning if the same results would be found in a city and state where incarceration and poverty rates were significantly lower. This is a question about the generalizability of the study findings to other people in other locations. Validity addresses the accuracy of the data, and that is not being called into question. The data could have strong p values and be entirely valid for the current population, but not for other populations. As long as interviewers are being consistent (and nothing in the passage or stem suggests they were not), the results should be reliable. This study is not experimental in nature and the researchers did not attempt to manipulate any experimental variables.

If it is assumed that more than five minutes is necessary to make an accurate diagnosis, and that healthcare resources are strictly limited, when a patient visits his doctor complaining of severe back pain, which pair of outcomes is most efficient in terms of the net collective benefit to society? The doctor spends 20 minutes making a diagnosis; the patient follows the doctor's advice. The doctor spends 20 minutes making a diagnosis; the patient questions his doctor's advice and seeks a second opinion. The doctor spends 5 minutes making a diagnosis; the patient follows the doctor's advice. The doctor spends 5 minutes making a diagnosis; the patient questions his doctor's advice and seeks a second opinion.

The doctor and patient sacrifice time; the patient's acceptance of the doctor's advice may result in more efficient utilization of the overall system.

Which sociological concept proposed by Erving Goffman is most relevant to the study of the incarceration of the mentally ill? Impression management Stigma Strategic interaction Tact

Goffman spent years studying mental patients who carried the disvalued status of a stigmatized mental condition that affected patient self-identity as well as the perception of others. Goffman would almost certainly interpret the results of this study in light of the important role of stigma with respect to both mental illness and incarceration. Erving Goffman - dramaturgy approach, stigma and mental illness --> self-identity and perception of others, impression management; tact is used to help people cope with embarrassing circumstances.

Horney vs. Erikson vs. Bandura

Horney - Penis envy and personality theory Erikson - psychosocial they of cognitive development Bandura - Bobo Doll - social learning

working memory vs. short term

Iconic Memory - only lasts a few milliseconds Visuo-spatial sketchpad - processes visual information (lasts more than a few seconds). Whereas short-term memory can only hold information, working memory can both retain and process information.

Stress and cortisol

Stress would lead to cortisol increase. This would activate the sympathetic system, leading to increase in blood glucose level. The pancreas makes insulin to take up the glucose from the bloodstream. However, over time with chronic stress, the pancreas may not be able to make enough insulin, thus leading to insulin deficiency.

adrenal medulla vs. cortex

The adrenal cortex (endoderm)—the outer layer of the gland—produces mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. The adrenal medulla (ectoderm) at the core of the gland produces epinephrine and norepinephrine.

One study participant solved the first four algebraic prompts and noticed that the answer to three of them was 5. Thereafter, she was twice as likely to select 5 as the correct answer compared to any other number, even when 5 was incorrect. Which psychological concept best explains this observation? False positive Functional fixedness Availability heuristic Representativeness heuristic

When using the representativeness heuristic, a person categorizes the likely outcomes of a situation based on previous experience. A person tends to judge an outcome as more or less likely based on its similarity to previous outcomes. In this case, the participant appears to believe, after experiencing the fact that the answer to three of the first four prompts was 5, that the answer to future prompts should also be more likely to be 5. availability heuristic refers to a person exhibiting a positive bias toward the Representativeness heuristic - a person categorizes the likely outcomes of a situation based on previous experience. A person tends to judge an outcome as more or less likely based on its similarity to previous outcomes. While availability has more to do with memory of specific instances, representativeness has more to do with memory of a prototype, stereotype or average. For availability heuristic, you're just making a decision based on whatever is most readily available in your memory. item or solution that is most easily accessed from memory. Nothing in the stem suggests that 5 was somehow easier to remember than any other number, so the representativeness heuristic is more applicable in this case.

second shift

tendency of employed women to do a substantial amount of household chores that may account for up to a full "second shift" of work. This is due to the absence, inability, or unwillingness of a male partner to contribute to household work.

continuity theory

adults will try to maintain the same activities, behaviors, personality traits, and relationships as they did in earlier years. However, they will neither be happy or depressed because of these changes. They just continue with the same pattern.

Suppose a rat receives a pellet of food after it presses the bar of an operant conditioning chamber five times. If the rat next receives a reward after pressing the bar seven times, the rat is being conditioned using which schedule of reinforcement? Fixed interval Variable interval Variable ratio Fixed ratio

A variable ratio schedule of reinforcement involves reinforcement after a defined number or ratio of responses, wherein the number of responses required to obtain the reward varies from one time to the next. Interval = period of time Ratio = number of responses

Androcentrism vs. Gynocentrism

Androcentrism - emphasis on male interests and domination. Gynocentrism - emphasis on female domination.

personality disorders

Antisocial behavior: A persistent pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others; often accompanied by cruelty to animals or a lack of empathy. Schizoid: A disruptive pattern of severe detachment from others, little or no desire to form relationships, indifference to praise, and avoidance of pleasurable activities. type A- weird type B - wild type C - worried

Across a single nighttime sleeping period, as the duration of a single sleep period increases, the amount of time a rat spends in slow-wave sleep: decreases. increases. increases following sleep deprivation only. remains constant.

As the night progresses, less time is spent in slow-wave sleep. Therefore, if any of the stages increases in length individually, later stages will be pushed forward, later into the night, and less overall slow-wave sleep will occur.

A young man used to work as a salesman and was paid an immediate commission for each product sold. He then took a new job working at a department store where he is now paid every other Friday. The reinforcement the young man receives from being paid has transitioned from a: variable ratio schedule to a fixed ratio schedule. fixed ratio schedule to a variable ratio schedule. variable ratio schedule to a variable interval schedule. fixed ratio schedule to a fixed interval schedule.

At his sales job, the young man received a reward for each product sold. Because the pay was "immediate," it was tied directly to the sale itself and not to any time interval. Therefore, this was an example of a fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement. At the young man's new job he is paid every other Friday, which is a fixed interval of time. Thus, the pay at his second job is an example of a fixed interval schedule.

The three most commonly abused psychoactive drugs consumed in the United States are: heroin, cocaine and marijuana. alcohol, heroin and caffeine. alcohol, nicotine and marijuana. caffeine, alcohol and nicotine.

Caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine are the most common psychoactive drugs used in the United States.

Which scenario best illustrates the cognitive dissonance experienced by participants in this study? A smoker enjoys smoking and has no desire to quit. A smoker does not enjoy smoking and has no desire to quit. A smoker desires to quit smoking but continues to smoke. A smoker has no desire to quit and does not quit smoking.

Cognitive dissonance doesn't depend upon whether or not a person enjoys a given behavior. If the person doesn't want to quit smoking, there is no dissonance between action and belief caused by continued smoking.

Some critics suggest that medicine has been corporatized. Healthcare is now owned and controlled by a few wealthy corporations and individuals that decide what kinds of medical facilities will be built and what kind of doctors will be allowed to practice. This approach is most congruent with which sociological theory?

Conflict theory deals with the competition between members of society for scarce resources; a process through which some groups win and others lose. In the question stem, medical practice is described as being dominated by a few wealthy winners that are able to control the future direction of health care organizations. Marxism - political theory in which there are no classes. The government would control all resources and means of production to, in theory, ensure equality.Marxism is a political theory or system. This could be a tempting distractor, however, because Karl Marx is a prominent conflict theorist.

state-dependent memory vs. context-dependent memory

Context-dependent memory - an increase in recall when the PHYSICALl environment and surroundings are the same during learning and retrieval. State-dependent memory - more focused on PHYSIOLOGICAL STATES, such as being under the influence of a drug or being in a certain state of mind.

Which sequence accurately describes typical human language development in order of occurrence?

Cooing is a description of the first non-language sounds made by children ages 0 to 4 months. About ages 4 months to 9 months, children begin babbling and then intensify babbling as they approach their first word. The very first word usually develops and is spoken at 10-12 months, but can be as late as 18 months. Most children begin using two-word phrases. between 18 months and 24 months. Telegraphic speech is the severely abbreviated speech, often only two-words, and often composed of only nouns and verbs with no conjunctions, that is used by children before they begin forming complete sentences. Example include phrases such as "Daddy funny," "Me milk," or "My doll."

Overlapping error bars

Data is not considered different because the data is too similar. Error bars that overlap indicate the results are statistically insignificant. While standard deviation error bars can give you a clue about statistical significance, you must actually perform a statistical test to draw a valid conclusion.

Visual information processed by the right eye projects through the optic nerve: to the left hemisphere of the brain. to the right hemisphere of the brain. to both the right and left hemispheres of the brain. directly to the occipital lobe of the brain.

Each eye receives information from both the right and the left visual field. That information is then transferred to areas of the thalamus and/or midbrain before being sent to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. Visual information coming from the left visual field goes to the right brain, and information from the right visual field goes to the left brain. The optic nerve transmits visual information to both hemispheres before the information is further processed by thalamus --> visual cortex (occipital lobe) and the visual cortex processes each of the cues separately and in parallel. This is an adaptational advantage to an organism that loses sight in one eye, because even if only one eye is functional, both hemispheres will still receive input from it.

Ethnophaulism

Ethnic or racial slurs, including derisive nicknames

Lazarus Theory

Event --> Appraisal --> Emotion + Physiological response Ex. Event (holding cat) --> labelling situation/appraising (cognitive) happiness --> emotion (joy) + physiological response. Recap: Emotion = cognitive + physiological + behavioral responses Theories: James-Lange: physiological -> emotion Cannon-Bard: physiological + emotion Schachter-Singer: physiological + cognitive -> emotion Lazarus: cognitive -> emotion + physiological

Feminism

Glass escalator - quick advancement of men in women-dominated fields. Glass ceiling - lack of advancement for women in many professions compared to men. It also refers to promotion within a specific company/field.

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

In the S-S theory, the stimulus causes physiological arousal that is followed by cognitive appraisal of the arousal in the context of the environment. physiological and cognitive responses simultaneously form experience of emotion. If we become physiologically aroused, we don't feel a specific emotion until we're able to label/ identify reason for situation. Event --> physiological response + Identify reason for the situation (consciously) --> Emotion Ex: Holding your cat (event) --> Physiological response of increase HR/or changes in NT level --> label the situation and identify reason for physiological response and event (This is really nice, I like holding my cat, this makes me happy) --> emotion (Happy)

Hermann Grid Illusion

Inhibition from neighbouring neurons means we perceive grey dots when the page is actually white. This illusion illustrates the center-surround design of the receptive fields of retinal ganglion cells.

Mediating vs moderating vs confounding variable

Mediating: variable that explains relationship between dependent and independent variable Moderating: variable that influences the strength of relationship between DV and IV Confounding variable: not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables. This mediating variable provided a MECHANISM to explain the observed relationship, which means that mediating variables can help deduce CAUSAL relationships. The mediating variable alone can result in the outcome, in this case, C can cause B without A. Moderating variable: NOT a mechanism. However the STRENGTH of the observed relationship depends on this variable. For example, a relationship has been observed between birth order and Down syndrome. Think of a triangle. The bottom left corner = variable A = birth order (whether you are first, second, third child). Bottom right corner = variable B = Down syndrome. At the top point goes the moderating variable, which in this case is actually MATERNAL AGE = variable C. This means that the STRENGTH of the association between birth order and Down syndrome depends on maternal age. A --> B via C. The moderating variable C provides the context for which the association A and B occurs. However, unlike a mediating variable, C on its own does not result in the outcome B (i.e. higher maternal age does not result in Down syndrome). A must be present.

Mental Set vs. Functional Fixedness

Mental Set - The tendency to respond to a new problem with an approach that was successfully used with similar problems. Functional Fixedness - The tendency to think of an object as being useful only for the function that the object is usually used for. A mental set is an unconscious tendency to approach a problem in a particular way. Our mental sets are shaped by our past experiences and habits. ... Functional fixedness is a special type of mental set that occurs when the intended purpose of an object hinders a person's ability to see its potential other uses.

midline structures of the brain

Midline structures of the brain: cingulate gyrus (curved fold covering the corpus callosum. A component of the limbic system, it is involved in processing emotions and behavior regulation. It also helps to regulate autonomic motor function), corpus callous, and thalamus. Amygdala - structure farthest from the midline of the brain.

sleep stages

N1: Stage 1- Light Sleep, Alpha & Theta waves present, Tetris Effect, Hypnic jerks, hypnagogic hallucinations. N2: Stage 2- Theta waves present, K Complexes (keep you asleep) and Sleep Spindles (sudden bursts of brain activity). N3/N4: Stages 3/4 (grouping these together bc they are so similar): Deep Sleep, Delta waves present. Sleepwalking, night terrors, bed-wetting, etc. may occur in this stage. REM: Rapid Eye Movement, Paralysis of muscles, Dreaming, Combination of Alpha, Beta, and Dyssynchronous waves present. Light mediation: brings about alpha waves Deep meditation (tough to achieve): brings about theta waves. BATS Drink Blood beta-awake alpha - awake, drowsy theta - stage1 (low amplitude, high frequency) sleepspindle/kcomplex - stage 2 delta - stage 3 (high amplitude, low frequency) beta - REM

The passage reports that gestational alcohol exposure accounts for 8.1% of the variance in cognitive performance on tasks requiring a moderate cognitive workload. This figure is an example of which inferential statistic? p r r2 t

P value - represents the probability that the null hypothesis is true; it is also colloquially referred to as the likelihood that the results were due to random chance. r value - he correlation coefficient that explains how closely two variables are related. This is the variable that must be squared to predict the percent of the variability accounted for by the predictor variable. t value - measures the difference between an observed sample statistic and its hypothesized population parameter. A squared correlation value (r2) explains how much variability in one variable is accounted for by variability in the other variable. Since the reported percentages in the final paragraph (and cited again in the question stem) are purported to explain variance, the values must represent the squared correlation value.

quasi-experimental design

Research method similar to an experimental design except that it makes use of naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigning subjects to groups. True experiment relies on complete random assignment between control group and experimental group. For studies investigating a disease and its symptoms, quasi experiment is required because there is no possible way to randomly assort participants into groups and then group the disease. This would be unethical.

After breaking up with her romantic partner, an adolescent listens repeatedly to a sad song with lyrics about failed romantic relationships. The young woman's behavior is an example of which type of emotion regulation? Coping Reappraisal Rumination Depression

Rumination - repeated thinking or replaying in one's mind aspects of situation that are upsetting. Rumination maintains negative emotions and leads to depression. Coping or "problem-focused" coping - active attempts to resolve the source of stressor or problem. Reappraisal - strategy for emotion regulation that involves reinterpreting a situation in a less negative manner. Depressive realism - Those who are depressed interpret situations in a more realistic manner than non-depressed people.

Sleep Deprivation on Memory

Sleep deprivation won't affect previously consolidated memories. If we assume that memory consolidation is associated with sleep, then sleep deprivation should interfere with the rat's memories for the novel objects. Therefore, we would expect the rats to continue to view the novel objects as novel despite having had previous experience with these objects.

coefficient of determination

The p-value tells you whether the correlation coefficient is significantly different from 0. (A coefficient of 0 indicates that there is no linear relationship.) Given correlation value (r)--> Find squared-correlation (coefficient of determination (r2)) - explains how much variability in one variable is accounted for by variability in the other variable. The correlation between two variables is shown through correlation coefficient (A correlation coefficient is a statistical measure that calculates the strength of the relationship between two variables), that is a value measured between -1 and +1. When the correlation coefficient is close to +1 then there is a positive correlation between the two variables and the value is close to -1, then there is a negative correlation between the two variables and when the value is close to zero then there is no relationship between the two variables. The R2 value is simply the square of the correlation coefficient R and can only be between 0-1. The correlation coefficient ( R ) of a model (say with variables x and y ) takes values between −1 and 1. Thats why R square is a better term. You can explain R square for both simple linear regressions and also for multiple linear regressions.

Trait Theory

Trait theory - extraversion, neuroticism (and sometimes psychoticism) 1. Extraversion (sociable vs. withdrawn) 2. Neuroticism (anxious vs. calm) 3. Psychoticism (stubbornness and non-conformity; increased vulnerability to psychosis/schizophrenia) Cattell, Eysenck, and BIG Five ALL use factor analysis. Allport (cardinal, central, secondary traits) did not use factor analysis.

vision crossover

Wernicke's area is in the left temporal lobe, and those 2 are connected by arcuate fasciculus. if you see an object w/ your left eye, the information will FIRST go to the right hemisphere for processing, THEN cross over to the left hemisphere for more processing = "what is it that you're seeing." So if the corpus callosum is severed, you can still see the object w/ your left eye but you won't be able to know what it is. In addition, you also won't be able to tell other people what it is either because your language center is also on the left hemisphere.

hindbrain (rhombencephalon)

cerebellum, pons, medulla oblongata

Suppose the medical students have nearly agreed on a diagnosis when one student points out a test result that draws the group's decision into question. Some members of the group glare or frown at the student and another nudges her under the table while shaking his head. Which of Janis' eight symptoms of group think is best illustrated by this scenario? Illusion of invulnerability Mindguards Self-censorship Collective rationalization

illusion of invulnerability - tendency of the group to believe that their combined decision-making accuracy is infallible, which leads to extreme risk-taking in decision making based on the assumption that the group cannot be wrong. Self-censorship: individuals choose not to voice concerns or information that contradicts the group Mind-guards: members of the group who protect the group and/or its leader from information that is problematic or contradictory to the group's views, decisions, or cohesiveness. Collective rationalization: tendency of the group to ignore warnings and fail to double-check or reconsider their assumptions.