American Military History 3560: Exam 1
theme two
*american defense policy had traditionally been built upon pluralistic military institutions - most noticeably a mixed force of professionals and citizen soldiers.
what factors drew Native Americans to become allies/adversaries of each European power?
*british officals considered indians questionable allies, and not essential in most cases. *indians were typically more inclined to work with french who gave them gifts in return for service; british were looking for unwavering commitment *indians would shift t o english if the french could no longer trade
operational doctrine
an institutional concept for planning and conducting operations. - taking into account such factors as their mission, the enemy situation, the terrain and the combat and logistical capabilities of the available forces, service leaders develop their organizations capabilities
war aims
are the purposes for which wars are fought
how do the authors define such key terms as: policy,
policy: is the sum of assumptions, plans, programs and actions taken by the citizens of the u.s., principally through governmental action, to ensure the physical security of their lives property and way of life from external military attack and domestic insurrection.
Be familiar with the main outlines of the War for American Independence, especially the fight for Boston, the successful British campaign to capture New York, the battles of Trenton and Princeton, and the Saratoga Campaign.
*british took boston, but then colonies took it back. *new york was a cat and mouse chase, britain got the city, and then was trying to catch other parts but kept letting washington get away *washingtons men marched on hessian outpost at trenton capturing or killing almost 1000. then when cornwallis approached them in trenton, washington sidestepped and took princeton *saratoga was surrendered to the americans and this is when france was convinced they would win so they signed a treaty of alliance
the attitude between colonial troops and British officers became increasingly tense as time went on. why?
*canadas defeat came mostly from british troops even though colonial troops contributed a little. regular officers felt colonial troops had no merits; were ill disciplined, lazy, dumb, etc. (which was true because these were just part time militia civilians). *because they were held to such low standards, officers had them do auxiliary work like being wagoners, boatmen, and constructors. used brutal punishment on them and didnt view them as equals
The British misunderstood the difficulties they faced in subduing the colonies. What were the main factors they discounted or overlooked?
*colonists believed in the natural courage of americans and gods protection;were far more determined even if lacking in resources. *england underestimated the military potential and numbers of the colonists *officials only remembered the provincial soldiers, not he actual militia *england also though the rebels were small minority and that loyalist population was strong, but this was not the case *england misunderstood the difficulty of conquering a localized thinly populated society - to win the had to win across vast lands *england had miscommunication across the seas and between departments *england had trouble recruiting army troops at home because people questioned the justness *england had inability to implement a strategy early in the war *england had weak and cautious military leaders
what themes, especially in the context of British/colonial relations, emerged from the colonial wars?
*conflicts over recruitment, quarters, transportation and provisions fueled mutual resentment. *british government count on colonial assembles to provide provisions and transportation but the colonies were stingy and dilatory. most assemblies did not want to comply. were slow to fulfilling british requests *americans gained a high opinion of their martial abilities and a low opinion of british professionals. *the wars had a nationalizing impact, each colony still jealously protected it sovereignty *growing estrangement between england and the colonies emerged. "the colonies assumed rights and privileges, totally unknown in the mother country"
(start chapter 3) What elements of England's post-colonial war policies in North America ultimately drove colonists toward rebellion? (Think about taxes and expansion policy.)
*debt *navigation acts: series of laws enforcing trade only with mother country or for their benefit *england began taxing the colonies to help pay for american army *england limited colonists from surging out west *in 1765, england passed stamp and quartering acts - colonists disagreed with all new policies; why was england enforcing standing army? we can handle our own finances?
Be sure to understand the "dual army" tradition that originated during the American Revolution. What was the relationship between the Continental Army and the revolutionary militia?
*dual army means combined citicen soldier reserve (militia) which supplied large numbers of trained soldiers with a small professional force that provided military expertise and staying power. *throughout the way the continental army complemented rather than supplanted the state militias and at practically every critical juncture these disparate forces acted in concert *continental army revitalized the militia
be familiar with the basics of the following conflicts between colonists and Native Americans: the First Tidewater War in Virginia (1622-1632) and the Second Tidewater War (1644-1646), each initiated by Opechancanough, the chief of the Indian confederation in the Tidewater area; the Pequot War in New England (1637); and King Philip's War in New England (1675-1676).
*first tidewater: openchancanough tricked the whites into thinking there was peace. indians snuck up and murdered whites brutally murdered. whites struck back. 10 years, then both sides got exhausted and signed peace treaty *peace didn't last, openchancanough did another surprise attack, started second tidewater which lasted two years and indians lost and openchancanough was captured and killed. *pequot war: complex series of events led to it and most natives sided with the whites. pequots were ambushed and brutally murdered. pequot survivors sought asylum and fled. *king phillips: Philip was an indian that the whites respected and were friendly with till philip noticed his people being subjected to white domination and his hospitality to hostility. started with vandalism. was analogous with second tidewater water because it settled the question of whether indians or whites would dominate the region.
Understand the importance of sea power in the War for American Independence. What advantages did it give the British? How did the entry of France into the war change the naval situation and consequently the course of the war? What forms did American naval power take, and how important (or unimportant) was it as a factor in deciding the outcome.
*for britains, this is how it got most supplies, and was simply an extra point of power *for americans, would help to disrupt britains outside support even if not. would reduce american distress and create logistical problems for the british. were able to loot 55 prizes such as weapons *used privateers *the french had a navy and captured multiple islands *naval did not affect outcome much, england was being dominated in all other aspects, around the globe
After 1778 the British increasingly regarded America a secondary theater and, as a partial result, concentrated most of its military operations in the South. Why?
*french threat was acute in the south and officials believe that there was a high number of loyalists that would have their backs and carry the fighting burden.
In what ways were Native Americans involved in the war, and how important was their participation?
*generally supported the british because they disliked the aggressive american expansion and wanted english goods *they only really go involved when their land was encroached upon *sometimes would help england but eventually stopped bc it kept getting them killed and their land taken
Why was George Washington selected to be in charge of this new Continental Army? What was his opinion of the colonial militia and of British professionals?
*had experience with braddock @ fort duquesne *commanded virginia militia *played an active role in resistance to revolution and attended both first and second continental congresses *reasonably experienced solider, firm advocate of american liberties, impressive in looks, and articulate without being flamboyant and gave the army a continental appearance *he had an aversion to militiamen (because his virginia militia was problematic) and appreciation for british professionals. he strived to mold the continental arm into a model of british army
What was the significance of the 1778 military alliance between the United States and France?
*meant that france would be providing more aid, cause spain and the dutch to declare war on britain. englands european enemies diverted british resources from america
Why did the Continental Congress decide it needed a national army, as well as militia forces, to fight the war?
*needed to be more continental, and needed an army that could be kept in the field and sent to fight beyond the boundaries of any one colony
be familiar with the basics of Bacon's Rebellion in Virginia (1675-1676).
*part indian war part civil insurrection *gv. berkely felt colonists should distinguish between friendly and hostile indians, bacon disagreed, thought we should just kill all. *bacon launched a crusade to kill them all. most frontiersman agree with bacon. berkely said no to the crusade, but bacon defied him and also waged war against berkelys loyal . ended when bacon was killed
How well did the Congress meet its task of supplying the Continental Army?
*primary struggle was insufficient financial resources, inadequate admin organization and primitive transportation - resorted to printing press -> led to depreciation of funds, congress had to rely on forein loans *never attained institutional stability; was consistently rearranging positions *feeble coordination among the staff departments
theme one
*rational military considerations alone have rarely shaped military policies and programs. - political system and societal values have imposed constraints on defense affairs. a - preoccupation with private gain, a reluctance to pay taxes, a distaste for military service and a fear of large standing forces imposed limitations on availability of monetary & manpower resources.
What was the social composition and main motivations of soldiers who served in the Continental Army?
*social composition was: farmers, tradesmen and mechanics but they included many more immigrants, enemy deserters, prisoners of war, loyalists, free black men, indentured servants, and criminals. bottom strata of society *some continentals liek the british, had no choice. but most american recruits served willingly. very ideological, backed by financial compensation
Although the War for American Independence began in 1775, the authors state that "the events of 1765-1775 marked the first phase in a colonial war of national liberation." Explain what they mean by this. What were the key events during this period that carried the conflict toward outright war?
*started as resistance to parliamentary sovereignty, then transitioned to desire for national liberation toward the end. *sons of liberty, parliament opposition group was formed *radical leaders came about with propaganda and mob actions - loyalists found the brit government unable to protect then while other colonists were convinced to go against parliament *the revolution was in the hands of the people
Why was the Continental Congress suspicious of the very Continental Army it had created?
*the army had to be watched with jealous eye as it could be dangerous to the liberties of the people *had to be careful to keep army subservient to civil authority - controlled armys size and composition, disciplinary regulations
(start charpter 2)what major economic and diplomatic relationships are key to understanding the colonial wars?
*the fur trade between the euros and indians. whites also sought indians as warriors and allies. *frenchman embraced indian culture more than englishmen, and also were typically single males so they required less. *but the british had the advantage in the fur trade (traded pelts for manufactured goods) *french allied with alonquins *dutch allied with iroquis
be familiar with the warfare practiced between colonists and Native Americans. what was the "military acculturation process"? be familiar with the specific adjustments in tactics, technology, and mind-set involved.
*the military acculturation process is a term used to describe how both sides altered their warfare to be more similar to their opponents so they had a better chance of winning/fighting. - indians adopted colonists tactics/weapons and vice versa - indians started as playful warfare; when they did fight it was in a stealthy and whirlwind/hit and run way then they would retreat - indians got used to flintlocks, would trade furs for weapons, but never mastered gun powder production - whites werent able to aim, which was bad against the natives. made little effort to adjust even after multiple ambushes. - whites did employ indian allies - by the 1600s the colonists had shed things like armor, pikes and swords. and while formal militia training had not changed, some expeditionary forces began to employ indian guerilla techniques, including the use of cover and concealment and aimed fire. - indians embraced euro tech including flintlock, and the colonists war to the death mentality.
the Seven Years' War (French and Indian War) marked an important departure from the previous colonial wars in terms of British objectives. how did the war begin? What was Braddock's defeat in 1755, and its significance? how did the battle of Quebec (1759) decide the outcome of the war in North America?
*unlike the previous wars that regain in europe and embroiled the colonies, the french indian war commenced in colonies and engulfed reluctant parent countries. *started: seven colonies sent representatives to albany to discuss defense problems and entice the six nations out of their neutrality. although plan of action was created, no colonial assembly approved the plan and the the iroquis far from being receptive, inclined dangerously toward france. *braddock failed in his campaign because while trekking through wilderness, had an encounter with enemy army and gotten beat, giving up their possession of a hill. the men were discouraged, braddock tried to rally his men but most fled and he died. was significant because failure to take crown point, the abortive niagara venture and braddocks defeat established the pattern for britains war effort during next two years. (ambitious plans produced meager results, while france kept succeeding) *battle of quebec ended war in north america, transferred it to the seas. france had lost most of its land territory
Although the colonial wars occurred at roughly the same times as their European counterparts, the colonists often had their own motives and objectives. What were the most important of these? You do not need to know the details of the various colonial wars. Pay attention, however, to the Cartagena expedition in 1740 and the Louisbourg expedition in 1745. What was their significance in terms of colonial relationships with the British government and armed forces?
*wanted money and control *cartagena was a failure,took tons of men ,most got sick and ruined british militia prestige *mission to capture lousibourg fort would mean the downfall of new france. led expedition of 4000 non trained men, but after 7 weeks they got it. *those who were on the expedition felt they were touched by god and that citizen soldiers doing gods will seemed superior to british regulars serving an earthly sovereign *colonists felt that the mother country had disregarded their sacrifices and had sacrifice their security on the alter of englands own self interest
primary purpose of writing book
- analyze the development of military policy - examine the characteristics of military policy as influenced by america's intnl. relations & domestic development
theme six
beginning in the mid 19th century, but especially during the twentieth century, industrialization has shaped the way the nation has fought. in particular the united states has used increasingly sophisticated technology to overcome logistical implications, primarily in transportation, and to match enemy numbers with firepower.
colonial soldiers who enlisted for an expedition believed that they had a "legal contract" with the provincial (colonial) government. What did the soldiers understand this contract to entail? What did they believe they could do if it were broken?
believed the contract could not be breached without the consent of both parties. they felt that if the colony failed to provide legal obligations such as rum and food, forcing men to serve past term, demanding additional duties, etc, the contract was void. - once authorities broke the contract the soldiers felt no compunction against staging a mutiny or deserting in mass. - they were the rif raf, down and outer soldiers
in the Southern theater, be familiar with the battles of Camden, Cowpens, Guilford Courthouse, and especially Yorktown.
camden: americans were defeated and most fled, making it the second army that disappeared cowpens: americans defeated british convincingly guilford courthouse: after a cat and mouse chase, the armies met here in a furious battle which the british won *british stationed in yorktown so that they could get materials from the see or exacpe, but the americans prevented both from happening, brought in french troops and destroyed the british
third theme
despite popular belief that the US has generally been unprepared for war, policymakers have done remarkably well in preserving the nations security. - policymakers realized that the nation could devote its energies and financial resources to internal development rather than to maintaining a large and expensive peacetime establishment.
What did Washington view as the most important factors in avoiding short-term defeat and achieving long-term victory?
he believed the prospect of such an army endangering civilian supremacy was remote; the slight risk was necessary because the consequence of fighting without a regular army was certain and inevitable ruin
Compare and contrast the War for American Independence with the "limited wars" in Europe during most of the 18th century. In what ways was the conflict a harbinger of modern wars to come?
restraints on warfare diminished, national defense became a huge theme - civilians owe it to their country to defend *military and political transformations
understand the difference between colonists used as members of the militia and colonists used as members of a military expedition ("provincial forces"), and the relationship between the militia and expeditionary forces.
some were simply local police force protecting domestic peace. *expeditionary was drafted through a quota but were more able bodied men. were mostly lower class, the rich got out of it. felt they had a legal contract.
tactics
the actual conduct of battle, the application of fire and maneuver by fighting units in order to destroy the physical ability and will of the enemy's armed forces.
war
the application of stat violence in the name of policy - involves killing and wounding people and destroying property until the survivors abandon their military resistance or the belligerents come to a negotiated agreement.
theme five
the armed forces have become progressively more nationalized and professionalized. beginning with the american revolution, the services have increased
what was the long-term impact on the colonists of the frequent conflicts against Native Americans?
the colonial wars fought between 1689 and 1763 perpetuated the attitudes fostered by the military between 1607 and 1676. colonists remained disdainful even fearful of professional soldiers and augmented their quest for the indians subjugation with an equally intense desire for the complete removal of french influence from north america.
strategy
the general concepts for the use of military force, is derived from war aims. - in wartime, strategy is normally expressed in terms of missions, geographic areas of operations, the timing of operations, and the allocation of forces.
theme four
the nations firm commitment to civilian control of military policy requires careful attention to cilviliani military relations. the commitment to civilian control makes military policy a paramount function of the federal government, where the executive branch and Congress share the power to shape policy.
