Anatomy Exam 4 (Ch. 24, 25, 26)
How many ATP molecules are produced in the process of glycolysis from one glucose molecule?
2 ATP
How much ATP is produced in the full process of aerobic respiration from one glucose molecule?
32 ATP
Of the 9 L of water that enters the digestive tract each day, where is most of it absorbed?
92% is absorbed in the small intestine
What are the four major cell types of the muscosa of the duodenum and what is the role of each type?
ABSORPTIVE cells- have microvilli, produce digestive enzymes and absorb digested food; GOBLET cells- produce a protective mucus; GRANULAR cells- help protect the intestinal epithelium from bacteria; ENDOCRINE cells- produce regulatory hormones
What is the role of the intrinsic muscles of the tongue?
Changing the shape of the tongue during drinking and swallowing
What three pressures make up the filtration pressure? Caused by?
GLOMELULAR CAPILLARY PRESSURE- bp and pushing things out; CAPSULAR HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE- pressure of fluid in the capsule; BLOOD COLLOID OSMOTIC PRESSURE- pressure of all solutes in the blood
Why are LDLs considered bad and HDLs considered good?
LDLs are bad because too many will build up and cause atherosclerosis; HDLs are good because they remove excess cholesterol and add it to the bile
What are the two mechanisms of autoregulation? How does each work?
MYOGENIC mechanism is to stretch- causes afferent arteriole to constrict; TUBULOGLOMERULAR FEEDBACK will signal afferent arterioles to constrict
· What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?
Mechanical digestion is the mastication and mixing of food; chemical digestion is accomplished by digestive enzymes secreted along the digestive tract
What is the difference between peristaltic waves and segmental contractions?
Peristaltic waves are muscular contractions with a relaxation wave; segmental contractions mix food with digestive secretions in the small intestine
What are the four ways our bodies exchange heat with the environment and what happens in each case?
RADIATION- body loses heat off the skin; CONDUCTION- heat changes and we give off heat to objects around us; CONVECTION- lose heat in the air; EVAPORATION- lose heat when we sweat
What are the three phases of swallowing?
Voluntary, pharyngeal, and esophageal
Approximately how many nephrons are in each kidney?
about 1.3 million
How much energy use is due to BMR?
about 60%
What triggers the micturition reflex?
activated when the bladder is stretched; signals brain to empty bladder; STRETCH triggers it
Where is the vasa recta found?
around the long juxtamedullary nephrons, close to medulla
Where are the peritubular capillaries found?
around the tubule system, Loop of Henle
Which limb of the Loop of Henle requires active transport of solutes out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid?
ascending limb requires active transport of solutes
What are the four parts of the colon?
ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid
What are the six major functions of hepatocytes?
bile production, store nutrients, process nutrients, detoxify, synthesize molecules
What muscle forms the cheeks?
buccinator muscle
What are the six major classes of nutrients?
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
What is the difference between catabolism and anabolism?
catabolism are energy releasing reactions; anabolism are energy requiring reactions
What is the result of activation of angiotensin II?
causes vaso-constriction; raises BP
Why is cholesterol an important nutrient?
cell membranes, part of bile, make steroid hormones
How do muscles and the liver store excess glucose?
change it to glycogen and store it in the liver and cells of some muscle cells
What is the mastication reflex?
chewing reflex
What two ducts empty their contents into the duodenum at the hepatopancreatic ampulla?
common bile duct and pancreatic duct
What is the difference between a complete and an incomplete protein and what kinds of foods are considered to be complete protein foods?
complete protein will have all 9 essential amino acids (meat, fish, poultry, milk, cheese, eggs, soy); incomplete protein (peas and beans)
What is the role of the vasa recta?
concentrate the urine and take up water into bloodstream
When urine arrives at the bend of the Loop of Henle is it concentrated or dilute?
concentrated at the bend
What is the role of the lesser omentum?
connects the stomach and holds it in place to the small intestine
What is the role of the ileocecal sphincter?
control material moving out of the small intestine and into the large intestine
What two ducts unite to form the common bile duct?
cystic duct (out of gallbladder) and common hepatic duct (out of liver)
Which limb of the Loop of Henle is permeable to water?
descending limb is permeable to water
Where does urea diffuse into the nephron? Where does it diffuse back out again?
diffuses out of collecting duct and diffuses into the descending limb into the urine stream
What is the role of pancreatic lipase?
digests lipids into fatty acids
When urine arrives at the DCT is it concentrated or dilute?
dilute at the top because solutes have come out
What is basal metabolic rate and how is it measured?
energy need to keep your resting body functional; measured as kilocalories used per square meter of body surface per hour
What is the role of pepsin?
enzyme that digests protein
During the pharyngeal phase of swallowing, what occurs to prevent food from passing into the larynx?
epiglottis will rise up and cover the larynx and trachea and the food gets pushed to the esophagus
What is a frequent cause of gallstones?
excess cholesterol- forms gallstones
What are the six functions of the kidneys?
excretion, regulating blood pressure, regulating blood concentration, regulating pH of extracellular fluid, regulating blood cell synthesis, regulating vitamin D synthesis
What is the difference between fat soluble and water soluble vitamins and what are examples of each?
fat soluble vitamin (E and K) desolves in fat and can be absorbed and stored in body; water soluble vitamin will absorb the water it needs and the rest is eliminated (B and C)
How do fenestrae and filtration slits help with filtration in the renal corpuscle?
fenestrae are the holes in the walls of the capillaries in the glomerulus that allow water and molecules out of the blood; filtration slits are openings in the walls of the capsule that wraps around the glomerulus and allow water and materials to allow them to move into Bowman's Capsule
What are the three major steps in urine production?
filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion
What are essential nutrients?
have to get from diet
What is the results of aldosterone release?
head to DCT and collecting duct and cause these two structures to take up sodium
What is the role of the pyloric sphincter?
helps regulate the movement of gastric contents into the small intestine
What three structures make up a portal triad at each corner of a hepatic lobule?
hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic duct
What triggers ADH secretion?
increased plasma volume, changes in blood pressure
What is periodontal disease?
inflammation and degradation of the periodontal ligaments, gingiva, and alveolar bone
What is gingivitis?
inflammation of the gingiva
Why are complex carbohydrates recommended in the diet?
it takes a while to digest them, so it is a slow release into the blood; it balances the glucose levels in the blood
What are the two cell types that make up the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
juxtaglomerular cells (around afferent arterioles) and maculadensa cell
What is the difference between juxtamedullary nephrons and cortical nephrons?
juxtamedullary nephrons have long Loops of Henle; cortical nephrons have their corpuscles near the cortex, short Loops of Henle, and peritubular capillaries
What are the functions of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
kills bacteria that has been ingested with food and drink; activate pepsinogen and turn it into pepsin
What is the role of the greater omentum?
larger mesentery; connects to the transverse colon (large intestine)
What is the trigger for the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system?
low blood pressure and low sodium
How is the daily requirement for major minerals different from the daily requirement for trace minerals?
major minerals are minerals that you need more of (100mg per day); trace minerals are less that 100mg per day
What type of carbohydrates are absorbed into the blood?
monosaccharides- single sugars
What happens when ADH is not present or in low concentration?
more dilute
What are the four major tunics of the digestive tract?
mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa/adventia
What is the role of bicarbonate ions in the pancreatic juice?
neutralize acid to protect small intestine
What muscle forms the lips?
orbicularis oris muscle
What are the three major salivary glands?
parotid, submandibular, and sublingual
What is gluconeogenesis and where does it occur?
process the body uses to make glucose out of noncarbohydrate molecules; occurs in liver
What is the role of the extrinsic muscles of the tongue?
protrude and retract the tongue, move it side to side, and changes the shape of the tongue
In what part of the nephron does most reabsorption of water and solutes occur?
proximal convoluted tubule is where most reabsorption occurs
What is the result of ADH secretion?
reabsorbing water from distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts
Know the order of the arteries of the kidney: renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, interlobular arteries, afferent arterioles, glomeruli
renal artery, segmental arteries, interlobar arteries, arcuate arteries, interlobular arteries, afferent aterioles, glomeruli
What are the four segments of the nephron?
renal corpuscle, proximal convoluted tubule, Loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule
What structures pass through the hilum of the kidney?
renal vein, renal artery, renal pelvis of ureter, lymphatic vessels
What are the two major hormonal mechanisms responsible for regulating urine concentration and volume?
renin angiotensin aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone
What kinds of stimuli control the cephalic phase of stomach secretion?
secretion of acid and pepsinogen; thought of food or smell of food or sight of food (senses)
What is the medullary concentration gradient?
start of dilute at the top and it gets more and more concentrated
What is the role of the gallbladder?
storage for bile
What are the three types of enteric neurons?
submucoasl plexus, myenterix plexus, enteric nervous system plexus
What is glomerular filtration rate and how is it calculated?
the amount of filtrate that your kidneys make per minute; calculated by renal plasma flow x amount of blood that is filtered
How are catabolic reactions coupled to anabolic reactions through ATP?
the energy from catabolism is used to make ATP and the body breaks down energy and releases it when it is needed
What does it mean to be in nitrogen balance?
the nitrogen that you are eating in your diet is equal to the nitrogen that you are eliminating in urine and feces
What triggers the mastication reflex?
the presence of food in the mouth
What is the function of the renal pelvis?
top of ureter; portion of the ureter that receives all of the urine draining out of the kidney and drains it into the ureter
What is metabolic rate?
total energy produced and used by the body per unit time
What are the three major proteolytic enzymes in pancreatic juice?
trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats and oils?
unsaturated fats have one double bond and saturated fats are all single bonds; unsaturated fats are liquid oils at room temperature and saturated fats are solid fats at room temperature
What is the role of the detrusor muscle?
wall of bladder and stretches to store urine and contracts to force urine out
What triggers the defecation reflex?
when the walls of the rectum/anal canal are stretched; stretched because they are receiving material
