American Military History - Exam 1

Small professional army as permanent policy

Legion of the United States, composed of 5,280 officers and men divided into four equal sublegions. Defended colonies from any attack and closest thing to a permanent army The Legion had demonstrated the government's ability to maintain an Army that could "provide for the common defense," at least to the extent of waging a successful Indian campaign.

What are considered the "true gains" of the War of 1812?

"Manafeast Destiny", Knock the Indians out of their lands which gives the Americans the ability to expand west.

Objective and success for British Use of Indians, Rev War

- Objective was to distract the colonists; to terrorize them and diminish morale - Success was Loyalist and Indian raiding parties terrorizing the Mohawk River Valley causing havoc in upstate New York

Tactical objectives of Gen. Gage, early Rev War

- General Thomas Gage was a British Army general officer and colonial official best known for his many years of service in North America, including his role as British commander-in-chief in the early days of the American Revolution. - From 1763 to 1775 he served as commander-in-chief of the British forces in North America, overseeing the British response to the 1763 Pontiac's Rebellion. Objective was to fortify the city, train troops and gather intelligence: - By the spring of 1775 colonial leaders and General Gage, were expecting a fight. In September 1774, Congress recommended that the colonies begin military preparations, and many of them stockpiled supplies and undertook militia training with a long-absent seriousness. After the Stamp Act crisis, the turbulence in the seaboard cities had replaced the frontier as the primary concern of the ministry, which had ordered Gage to redeploy most of the army eastward. Gage had a large garrison in Boston, where he fortified the city's approaches, trained his troops rigorously, and gathered intelligence from spies, including Dr. Benjamin Church, a trusted member of the Revolutionary inner circle. Church informed Gage of the buildup of military supplies in Concord. When Gage received secret instructions to restore royal rule in Massachusetts through force, Concord was the logical target.

Reason for debacle in War of 1812 Northwest Campaign

- Three prong attack: one from Detroit led by William Hull; one from Niagara River by General Steven Van Rensselaer; one from Montreal General Henry Dearborne - no communication with each other; logistical issues; not the best people for the job - President John Madison chose political allies instead of right people for the job The effort on land was a demoralizing tale of poor strategy and weak leadership

Outcomes of the French and Indian War

- To England it ceded Canada, Cape Breton Island, and all its land claims east of the Mississippi except for New Orleans. - France ceded this city and all its territorial claims west of the Mississippi to Spain, which in turn gave Florida to Britain. From St. Augustine to Hudson Bay, from the Atlantic to the Mississippi, England reigned supreme - France lost all its territory except for two small islands off the Newfoundland coast. - But the cost of the war had greatly enlarged Britain's debt. Moreover, the war generated substantial resentment towards the colonists among English leaders, who were not satisfied with the financial and military help they had received from the colonists during the war. All these factors combined to persuade many English leaders that the colonies needed a major reorganization and that the central authority should be in London. The English leaders set in motion plans to give London more control over the government of the colonies and these plans were eventually a big part of the colonial resentment towards British imperial policies that led to the American Revolution. - The war had an equally profound but very different effect on the American colonists. First of all, the colonists had learned to unite against a common foe. Before the war, the thirteen colonies had found almost no common ground and they coexisted in mutual distrust. But now they had seen that together they could be a power to be reckoned with. And the next common foe would be Britain. - For the Indians of the Ohio Valley, the third major party in the French and Indian War, the British victory was disastrous. Those tribes that had allied themselves with the French had earned the enmity of the victorious English. The Iroquois Confederacy, which had allied themselves with Britain, fared only slightly better. The alliance quickly unraveled and the Confederacy began to crumble from within. The Iroquois continued to contest the English for control of the Ohio Valley for another fifty years; but they were never again in a position to deal with their white rivals on terms of military or political equality.

Congressional control of military

- balance of power between States and Federal Government - at first divided between state and national - 1792 - Uniform Militia Act - remained the basic militia law until the twentieth century, enshrined the concept of universal military service, requiring the enrollment of all able-bodied white men between the ages of eighteen and forty-five. - States controlled militia; Federal Gov't had some control however there was a fear of the military being used as an instrument of tyrannical deposit - Congress recognized its military challenges, and the day after disbanding the Continental Army it created the 1st American Regiment—the first national peacetime force in American history—by calling on four states to raise 700 militiamen for one year. The regiment was a hybrid, neither strictly militia nor regular. Its formation depended on the states' goodwill to provide men, but Congress organized, paid, and disciplined the regiment, and the commander, Josiah Harmar of Pennsylvania, reported to both Congress and the Pennsylvania state government.

Major war objective, Battle of Lake Erie, Battle of Thames

- objective was the collapse of the Northwest Indian Confederacy when Richard M. Johnson killed Tecumseh - with his death the confederacy collapsed - In the Battle of the Thames the Americans won a smashing victory, killing Tecumseh and capturing most of Proctor's army. With Tecumseh's death the Indian confederacy collapsed, fulfilling a vital northwestern war objective.

Effectiveness, militia units in defense, colonial era

- response to the dangerous military realities was the creation of a militia system in each colony - in many respects it was static and homogenous, varying little from colony to colony and from generation to generation. Yet the militia was also evolutionary and heterogeneous, as diverse as the thirteen colonies and ever changing within individual colonies - at the heart of the militia was the principle of universal military obligation for all able-bodied males - if a man was in the militia, he participated in periodic musters, or training days, with the other members of his unit. Attendance at musters was compulsory - militiamen had to provide and maintain their own weapons - initially, the militia was successful in the immediate purpose of providing protection for their encampments, however, over time, as the frontier advanced, the militia decayed because its members lost the feeling on an immediate threat to their homes and families. Effectiveness - only good in defense...couldn't attack because they could not leave their colony and go to other colonies or countries - The militia was more effective as a local police force or as a standby posse comitatus. It preserved the domestic peace, protected propertied and privileged colonists from the disadvantaged elements within society, and quelled movements against the established political order.

Reason for Navy early success, War of 1812

- the Federalist heavy frigates were the finest ships of their class in the world. - young naval officers were generally young and had developed professional skills and attitudes during the Quasi- and Tripolitan Wars. - Moreover, the British navy could commit only a fraction of its strength to American waters - In all these actions the American ship was larger and more heavily gunned, but knowledge of this did not detract from the celebrations following the news of each victory.

"Sentiments of Peace" in shaping policy

Alexander Hamilton, one of Washington's former aides and an ardent nationalist, chaired the committee and sought advice from the commander in chief, who responded with his "Sentiments on a Peace Establishment." The general mentioned the need for a navy and seacoast fortification but emphasized four necessities. First, the country should have a regular army to garrison the west, "awe the Indians," and guard against attacks from Spanish Florida or British Canada. Considering the nation's poverty, its distance from Europe, and the widespread prejudice against professional military forces, Washington proposed a small regular army—specifically, 2,631 officers and men. Second, with the army so tiny, the nation required a "respectable and well established Militia." Contrary to the colonial system, Washington insisted the militia should be nationalized, with the central government imposing uniformity in arms, organization, and training. In particular, within each state he wanted "a kind of Continental Militia," modeled after the war's minutemen, under stringent national control. Thus Washington proposed a three-tiered land force: A regular army, a ready reserve similar to the volunteer militia, and an improved common militia. Third, he suggested arsenals and manufactories to support these armies. Fourth, he wanted military academies to foster the study of military science.

Militia establishment as controversy

As the frontier expanded militia membership became ceremonial and social. Enforcement of militia laws were lax without immediate threat. Used as local law enforcement. Limited use, training, experience led to formation of different militia units. Tactical problems. Use of fortified locations leads to irreconcilable logistical difficulties. Calling out the militia and concentrating forces leave settlements vulnerable to raids and attacks

How do the Patriots organize their war making capability? Critique its effectiveness.

Continental soldiers, regular militia. Lack of logistics

Clearly illustrate the differences between Federalist military policy and that of the Republicans.

Federalist - strong armed forces including a professional army and navy necessary in every Republic to dissuade foreign interest, safeguard against civil insurrection, Indian attack and defense also pro-British Republicans - militia has always been able to handle national defense, small professional army may be necessary to hold until militia is raised, strong armed forces invites aggression and promotes response, adds to the national debt, can be used by despot to create tyrannical force also pro-French

Reasons for establishment of West Point

General George Washington considered West Point to be the most important strategic position in America. Colonel Sylvanus Thayer, the "father of the Military Academy," served as Superintendent from l8l7-l833. He upgraded academic standards, instilled military discipline and emphasized honorable conduct. Aware of our young nation's need for engineers, Thayer made civil engineering the foundation of the curriculum. For the first half century, USMA graduates were largely responsible for the construction of the bulk of the nation's initial railway lines, bridges, harbors and roads. After gaining experience and national recognition during the Mexican and Indian wars, West Point graduates dominated the highest ranks on both sides during the Civil War. Academy graduates, headed by generals such as Grant, Lee, Sherman and Jackson, set high standards of military leadership for both the North and South.

Explain the two different views of Indians which cause the internal conflict illustrated through Bacon's rebellion.

Governor William Berkeley represented one viewpoint. For reasons of humanity and policy, he believed colonists should differentiate between friendly and hostile Indians, protecting the former and waging war only against the latter. Bacon believed all Indians were enemies and launched a crusade to kill them without distinguishing between hostile and loyal tribes. Bacon's attitude represented the majority of frontiersmen who, resenting the expense of maintaining Berkeley's forts, wanted to raise volunteer companies and slaughter Indians indiscriminately.

Innovation, precepts, Benjamin Church

Innovation/Precepts Benjamin Church - Ranger, one of the greatest Indian fighters, organized volunteers to fight the indians - Commissioned by the Governor of the Plymouth colony, Josiah Winslow to form the first ranger company for King Philip's War. - his unit was designed to emulate Indian warfare practices. Used "praying Indians" from allied tribes as guides and scouts and members of the company. Captured and killed Metacomet. First colonial unit to ambush and raid Indian settlements in the forest and swamps such as the Great Swamp Fight - entertaining Passages relating to King Philip's War by Benjamin Church, considered the first American military manual.

Describe the policy and war aims of both the French and British at the beginning of the French and Indian War.

Policy: British - rapid expansion west; increasing influence in British population; disrupted territories, borders not clear; want Ohio River Valley French: - fortifications to claims linking Mississippi River to Canada War Aims: British - to control Ohio River Valley; secure territory (Appalachian Mountains) for expansion, grow commerce French - maintain claims in commerce and isolate the British

Define policy in relation to American military history

Rational military considerations alone have rarely shaped military policies and programs. American defense policy has traditionally been built upon military institutions. The nation's firm commitment to civilian control of military policy requires careful attention to civil-military relations.

Reason for Jackson success, New Orleans

The United States not only repulsed but shattered the New Orleans offensive, primarily because of Andrew Jackson's cyclonic energy and iron-willed determination. Jackson became a hero after he won the Creek War of 1813-1814, a conflict in which he was virtually an independent warlord, often acting on his own authority and sometimes contrary to the secretary of war's orders. Jackson ordered the likely approaches to the city guarded, and to defend it he assembled a large amount of artillery and a cosmopolitan force that included sailors, a few marines, several regular regiments, Tennessee and Kentucky militia and volunteers, the Louisiana militia, two brigades of New Orleans free black men, some Choctaw Indians, and Jean Lafitte's 800 pirates.

Circumstances of Quasi-War with France

When France and England went to war in 1793, the American political elite fractured along party lines. Federalists were pro-British, emphasizing a common heritage and the commercial connections between England and America. Republicans sided with France, stressing the 1778 treaty that bound the two nations in "perpetual friendship and alliance" and the French Revolution's antimonarchical aspect. Washington decreed, and Congress sanctioned, a neutrality policy, but perfect neutrality in an imperfect warring world was impossible. Jay's Treaty, which prevented war with England, outraged the French, who viewed it as establishing an Anglo-American alliance. In retaliation, France increased its depredations against American shipping and refused to receive a new American minister. In 1797 President John Adams sent a special commission to avert war, but France rebuffed it in the notorious "XYZ affair," in which the French foreign minister demanded a huge bribe before he would even open negotiations with the commission. The result was the Quasi-War with France.