Anki Biology

In infected cells, the MHC produces proteins with which function?

"Display ""nonself"" markers on the plasma membrane"

Dyads are...

"Replicated chromosomes containing two sister chromatids that look like an ""X"""

The diastole phase of circulation is associated with the:

"closing of semilunar valves<div>""dub"" of ""lub dub""</div>"

Prokaryotic ribosomal units&nbsp;

(30S + 50S), assemble in nucleoid and form complete ribosome in cytosol (70S)

Three methods of horizontal gene transfer in bacteria:

1. conjugation- use pili to copy and transfer F plasmid<div>2. transformation - take up extracellular DNA (need to be competent)</div><div>3. transduction - virus transfer RNA between hosts&nbsp;</div>

Single allele gene cross for heterozygous x heterozygous

1/4 AA, 1/2 Aa, 1/4 aa

Single allele gene cross for homozygous x homozygous

1:1 AA or 1:1 Aa or 1:1 aa

Single allele gene cross for homozygous x heterozygous

1:2 AA or aa and 1:2 Aa

F2 generation of a monohybrid cross will have a _______ genotype ratio and a ________ phenotype ratio

1:2:1 and 3:1

Krebs cycle / TCA reaction and location&nbsp;

2 Acetyl-CoA -&gt; 4CO₂&nbsp;+ 6 NADH + 2 FADH₂&nbsp;+ 2 GTP<div>mitochondrial matrix, cytosol for prokaryotes</div><div><br></div>

Pyruvate manipulations

2 Pyruvate -&gt; 2 CO₂&nbsp;+ 2 NADH + 2 acetyl-CoA<div>Pyruvate dehydrogenase works in the mitochondrial matrix where pyruvate undergoes decarboxylation, oxidation, and addition of CoA</div>

Left lung has _____ lobes and right lung has _____ lobes

2, 3

If 2n=46, how many tetrads are present during metaphase I?

23

If a cell has 46 chromosomes at the beginning of meiosis, at the end of meiosis I each cell would have...

23 chromosomes / 46 chromatids

# of chromosomes and chromatids during end of meiosis II

23, 23 (haploid gametes)

# of chromosomes and chromatids during end of meiosis I

23, 46

# of chromosomes and chromatids during prophase and metaphase II

23, 46

single nondisjunction during meiosis II causes

24, 22, 23, 23 chromosomes in haploid daughter cells

We have ___ adrenal glands. Each adrenal gland has an outer _________ and an inner __________.&nbsp;

2<div>cortex</div><div>medulla</div>

TEM gives ____ images while SEM gives _____ images

2D, 3D

DNA polymerase adds to ... ends

3'

RNA polymerase travels in the .... direction and extends in the .... direction

3'-&gt; 5' , 5' -&gt; 3'

How many layers in the uterus?

3, peri, myo, endo

Eukaroytic ribosomal units

40S + 60S, assemble in nucleoplasm and form complete ribosome in cytosol (80S)

How many chromosomes and chromatids are present during anaphase and telophase II?

46

How many chromosomes are present during anaphase I?

46 (all thru meiosis I, giving 23 chromosomes to each daughter cell)

# of chromosomes and chromatids during anaphase and telophase II

46, 46

# of chromosomes and chromatids during end of mitosis

46, 46 (diploid)

# of chromosomes and chromatids during Metaphase

46, 92

# of chromosomes and chromatids during meiosis I

46, 92

# of chromosomes and chromatids during prophase:&nbsp;

46, 92

During metaphase and prophase, how many chromosomes/chromatids are present?

46, 92

single nondisjunction during mitosis leads to...

47, 45 chromosomes in daughter cells

Three main types of post-transcriptional modification

5' 7MetG cap added during elongation to protect from degradation&nbsp;<div>3' PolyA tail</div><div>Splicing out introns</div>

# of chromosomes and chromatids during Anaphase:&nbsp;

92, 92

# of chromosomes and chromatids during Telophase

92, 92

How many chromosomes are present during anaphase?

92, each chromatid = chromosome

In a dihybrid cross, the F2 phenotype ratio should be:

9:3:3:1&nbsp;<div>DD: Dd: dD: dd</div><div>Where D = dominant trait and d = recessive trait for two different traits</div>

Vascular tissue types and function

<div>Transport materials from a source to a sink</div>Phloem, Xylem

Reptilia

<div>Turtle, snake, crocodile, alligator</div>Three chambered heart, crocs and gators have four chambers<div>lungs, mainly terrestrial, cold blooded / poikilothermic</div>

Ground tissue types and function

<div>provide structural support, makes up mass</div>Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma

What is the best radioactive isotope to mark a nucleic acid?

³²P

What is an episome?

A closed circular DNA molecule replicated inside the nucleus

Define a species

A group that can interbreed, have viable, fertile offspring

Define the notochord

A length of cartilage extending along the body, becoming part of the spinal discs&nbsp;<div>mesoderm</div>

What is brackish water?

A mix between salt and fresh water, as found in an estuary

Tetrads are..

A pair of two homologous chromosomes each with two sister chromatids

Primary succession begins with:

A pioneer species, such as lichen, fungi, or algae

What do frog embryos lack, that is present in most animals embryos?

A primitive streak

From a fragment of DNA, what would have the least amount of nucleotides?

A single strand cDNA from the original DNA

Define biotic potential

A species' ability to undergo its highest population growth when conditions are ideal

Describe allelopathy

A type of interference competition, where the establishment of other individuals that would compete for the same resource is prevented

Universal acceptor

AB+

What hormone does the posterior pituitary release and what does it do?

ADH / vasopressin, allows kidneys to reabsorb more water by inserting aquaporins

High energy myosin head that forms a cross bridge with myosin has:&nbsp;

ADP + Pi

What causes myosin head detachment from the actin filament?

ATP

Primary active transport uses..

ATP hydrolysis

Start codon

AUG

The nonliving elements of an ecosystem (temperature, water, light) are termed:

Abiotic factors

What is the function of lacteals?

Absorb fats in the small intestine

What are characteristics of R-selected species?

Abundant, small offspring that mature quickly<div>no parental investment, many do not survive</div><div>Type III survivorship curve</div>

Excitatory NT of neuromuscular junction in vertebrates<div><br><div>Pre-synaptic NT of sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems</div></div><div><br></div><div>Post-synaptic NT of parasympathetic nervous system</div>

Acetylcholine

NT that stimulates muscle contraction:

Acetylcholine

Somatic nervous system is most related to which neurotransmitter?

Acetylcholine

Parenchyma:

Act as filler tissue, make up bulk of the plant, have thin cell walls

What are fixed action patterns?

Actions caused a specific releaser or sign stimulus, leads to predictable behaviors

Blood enters the glomerulus from the ________, making said tissue act as a sieve

Afferent arteriole

Diastole occurs..

After atria contract to fill ventricles&nbsp;<div>myocardium is relaxed at this point</div><div>blood pressure is lowest in arteries</div>

Systole occurs...

After ventricles eject their blood into arteries, highest blood pressure in arteries

Define an ecosystem

All the organisms in an ecological community, and the abiotic factors interacting within it

In mammals, what aids the embryo in storage of liquid waste?

Allantois

What develops into the umbilical cord in mammals and forms the urinary bladder in adults?

Allantois

What is the sac that buds off the archenteron, storing waste for disposal?

Allantois

What structure stores uric acid in egg-laying animals, later fusing with the chorion?

Allantois

Describe the law of segregation

Alleles for each gene segregate into separate gametes during meiosis, occurs during Anaphase I

Gap junctions

Allow passage of ions and small molecules between cells

What does ADH do?

Allows nephron connecting duct to become more water permeable, and reabsorbs from the filtrate. Results in a more concentrated filtrate.

What types of cells take the information from rods and cones in the eye?

Amacrine and bipolar cells

Cartilaginous joints that partially move:

Amphiarthrose

What is imprinting?

An innate way that animals learn behaviors that will never be forgotten<div>Occurs during critical imprinting stage</div>

What is an innate behavior happening without thought?

An instinct

Coenzyme

An organic factor, such as vitamins

Active immunity is when:

An organism is infected to a pathogen which causes an initiation of the immune system

What structures have the same function, but do not have a common ancestor?

Analogous structures<div>also known as convergent evolution</div>

During which step can nondisjuction occur in mitosis?

Anaphase

Define divergent evolution:

Animals diverge from a common ancestor

Define parallel evolution

Animals diverge from a common ancestor, but undergo similar changes

What are amniotes?

Animals with an amnion, like reptiles, birds, and mammals

What are anamniotes?

Animals without an amnion, such as amphibians and fish

What phylums use nephridia in their excretory system?

Annelida and Mollusca

What phylums are coelomates?&nbsp;

Annelids, Mollusks, Arthropods, Echinoderms, Chordates

In deuterostomes, the first opening/blastopore that forms gives rise to the:&nbsp;

Anus

A pluripotent cell can differentiate into...

Any of the three germ layers

6 kingdoms:

Archaea, Eubacteria, Protista, Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

The blastopore will eventually form the ______, which becomes the ________

Archenteron, digestive tract&nbsp;

What is the disphotic zone?

Area semi-irradiated with sun, where bioluminescent species can produce light

Where does cleavage of the fertilized egg occur?

As it travels from the oviduct to the uterus

Learning that two things are connected to each other is called:

Associative learning<div>This increases the stimulus response efficiency</div>

Dub sound

Atria are contracting, ventricles are relaxing<div>noise comes from semilunars snapping shut</div>

Intramolecular forces

Attractive forces that hold atoms within a molecule

Lymphocytes

B and T cells, part of adaptive immunity

Low density lipoprotein (LDL)

Bad cholesterol, low protein density, and delivers cholesterol to peripheral tissue

Placental mammals

Bat, whale, mouse, human<div>four chambered heart, lungs, homeotherms, placenta supports fetus</div>

Diastole occurs&nbsp;

Between dub and lub

Carrier protein

Binds to molecule on one side and changes shape to bring it to the other side

How can we see the spread of different species around the world?

Biogeography

What is the term to describe all ecosystems on Earth, and their interactions with each other?

Biosphere

At the uterus, at what stage is the fertilized egg?

Blastocyst

In the chick embryo, what is analagous to the inner cell mass in mammals?

Blastodisc

Smaller cells resulting from cleavage are called:

Blastomeres

Protostome

Blastopore forms mouth

A hollow cavity with ~128 cells is called a :

Blastula

A hollow sphere of cells is called a:&nbsp;

Blastula

What can cause genetic drift? (2 examples)

Bottleneck- where some alleles may be lost due to a disaster<div>Founder effect - some individuals migrate away</div>

spongy mesophyll cells

Bottom of leaf, spaces for gas movement<div>some chloroplasts</div>

Catabolic process involve

Breaking down larger molecules for energy

What method of reproduction do hydra and yeast use?

Budding

MHC II presentation to T cells will cause....

CD4 T cell differentiation, release cytokines to boost innate and adaptive immunity

Mean arterial pressure is found by..

CO x TPR&nbsp;

Stomata are open when...

CO₂&nbsp;concentration is low (allows for photosynthesis)

Small channels connecting lacunae and the haversian canal are:

Canaliculi

What type of bone is red bone marrow found in?

Cancellous / spongy bone

Deregulation of apoptosis may lead to:

Cancerous growth

What type of hormone is epinephrine, and where is it released from?

Catecholamine, adrenal medulla

Auxins

Cause cell growth, working with cytokinins<div>responsible for plant tropisms, like light, gravity, and contact</div><div>high concentration on one side can lead to asymmetric growth</div>

What would disrupting the AV node do?

Cause simulataneous contraction of atria and ventricles

Platelets / thrombocytes

Cell fragments with no nucleus, responsible for blood clotting<div>release factors that convert fibrinogen to fibrin</div>

What occurs during Gap phase 1?

Cell growth, checkpoint before S phase<div>if conditions are unfavorable, will enter G0</div>

What's the difference between central and peripheral chemoreceptors?

Central only sense CO₂&nbsp;while peripheral also sense oxygen and protons

The forebrain gives rise to the telencephalon and diencephalon which then give rise to.... (1,3)

Cerebrum<div>thalamus, hypothalamus, pineal gland</div>

What connects the uterus to the vagina?

Cervix

What connects a chick yolk to the ends of the shell, allowing nutrient distribution to the entire embryo?

Chalaza

Gap phase 2

Checking DNA for error after replication<div>checks for Mitosis Promoting Factor</div><div>Replication of organelles</div>

What type of cells secrete gastric lipase to break down fats?

Chief cells

The cell walls of fungi contain...

Chitin, beta glucose molecules with nitrogen-containing groups attached to the ring

What component of the chloroplast absorbs light?

Chlorophyll molecules in the thylakoid membrane

Build cartilage by secreting collagen and elastin:

Chondroblasts

In egg laying-animals, which extra-embryonic membrane allows gas exchange?

Chorion

Which two structures form the placenta?

Chorion and endometrium

Prophase of mitosis description

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes&nbsp;<div>Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear</div>

Prophase I of meiosis

Chromatin condenses into chromosomes<div>crossing over between homologous chromosomes (synapsis to form tetrads)</div><div><br></div>

Telophase of mitosis description

Chromosomes have segregated, nuclear membranes reform<div>Chromosomes decondense into chromatin</div>

Metaphase II

Chromosomes line up single file just like mitosis

Where is the CO₂&nbsp;mammals exhale produced?

Citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix

Describe the chloride shift

Cl^-&nbsp;offsetting positive charge of protons after HCO₃^-&nbsp;leaves erythrocytes

Mollusca

Clam, snail, slug, octopus<div>Bilateral, triploblasts, open circulatory system with hemocoel, gills,</div><div>one-way digestion, nephridia, protostome</div><div>radula (tongues with teeth - unique)</div>

Rapid cell division without changing the total mass of cells is :

Cleavage

Cytokinesis in mammals

Cleavage furrow develops from microfilaments encircling the center of the cell and shortening

What does the epiglottis do?

Close the trachea when swallowing food, make the food go down the esophagus.

Vertebrate circulation

Closed<div>2 chamber hearts, all deoxy, seen in fish</div><div>3 chambers (2A 1V) - reptiles except gators and crocs</div><div>4 chambers (2A 2V) - birds and humans</div>

What is the euphotic zone?

Closest to the surface, allows for plant survival and photosynthesis

Seedless tracheophytes

Club moss, quillworts, fern<div>heterosporous with flagellated sperm</div>

What features are characteristic of the taiga?

Cold winters and warm, rainy summers<div>coniferous trees, bears</div><div>largest terrestrial biome</div>

What features are characteristic of the tundra?

Cold with little precipitation, permafrost

Describe the tundra

Cold, very little precipitation

Filtrate path after nephrons:

Collecting duct -&gt; renal pelvis -&gt; ureter -&gt; bladder -&gt; urethra

S wave

Completion of ventricular depolarization

Cell matrix junctions function and types:

Connect ECM - cytoskeleton<div>Focal adhesions and hemidesmosomes</div>

How do marine fish maintain homeostasis?

Constantly drink water<div>They are hypoosmotic to their environment, since the sea is salty.</div>

How do freshwater fish maintain homeostasis?

Constantly urinate, they are hyperosmotic / more salty than their environment

What is the function of the epiblast?

Contributes to the main embryo. Cells will thicken to form a primitive streak which defines axes and is crucial for gastrulation to begin

Define homoplasy

Convergent evolution, unrelated species adapt to similar environments, becoming more alike

Denitrifying bacteria will..

Convert nitrates back to atmospheric nitrogen

Describe the temperate grasslands

Cool winters, hot summers, seasonal rain

The stratum corneum contains:

Corneocytes / dead keratinocytes, forming the outer, protective layer

Layers of epidermis from superficial to deep and mnemonic:

Corneum, Lucidum, Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale<div>Come Let's Get Some Beers</div>

What nourishes the developing egg?

Corona radiata

Each of our two kidneys consist of 3 parts, what are they and what are their functions?

Cortex (outer portion where blood enters)<div>medulla (middle)</div><div>pelvis (inner portion where filtrate exits)</div>

Compact bone is also known as&nbsp;

Cortical bone

Who proposed the evolutionary theory of catastrophism?

Cuvier

Cytoplasm

Cytosol + organelles

3 Parts of small intestine:&nbsp;

D &gt; J &gt; I<div>Duodenum (digestion), Jejunum, and ileum (absorption)</div>

The meninges protect the CNS and have three layers:&nbsp;

DAP from outer to inner:<div>Dura -&gt; arachnoid -&gt; pia</div>

Epigenetic changes examples and effects:

DNA methylation- gene suppression<div>Histone acetylation - gene activation and formation of euchromatin</div><div>Histone de-acetylation - gene suppression, formation of heterochromatin</div>

Which technique allows identification of gene expression?

DNA microarray

Factors that contribute to DNA mutations

DNA pol errors<div>Loss of DNA during meiosis crossing over</div><div>chemical damage</div><div>radiation</div>

What occurs during embryonic cleavage from zygote to morula?&nbsp;

Decrease in the blastomere size&nbsp;

What is the function of siRNA?

Degrade target RNA or block its translation&nbsp;

What are the requirements for natural selection to occur?

Demand exceeds supply, leading to competition<div>Difference in levels of fitness due to variation in traits</div><div>Variation in traits must be genetically-influenced to be passed on</div><div>Variation in traits must be significant for survival</div>

What organs are made from the mesoderm?

Dermis, muscle, skeleton, circulatory system, gonads, kidneys, respiratory tracts, notochord, spleen, adrenal cortex

What is ELISA used for?

Determine if a specific antigen exists

What consumes detritus, exposing more organic material for decomposers?

Detritivores, like worms and slugs

What do saprophytes, like fungi and some bacteria, form?

Detritus

What controls respiratory rate?

Diaphragm which is controlled by medulla oblongata

Synovial joints that fully move, typically containing hyaline cartilage:

Diarthroses

What type of natural selection favors one extreme?

Directional selection

What type of natural selection favors rare traits, forming a bimodal curve?

Disruptive selection

Cytokinesis

Division of the cytoplasm and cell membrane

Karyokinesis

Division of the nucleus

What is the order of classification levels?

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species&nbsp;<div>( Dear King Phillip Came Over From Great Spain)</div>

What develops into the spinal cord in chordates?

Dorsal hollow nerve cord

Where does gastrulation begin in a frog embryo?

Dorsal lip of blastopore, which forms at the site of the gray crescent

If no implantation occurs during the menstrual cycle, what will happen hormone levels, and the corpus luteum and endometrium?

Drop, corpus luteum not maintained, and the endometrium sloughs off causing menstruation

Focal adhesions

ECM connects via integrins to actin microfilaments inside the cell

Hemidesmosomes

ECM connects via integrins to intermediate filaments inside cell

Annelida

Earthworm, leech<div>bilateral, triploblasts, closed circulatory system,</div><div>most have metanephridia</div><div>protostome, segmented bodies, sexual and asexual</div>

What is the function of Kupffer cells?

Eat bacteria and break down hemoglobin (red) to bilirubin (yellow) for secretion in the bile

Sudoriferous glands consist of&nbsp;

Eccrine glands and apocrine glands

What are the factors influencing development?

Embryonic induction, homeotic genes, egg cytoplasm determinant, apoptosis

What does the amnion do and where is it?

Encloses the amniotic cavity, cushions embryo; innermost layer

When is intrapleural pressure of the lungs highest?

End of exhalation&nbsp;

When does intrapulmonary pressure reach zero?

End of inhalation

When is intrapleural pressure of the lungs most negative?

End of inhalation

Epiblast cells will invaginate inwards during gastrulation through the primitive streak to give these three germ layers:

Endoderm, mesoderm, ectoderm

membrane located between cortical and cancellous bone

Endosteum

Glycogen

Energy storage for humans and is an alpha bonded polysaccharide, more branched than starch

Starch

Energy storage for plants and is an alpha bonded polysaccharide. Linear starch = amylose, branched = amylopectin

Villi are made of:

Enterocytes

What converts trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen to their active forms in the duodenum?

Enteropeptidase

Functional residual capacity

Entire volume of air in lungs after a normal exhalation<div>expiratory reserve volume + residual volume</div>

What type of cell produces cerebrospinal fluid?

Ependymal cells

The most superficial layer of the skin, containing keratinocytes and no blood vessels:

Epidermis

Plant Dermal tissue types:

Epidermis, root hairs

Growth plate located between epiphysis and metaphysis:

Epiphyseal plate, made out of hyaline cartilage, works to lengthen diaphysis through ossification

The gas that increases fruit ripening is:

Ethylene

Eubacteria and archaea differences

Eubacteria have peptidoglycan, lipids bound via ester linkage while archaea have ether linkage<div>unique ribosomes</div><div>Archaea contain introns and histones</div>

Epinephrine and norepinephrine function and location:

Excitatory postsynaptic NT of sympathetic nervous system

The trophoblast, or outer ring of cells is resonsible for:

Extraembryonic membranes (amnion, yolk sac, chorion, allantois), supports embryo<div>Implants embryo in uterus</div><div>Produces HCG, which maintains the corpus luteum and endometrium</div>

What features are characteristic of the deserts?

Extreme temperature fluctuations between night and day, cacti, nocturnal animals

In the luteal phase of menstruation, the follicle develops into the corpus luteum, which is maintain by what hormones?

FSH and LH

Passive diffusion

Facilitated transport down concentration gradient without energy use

What triggers cholecystokinin, where is it made, and what does it do?

Fats/proteins ; small intestine ; stimulates gallbladder to release bile

Flower pistil

Female sex organ, composed of stigma (top), style (tube to ovary) and ovary (contains ovule or egg)

High rigidity and resists tension, found in intervertebral discs and knee meniscus:

Fibrous cartilage

What are the functions of the cerebellum?

Fine tuning motor inputs, balance, coordination

Cotyledons

First leaves to appear on seedling, contain nutrients from seed&nbsp;

Gymnosperms:

First seeded plants, seed not protected, conifers<div>sperm is non-flagellated and dispersed by wind</div>

Simple diffusion

Flow of small, uncharged, nonpolar substances across the membrane down their concentration gradient

Follicular phase of the menstrual cycle is stimulated by GnRH from the hypothalamus, as well as LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary. What do these hormones cause?

Follicles to develop, estrogen release, endometrium thickining, rapid LH spike and then ovulation

Intermolecular forces

Forces that exist between molecules and affect physical properties of a substance

Tight junctions

Form water-tight seals between cells to ensure substances pass through cells and not between them

What are ichnofossils?

Fossils of animal traces

Contractile vacuoles

Found in single-celled organisms and works to actively pump out excess water

Birds

Four chambered heart, lungs, homeotherms

Which area of the eye has the most photoreceptors and is responsible for high acuity vision?

Fovea

3' end of DNA contains a&nbsp;

Free OH

Secondary active transport uses...

Free energy released when other molecules flow down their concentration gradient

Amphibia

Frog, toad<div>Three chambered heart, gills then lungs, no scales</div><div>undergo metamorphosis</div><div>tadpoles are aquatic while adults are terrestrial</div>

Exception to holoblastic cleavage: This animal has lots of yolk but undergoes uneven cleavage:

Frogs

What feature is unique to fungi?

Fungi cell walls are made of glucans and chitin

<div>Protist types and details</div>

Fungus-like: BUT no chitin cell wall, move via cilia or flagella, saprophytic<div>Plant-like: very important primary producers, (dinoflagellates, diatoms, euglenoids), photoautotrophic</div><div>Dinoflagellates are responsible for red tide which depletes water of oxygen</div><div>Animal-like/ protozoa: have food vacuoles and are heterotrophic</div>

Food entry to the stomatch causes _____ cells to release ______, a hormone with these 2 functions:

G, gastrin<div>Stimulate parietal and chief cells</div>

Cell specific checkpoints at:

G0, end of G2, and M (during metaphase)

Inhibitory NT in the brain

GABA

Lactose

Galactose + glucose&nbsp;

Dominant generation in bryophytes:

Gametophyte

The formation of a trilaminar embryo is called:

Gastrulation

When allele frequencies change by chance, what is occurring?

Genetic drift

What are the factors affecting microevolution?

Genetic drift, non-random mating, mutations, natural selection, and gene flow

Fish respiratory system

Gills with a large surface area and use countercurrent exchange (fluids move in opposite directions)<div>creates a diffusion gradient, allowing more oxygen to enter blood</div><div>Water then leaves through operculum</div>

Sucrose

Glucose + fructose&nbsp;

Maltose&nbsp;

Glucose + glucose&nbsp;

Glycolysis reaction and location

Glucose -&gt; 2 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 pyruvate<div>cytosol, no O2 needed</div><div>uses substrate-level phosphorylation</div><div><br></div>

Main excitatory NT of CNS

Glutamate

Liver functions related to glucose:&nbsp;

Glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis

Aerobic cellular respiration has these catabolic processes..

Glycolysis<div>pyruvate manipulations</div><div>Krebs cycle</div><div>Oxidative phosphorylation</div>

Two monosaccharides are joined by a:

Glycosidic bond, dehydration/condensation reaction

What cell secretes mucus to protect the epithelial lining from chyme?

Goblet cells

High density lipoprotein (HDL)

Good cholesterol, takes cholesterol away from peripheral tissue and to liver

During ovulation, the egg is released from the ________

Graafian follicle

Evolution is best defined as:

Gradual development and change of heritable traits / allele frequencies in populations over successive generations

Where are teichoic acids found and what do they do?

Gram-positive bacteria, keep the cell wall rigid

Eosinophils act by releasing ...

Granules

Secondary succession begins with:

Grasses and shrubs

Plant tissue types:

Ground, Vascular, Dermal

Area where only myosin is present

H zone

What are the prezygotic isolation factors?

Habitat isolation, temporal isolation, behavioral isolation, mechanical isolation, gamete isolation

Tubes that contain blood vessels for nutrient suppy in bones:

Haversian canals

Carboxyhemoglobin

HbCO, CO outcompetes oxygen for binding

carbaminohemoglobin

HbCO₂, transports carbon dioxide, most is dissolved as bicarbonate anion

What are the functions of the medulla oblongata?

Heart and breathing rate, blood pressure, toxin sensing

Haldane effect

Hemoglobin has increase carbon dioxide affinity when oxygen is low

What were the first living cells?

Heterotrophic prokaryotes

Describe the savanna

High temperatures, low amount of seasonal rainfall

What are the functions and lobes of the cerebral cortex?

Higher level thinking ; frontal, temporal, occipital, parietal

Mast cells release ______ which ______ blood vessels

Histamine, dilates

Cleavage that is throughout the entire embryo and evenly divides it is called:&nbsp;<div>It is characteristic of animals with _______ yolk</div>

Holoblastic<div>Little (human, sea urchin)</div>

What is known as the master controller, turning different genes on or off?

Homeotic genes

Describe the law of independent assortment

Homologous chromosomes separate independently from one another during Metaphase I<div>can produce 2²³&nbsp;options</div>

What structures may or may not have the same function but have a common ancestor?

Homologous structures

Specificity constant measures

How efficient an enzyme is at binding to the substrate and converting it to product

Slightly flexible and important in providing support and stability to joints:

Hyaline cartilage

What are the postzygotic isolation factors?&nbsp;

Hybrid mortality, hybrid sterility, hybrid F2 breakdown

Secondary structure in proteins is due to&nbsp;

Hydrogen bonding between polypeptide backbone

Lysosomes functions

Hydrolyze substances, acidic digestive enzymes, autophagy, apoptosis

Inorganic mineral found in bone, giving it strength:

Hydroxyapatite

Over-secretion of T3 and T4 is known as:

Hyperthyroidism

The inner cell mass will form the embryo. It differentiates into what layers during what stage?

Hypoblast and epiblast during bilaminar stage

What part of the brain monitor's the body's temperature?

Hypothalamus

ADH/vasopressin is produced in the ______ and stored in the ______

Hypothalamus, posterior pituitary

Under-secretion of T3 and T4 is known as:

Hypothyroidism

Area where only actin is present

I band

Which photosystems are used in photosynthesis?

II (P₆₈₀) and I (P₇₀₀)

What is the most abundant antibody transferred through breastfeeding?

IgA

These types of mutations can shift the reading frame...

Insertions and deletions

Where does water undergo photolysis?

Inside of the thylakoid

What kind of proteins are aquaporins and how do they work?

Integral membrane proteins, use facilitated diffusion to move water down its' concentration gradient.

Facilitated transport

Integral proteins allow larger molecules to enter the cell

Tertiary structure in proteins is due to

Interactions between R-groups

Cell cycle spends most time in...

Interphase: G1, S, G0, G2

Direct creation of bone is called:

Intramembranous ossification

How does cAMP affect the lac operon?

It binds to catabolite activator protein, which then binds near the lac operon promoter and attracts RNA pol

How does trp affect the trp operon?

It binds to trp repressor, which attaches to the operator and prevents trp production<div>when trp is not present, the operon will be transcribed&nbsp;</div>

Where is the chorion and what does it do in placental mammals?

It is the outermost layer, it forms fetal half of the placenta, allowing for exchange of gases, nutrients and waste

What is the evolutionary order of fish?

Jawless -&gt; Cartilaginous -&gt; Lobe-finned

Cnidaria

Jellyfish, coral<div>radial, diploblasts, eumetazoa, diffusion, nerve net, gastrovascular cavity (one opening)&nbsp;</div><div>some have nematocysts (cells shooting poison),&nbsp;</div><div>can switch from polyp (immotile, asexual) to medusa (motile, sexual)</div>

What cells can detect changes in blood pressure and sodium levels and what do they do when levels are low?

Juxtaglomerular cells release renin

Marsupials

Kangaroo, opossum<div>four chambered heart, lungs, homeotherms, feed young with milk</div>

Anaphase of mitosis description

Kinetochore microtubules shorten to pull sister chromatids apart<div>Sister chromatids are considered separate chromosomes, chromosome number doubles</div>

Competitive inhibition

Km increases while Vmax stays the same&nbsp;

Noncompetitive inhibition

Km stays the same while Vmax decreases&nbsp;

Surge in ____ causes ovulation, which also results in this:

LH, corpus luteum

Small spaces between lamellae that hold bone cells and interconnect through canaliculi are:

Lacunae

Where do osteocytes live?

Lacunae in osteons to maintain bone

Layers of the osteon are:

Lamella

Types of chordates

Lancelets, tunicates, jawless fish, cartilaginous fish, bony fish, amphibia, monotremes, marsupials, placental mammals, reptiles, birds

Cell division occurs when the S/V or G/V is too...

Large

What are the Hardy Weinberg assumptions?

Large, Random, no MNM<div>Large pop. , random mating, no mutations, natural selection, or migration / gene flow</div>

When does cytokinesis begin in animal cells?

Late anaphase with a cleavage furrow

Three phases of a twitch:

Latent (signal spreads), contraction (cross bridge formation), relaxation (Ca back to sarcoplasmic reticulum

Secondary growth is horizontal growth occurring at..

Lateral meristems, only occurs in woody plants

What is operant conditioning?

Learning to associate a behavior with a reward or a punishment

Describe the law of parsimony

Less assumptions is most preferred, simplest explanation is probably the most accurate

LH will stimulate ________ to produce testosterone

Leydig cells

Testosterone is produced by:

Leydig cells

Connect bone to bone:

Ligaments

Which enzyme connects Okazaki fragments together in prokaryotes?

Ligase

What organs are made from the endoderm?

Lining of digestive and layer of respiratory tracts, PLTT<div>Pancreas, Liver, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus</div>

Fats are digested by...

Lipases through lipolysis, then absorbed by enterocytes in the small intestine&nbsp;

What are characteristics of K-selected species?

Long gestation<div>Few, large offspring taking a long time to mature</div><div>significant parental investment</div><div>high survival</div><div>Type I survivorship curve</div>

What kind of ganglionic nerves are in the PNS?

Long preganglionic nerves and short postganglionic nerves<div>ganglia close to effector organs</div>

Types of bones in endoskeleton

Long, short, flat, sesamoid

What is macroevolution?

Long-term evolution, occurs at a level at or higher than species

Partial cleavage, where the embryo is not evenly divided occurs in animals with:<div>This type of cleavage exhibits an animal pole and a vegetal pole</div>

Lots of yolk, like birds, fish, and reptiles<div>Meroblastic (animal -&gt; active cleavage)</div>

Overall characteristics of frog embryo:

Lots of yolk, uneven holoblastic cleavage with animal (dark) and vegetal (light) poles

What will shift a hemoglobin curve to the RIGHT?

Low pH / high [H⁺], high temperature, high CO₂, 2,3-BPG<div><b>CADET</b>, face Right!</div><div><b>C</b>O₂, <b>A</b>cid, 2,3-<b>D</b>PG, <b>E</b>xercise and <b>T</b>emperature</div><div>increase in CADET -&gt; right shift</div>

What prevents reflux from the stomach back into the esophagus?

Lower esphagel sphincter / cardiac sphincter

What does low breathing to do blood pH?

Lowers it / more acidic, increases CO₂&nbsp;buildup.

A surge of which hormone causes ovulation in females?

Luteinizing hormone

What hormone stimulates ovulation, corpus luteum formation?

Luteinizing hormone

Myosin filaments branch from the _________ to the end of the sarcomere

M line

Organ transplants with a different ______ may lead to failure and rejection

MHC I

autoimmune diseases occur when the immune system attacks self _____

MHC I

Antigen-presentin cell types

Macrophages / monocytes / dendritic cells

What is the order of sperm movement?

Made in <b>s</b>eminiferous tubules, then moved to <b>e</b>pididymis to mature, then go through <b>v</b>as deferens to <b>e</b>jaculatory ducts, then through <b>u</b>rethra and <b>p</b>enis<div><br><div><b>SEVEN UP</b></div></div>

Golgi apparatus

Made up of cisternae that modify and package substances<div>Vesicles come from ER and reach cis face, leave from trans face</div>

What do Intermediate filaments do and what are examples?&nbsp;

Mainly help with structural support<div>kertain, lamins (make up nuclear lamina)</div>

What is the definition of adaptive radiation?

Many species arise from one ancestor as they adapt differently to their environments

Iteroparity:

Mate many times in a lifetime

Classes of antibodies mnemonic

Me And Eve Don't Go<div>M A E D G&nbsp;</div>

Located in the diaphysis and contains red and yellow bone marrow:

Medullary cavity

Meiosis is separated into...

Meiosis I (homologous chromosomes separate)<div>Meiosis II (sister chromatids separate)</div>

Mitosis is very similar to _____ because ______ are separated

Meiosis II, sister chromatids

Key cells for vaccinations

Memory B cells

What germ layer is the coelom derived from?

Mesoderm

Which germ layer produces the notochord?

Mesoderm

Plant cells contain these cell junctions...

Middle lamina&nbsp;<div>Plasmodesmata</div>

What features are characteristic of the chaparral?

Mild winters with hot, dry summers<div>Scattered vegetation, common droughts and fires</div>

Which stages of mitosis and meiosis are most similar?

Mitotic metaphase and meiosis metaphase II

A ball of blastomeres, around 12-16 cells is called a:

Morula

A solid ball of cells that then develops into the blastula is the:

Morula

Pulmonary circulation

Moves deoxy blood from heart to lungs and back<div>RA -&gt; Tricuspid -&gt; RV -&gt; pulmonary SL -&gt; pulmonary artery -&gt; lung -&gt; pulmonary vein -&gt; LA</div>

Systemic circulation

Moves oxy blood<div>LA -&gt; Bicuspid -&gt; LV -&gt; aortic semilunar -&gt; aorta -&gt; body -&gt; vena cava -&gt; RA</div>

What protects the stomach lining from acid?

Mucous cells producing mucus

Muscle hierarchy

Muscle -&gt; fascicles -&gt; fibers (cells) -&gt; myofibrils -&gt; sarcomeres -&gt; myofilaments

Oligodendrocytes will:

Myelinate axons in CNS

Schwann cells will:

Myelinate axons in the PNS

Oxidative phosphorylation&nbsp;

NADH + FADH₂&nbsp;+ O₂&nbsp;-&gt; ATP + H₂O<div>Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis produce ATP</div><div>mitochondrial <b>inner membrane </b>is ETC while it is cell membrane for prokaryotes</div><div>protons pumped from matrix to intermembrane space as complexes I-IV work, forming an electrochemical gradient and making the intermembrane space very acidic</div><div><br></div>

In non-cyclic photophosphorylation, electrons are sent to a short ETC that terminates with what enzyme?

NADP⁺&nbsp;reductase

Overall pathway of air

Nasal cavity -&gt; pharynx -&gt; larynx -&gt; trachea -&gt; bronchi -&gt; bronchioles -&gt; alveoli

What phylums are pseudocoelomates?&nbsp;

Nematodes, rotifers

What is the functional unit of a kidney and what are the four processes that occur there?

Nephron<div>Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, excretion</div>

Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the third step in this process, after formation of the neural groove?

Neural fold continues to fold, forming a hollow tube, the neural tube. Some cells will roll off, forming neural crest cells (teeth, bones, etc.)

Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the second step in this process, after formation of the neural plate?

Neural plate folds onto itself, forming the neural fold/ groove

Five main types of leukocytes and mnemonic from highest to lowest

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas

What are the abundances of elements in Earth's current atmosphere?

Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%), Argon (0.9%), trace amounts of CO₂, methane, ozone

What is the aphotic zone?

No light, some fish can survive off of dead matter descending to the ocean floor

Cofactor

Non-protein molecule that helps enzymes function

Fungi types and details

Nonfilametous (yeast) - unicellular, reproduce by budding, facultative anaerobes<div>filamentous (molds) - multicellular, multinucleate (make hyphae), reproduce sexually, aerobic</div>

Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the first step in this process?

Notochord stimulates ectoderm to thicken, forming the neural plate

Universal donor

O-

Where do the light dependent reactions occur and what do they do?

Occur in thylakoid lumen<div>harness light energy to make ATP and NADPH, which is used in calvin cycle</div>

Polyandry:

One female multiple males

Pleiotropy is when...

One gene is responsible for many traits

"Who proposed the organic ""soup"" theory?&nbsp;"

Oparin and Haldane

Channel protein

Open tunnel that faces both sides of bilayer

Where does the gray crescent form in a frog embryo, and why does it form?

Opposite to the site of sperm entry<div>Mixing of animal and vegetal poles</div>

What is a lithotroph?

Organisms that use inorganic compounds as electron donors during cellular respiration (bacteria)

Eat and resorb bone, bringing calcium back into the blood:

Osteoclasts, derived from monocytes

Cortical bone's function unit:

Osteons / haversian systems with a haversian canal at their center

Immature precursor cells that mature into osteoblasts

Osteoprogenitors

Hydrostatic pressure pushes fluid...

Out of the capillaries on the arterial end into interstitial space

Epidermis of leaf

Outer layer of cells that provides protection and prevents water loss

What structure allows movement of egg from ovary to uterus?

Oviduct

Where does fertilization occur?

Oviduct

Where does the egg get swept into to await fertilization?

Oviduct

The milk let down reflex is caused by what hormone?

Oxytocin

Satellite cells are located in the ____ and function similarly to ____

PNS, astrocytes

Describe classical conditioning

Pairing a neutral stimulus to an unconditioned stimulus (which causes an unconditioned response)<div>Conditions the response to be paired with a neutral stimulus, resulting in a conditioned response</div>

Sebaceous glands can be found everywhere except:

Palms and soles of feet&nbsp;

The stratum lucidum can be found in:

Palms and soles of feet, with dead keratinocytes not yet corneocytes

Gland with exocrine and endocrine tissue:

Pancreas

2 Layers of Dermis and characteristics:

Papillary: superficial and thin, high surface area<div>Reticular: deep and thick, made of irregular connective tissue</div>

Pleura has two layers. What are they?

Parietal / outer<div>visceral / inner</div>

What type of cells secrete acidic gastric juice?&nbsp;

Parietal cells

What is the function of the hypoblast?

Partially contribute to yolk sac, remainder degenerates via apoptosis

How are amino acids joined together?

Peptide bonds/ dehydration / condensation reactions

Neutrophils

Phagocytes, over half of all leukocytes

Common point between digestive and respiratory systems:

Pharynx

Nucleotides are connected by:&nbsp;

Phosphodiester bonds from 5' C to 3' C

What are the two theories of macroevolution?

Phyletic gradualism (not likely), punctuated equilibrium (short spurts of changes, supported by fossils)

What allows bacteria to stick to a surface?

Pili

Melatonin is produced in the _____

Pineal gland

Nitrogen fixation

Plants have a symbiotic relationship with bacteria

B cells will divide into ________ or ________ through clonal expansion

Plasma cells (Antibodies) or memory B cells (activated later)

Which phyla does not have a complete digestive system?

Platyhelminthes and cnidaria

What phylum lacks a coelom, and what are examples?

Platyhelminthes, trematodes, flatworms, flukes, tapeworms

Monotremes

Platypus, anteater<div>four chambered heart, lungs, warm blooded (homeothermic)</div><div>feed young with milk, leathery eggs</div>

__________ from the bowman's capsule surround the glomerulus to form fenestrations, allowing small substances to be filtered into the bowman's capsule while larger substances remain in the blood

Podocytes

Plant fertilization

Pollen lands on stigma -&gt; tube cell elongates forming pollen tube -&gt; generative cell travels down to ovary -&gt; splits forming two sperm cells (double fertilization)<div>one sperm cell meets ovule forming the embryo for fruit</div><div>other sperm cell combines with polar nuclei forming endosperm</div>

Animal phyla:

Porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, nematoda, rotifera, annelida, mollusca, arthropoda, echinodermata, chordata<div>privileged children play nicely rapidly and maturely, arthur ensures cooperation</div>

Oxytocin is stored and released by the _____

Posterior pituitary

Megakaryocytes

Precursor to platelets

Define microevolution

Process of gene frequencies changing within a population over generations

Function of the prostate gland:

Produce alkaline secretions to counteract uterine acidity

Type 2 epithelial cells

Produce surfactant, prevents lungs from collapsing by reducing surface tension

What event terminated abiotic chemical evolution?

Production of the ozone layer, as oxygen reacted with UV

What is a bacteriophage that has inserted its genetic material into the genome of the host cell?

Prophage

Primary oocytes are arrested in ______ until puberty

Prophase I

Fibronectin

Protein that connects integrin to ECM and helps with signal transduction&nbsp;

The least desirable energy source are...

Proteins

What organism can be animal-like, fungus-like, unicellular, or multicellular?

Protists

Describe proton flow during photosynthesis

Protons flow from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma as they synthesize ATP

Describe proton flow in mitochondria

Protons flow into the matrix as ATP synthase functions

Collenchyma:

Provide extra support, have irregular cell walls

Sclerenchyma

Provide main structural support of plant, have thick cell walls

Desmosomes

Provide support against mechanical stress<div>Connects neighboring cells via intermediate filaments</div>

Open circulatory system:

Pump fluid called hemolymph into sinuses or hemocoel, includes some mollusca, arthropoda, echinodermata

DNA fingerprinting uses..

RFLPs and short tandem repeats (STRs)

ATP is an...

RNA nucleoside triphosphate

Deuterostomes undergo _______ cleavage

Radial, where the cells are aligned in a vertical axis

plant embryo consists of 4 parts:

Radicle- develops into root, protects seed<div>hypocotyl- bottom region of young shoot</div><div>plumule - top region / shoot tip</div>

What does excessive breathing to do the blood pH?

Raises it / more basic

What do mast cells do?

Recognize antigens and release histamine

What are involuntary rapid responses to a stimulus, controlled by a neural circuit?

Reflexes, with simple being faster than complex because complex are controlled by an interneuron

Parasympathetic nervous system effects:

Relax muscles, decrease heart rate, maintain homeostasis, increases gastrointestinal activity

What are the functions of the pons/brainstem?

Relay messages from cerebellum to forebrain<div>Sleep and dreaming</div>

CRH will cause&nbsp;

Release of ACTH

GnRH will cause

Release of LH and FSH

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) will cause:

Release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal gland to fight stress

Two types of chemical communication in animals:

Releaser pheromones- immediate<div>Primer pheromones - long term</div>

What allows species in a similar niche to coexist?

Resource partitioning

Microtubule organizing centers

Responsible for forming spindle apparatus, which guides chromosomes during karyokinesis

Palisade mesophyll cells

Right below upper epidermis, has many chloroplasts<div>major site of photosynthesis</div>

Cork cambium is...

Ring of meristematic tissue located outside the phloem, produces cork, the outermost protective layer

Where are nitrogen fixing bacteria located and what do they do?

Root nodules of legumes, N₂&nbsp;-&gt; ammonia + ammonium

Nematoda&nbsp;

Round worm, C.elegans<div>Bilateral, triploblasts and eumetazoa</div><div>nerve cord and ring, alimentary canal between mouth and anus</div><div>have cuticle to prevent degradation by host digestive system</div>

What is the pacemaker of the heart and where is it located?

SA node ; upper right atrium

Five signs of inflammation:

SLIPR<div>Swelling, loss of function, increased heat, pain, redness</div>

What is reciprocal altruism?

Sacrifices made for other organisms in anticipation of a future reward

Bony fish

Salmon, halibut<div>two chambered heart, gills, scales, bony skeleton</div>

What type of organism decomposes dead or decaying organic material, working with scavengers?

Saprophytes

Muscle fiber's cell membrane is the:

Sarcolemma

Releases calcium ions into the sarcoplasm when triggered by depolarization:

Sarcoplasmic reticulum

What type of animals decompose other dead animals?

Scavengers

What features are characteristic of the deciduous forests?

Seasons, hardwood, small-large mammals and rodents

A tree's growth rings are produced by...

Secondary xylem

Function of the seminal vesicles:

Secrete fructose to produce ATP, mucus to lubricate urethra, and prostaglandins to cause contractions

What is the process of neutralizing acidic chyme from the stomach?

Secretin triggers release of alkaline bicarbonate from the pancreas into the duodenum via the pancreatic duct

What is the process of Imbibition?

Seed absorbing water, breaks seed coat and initiates growth

The ____________ gives information about the person's movement and is the reason we get dizzy

Semicircular canals

What forms in the middle of a unicellular organism undergoing binary fission?

Septum, creates two separate cells

Which cells are stimulated by FSH to surround and nourish sperm? These cells also produce inhibin to inhibit FSH

Sertoli cells

Bones found within tendons to help muscles pull:

Sesamoid bones

Cartilaginous fish

Shark<div>Two chambered heart, gills, jaws and teeth, reduced notochord</div><div>from here on: notochord only in embryonic stage and replaced by vertebrae</div>

What kind of ganglionic nerves are in the SNS?

Short preganglionic nerves and long postganglionic nerves&nbsp;<div>(ganglia far from effector organs)</div>

Point mutation types

Silent - no change due to third base wobble<div>Missense - single AA change, can be conservative or non-conservative</div><div>Nonsense - introduce stop codon</div>

Adherens junctions

Similar in structure and function to desmosomes, but connects neighboring cells via actin microfilaments

Monocots

Single cotyledon, long narrow leaf with parallel veins, scattered vascular bundels, and 3 part floral multiples, no taproot

Anaphase II

Sister chromatids are pulled apart, become separate chromosomes, chromosome number doubles

In centrifugation, what determines if a cellular component ends up in the pellet or supernatant?

Size and weight

What moves blood through veins?

Skeletal muscles squeezing the veins

Innate immune system outer walls:

Skin, cilia, stomach acid, symbiotic bacteria

Responible for 90% of digestion and nutrient absorption:

Small intestine

Lacteals are

Small lymphatic vessels that take fats to the rest of the body

Parietal lobe function:

Spatial / visual perception, touch / pain / temperature sensation

Types of associative learning:

Spatial learning, sensitization, habituation, observational learning, insight

Temporal lobe functions:

Speech, language, hearing

Male and female germ cells:

Spermatogonia and oogonia

Metaphase of mitosis description

Spindle apparatus guides chromosomes to metaphase plate

Protostomes undergo _______ cleavage, where the cells are misaligned

Spiral

Porifera

Sponge, asymmetrical, parazoa, diffusion, digests with amoebocytes<div>sessile, aquatic, earliest animals, reproduce sexually or asexually</div>

Cancellous bone is also known as&nbsp;

Spongy bone

Dominant generation of angiosperms:

Sporophyte

What is the type of natural selection where the average is favored, forming a bell curve?

Stabilizing selection

Echinodermata

Starfish, sea urchin, bilateral as larvae then five fold radial as adults<div>triploblasts, open circ system with no heart</div><div>spiny, water vascular system, tube feet, sexual or asexual reproduction, closest related phyla to chordates</div><div>deuterostome</div>

Middle lamina

Sticky cement similar in function to tight junctions

Cholecystokinin has what functions?

Stimulates pancreas to release digestive enzymes and gallbladder to release bile into duodenum

What allows gas exchange in plants?

Stomata and lenticels

Liver functions related to blood:

Storage<div>filters and detoxifies blood coming from digestive system</div><div>destroys erthyrocytes</div>

Site of keratinocyte stem cell proliferation,<div>light touch sensation in these cells</div><div>and melanin synthesis in these</div>

Stratum Basale<div>Merkel cells</div><div>melanocytes</div>

Keratinocytes secreting lamellar bodies, forming a water-barrier are found in:

Stratum Granulosum

Layer of epidermis important for strength and immunity

Stratum spinosum, with desmosomes and langerhans cells

Where do the light independent reactions of photosynthesis occur?

Stroma, where CO₂&nbsp;concentrates

Left ventricle

Strongest chamber of heart, pumps oxy blood into aorta and systemic circulation

Chitin

Structural component in fungi cell walls and insect exoskeletons. Beta bonded with nitrogen on each monomer

Cellulose

Structural component in plant cell walls, is a beta bonded polysaccharide

Active transport

Substances travel against concentration gradient and require energy use

Nucleosides contain:

Sugar and base

Peripheral chemoreceptors

Surround aortic arch, sense oxygen, signal medulla oblongata to increase breathing rate when CO₂&nbsp;is high

Guard cells

Surround stomata and control their opening/closing<div>Water influx causes opening&nbsp;</div>

What is the function of the periosteum?

Surround the outer surface of all bones and provide nutrients

Autonomic nervous system is further broken into...

Sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest)&nbsp;

Water uptake in the roots occurs via the... (2 pathways)

Symplastic: inside cell cytoplasm<div>Apoplastic: outside cell through cell walls</div>

Dense, fibrous joints that do not move:

Synarthroses

Smooth ER functions to..

Synthesize lipids, steroid hormones, and detoxify cells

Liver functions relating to proteins:

Synthesizes plasma proteins such as albumin<div>Converts ammonia to urea for excretion</div>

invaginations that quicken action potential propagation on muscle are:

T-tubules

Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) will cause:

T3 and T4 production by the thyroid gland to increase metabolism

The thyroid produces _____, _____, and ______

T4, T3, and calcitonin&nbsp;

What is the largest terrestrial biome?

Taiga

When does cytokinesis start in plant cells?

Telophase with the formation of a cell plate<div>Created by golgi vesicles, produces middle lamella</div>

Fluidity of the cell membrane can be affected by..

Temperature: increasing temp increases fluidity and vice versa<div>Cholesterol: holds membrane together&nbsp;</div><div>Degrees of unsaturation of phospholipids (cis fatty acids cause a kink and higher fluidity)</div>

Connect muscle to bone:

Tendons

Metaphase I

Tetrads randomly line up double file on metaphase plate, further contributes to diversity

The _______ is known as the relay center of the brain

Thalamus

Where is taste information sent to?

Thalamus then gustatory cortex

What part of fertilization ensures same-species fertilization?

The acrosomal reaction recognition process

What is the littoral zone?&nbsp;

The area of the euphotic zone where sunlight penetrates all the way to the ocean floor

What forms the membrane attack complex?

The complement system

Where does filtration occur in the kidney?

The cortex / renal corpuscle which consists of the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule

What is the site of sperm maturation and storage?

The epididymis

What controls the size of the pupil?

The iris

Neurulation is the development of the nervous system. What is the fourth step in this process, after development of the neural tube?

The neural tube differentiates into the CNS. Mesoderm cells (somites) will form two masses alongside the notochord and become the vertebrae and skeletal muscles associated with the axial skeleton

What is gene flow?

The non-random moving of alleles between populations leading to variation through mixing

What controls how much light enters the eye?

The pupil

Germination:

The sprouting of a seedling from a previously dormant state, with water being an important environmental condition

What is ethology?

The study of animal behavior, whether inherited or learned

Inclusive fitness means:

The sum of animal's direct (genes animal passed on) and indirect (genes passed on by relatives) fitness. Increased by indirect fitness / kin selection

What defines cardiac output?

The volume of blood pumped from the heart in one minute<div>HR x SV</div>

What is not necessarily true for all Kingdom Fungi?

They are multicellular<div>some are unicellular, like yeast</div>

Gram positive bacteria

Thick peptidoglycan layer,&nbsp;<div>stain dark purple,&nbsp;</div><div>no outer membrane</div><div>very minor periplasm</div><div>no lipopolysaccharide</div><div>secrete exotoxins</div><div>contain teichoic acids for rigidity and structure</div>

Where do the light dependent reactions in photosynthesis occur?

Thylakoid membrane

Which structure is most similar to the inner mitochondrial membrane?

Thylakoid membrane in chloroplast

Where do the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis occur, and what are the products?

Thylakoid membrane, O₂, NADPH, ATP

What type of cell junction is most common between digestive tract cells?

Tight junctions

Web of connective tissue that supports cancellous bone:

Trabeculae

How does gas exchange happen in arthropoda?

Tracheal system for insects and book lungs for arachnids

Cohesion-tension theory:

Transpiration, the driving force causes water to evaporate from the stomata and leads to transpirational pull<div>cohesive force in water pulls the water column upward</div>

Phloem:

Transports sugars from leaves (source) to roots (sink)<div>made up of <b>sieve cells </b>(long,&nbsp; tunnel, no organelles) and <b>companion cells</b>&nbsp;(connected to sieve cells, contain organelles)</div>

Xylem:

Transports water from roots (source) to leaves (sink)<div>made up of <b>Tracheids </b>(long, thin, water travels through tapered ends) and <b>vessel elements</b>&nbsp;(short, stout, water travels through perforations in cell walls)</div>

In the blastocyst stage, the cells of the blastula divide and differentiate to form:

Trophoblast, inner cell mass

Target other endocrine glands for further hormone release

Tropic hormones

Plasmodesmata

Tunnels with tubes between plant cells. Allows cytosol fluids to freely travel between plant cells

Dicots

Two cotyledons, broad leaf with network of veins, ring vascular bundles, floral parts in multiples of 4 or 5

What does Gause's Law state?

Two species cannot occupy the same niche and maintain population levels: one will outcompete the other

tumor suppressor genes follow the _______ hypothesis

Two-hit, need to lose both copies of the gene to make it cancer-causing

_________ transfers sound from outer to middle ear

Tympanic membrane

What type of survivorship curve exhibits constant survival probability, regardless of age?

Type II

Define Habitat:

Type of place where an organism lives. Includes abiotic and biotic factors

Stop codons

UAA, UAG, UGA

Ammonia in the body is converted into

Urea or uric acid

Closed circulatory system:

Use a pumping heart to move blood through vessels, includes annelida (earthworms) and chordates

What two evolutionary theories did Lamarck propose?

Use and disuse<div>Inheritance of acquired traits</div>

Anabolic processes involve

Using energy to build larger molecules

Site of fertilized egg implantation and development:

Uterus

What part of an antibody recognizes different antigens?

Variable region

The loop of Henle has selective permeability. It is surrounded by the _____

Vasa recta

Tracheophytes:

Vascular, grow vertically, and have roots<div>spends most of life in sporophyte stage</div>

In which blood vessel type is blood pressure the lowest?

Veins

Cytokinesis of plant cells&nbsp;

Vesicles migrate and fuse to form a <b>cell plate</b>

Occipital lobe function

Vision

Types of animal communication:

Visual, auditory, tactile (touch), and chemical

Mutualistic bacteria in the large intestine:

Vitamins B and K, metabolize acid, and ferment fiber

What oocyte component binds sperm in non-mammals?

Vitelline membrane

Connect haversian canals to the periosteum, which provides nutrients

Volkmann's canals

What measures stroke volume?

Volume of blood pumped from heart in one beat<div>calculated by subtracting end-systolic volume and end-diastolic volume</div>

What is blood plasma made up of?

Water, proteins, nutrients, hormones, ~55% of blood volume

What is stimulus generalization?

When an animal responds to stimuli not identical to the original conditioned stimulus

What is polygenic inheritance?&nbsp;

When many genes contribute to one phenotype&nbsp;

What is epistasis?

When one gene affects the expression of a second gene

Chiasmata are..

Where chromatids physically crossover during synapsis, causing genetic recombination

What type of cell would have the highest concentration of lysosomes?

White blood cell

Leukocytes

White blood cells

What extraembryonic membrane provides nutrients in egg-laying animals?

Yolk sac

What is the location of the first RBC formation in mammals?

Yolk sac

Thin actin filaments branch from the __________ to the middle of the sarcomere

Z line

What oocyte component binds the sperm in mammals?

Zona pellucida (ZP3)

A ganglion is defined as:

a cluster of nerve bodies in <b>peripheral</b>&nbsp;nervous system

An operon is...

a group of genes controlled by a single promoter

A haplotype is...

a group of genes usually inherited together because they are located close to each other

Endomembrane system is..

a group of organelles and membranes that work together to modify, package, and transport proteins and lipids that are entering or exiting a cell<div>made up of nucleus, rough and smooth ER, golgi, lysosomes, vacuoles, cell membrane</div>

Large intestine functions:

absorb water, minerals, and vitamins

In alcohol fermentation, which molecule is the final electron acceptor?

acetaldehyde

Gibberellins:

affect stem and shoot elongation, elimination of dormancy of a seed, flowering, fruit production, leaf and fruit death

Jawless Fish

agnatha, lamprey, hagfish<div>Two chambered heart, gills, notochord in larvae and adult</div><div>cartilaginous skeleton</div>

seed-bearing tracheophytes:

all heterosporous<div>Gymnosperms and angiosperms</div>

ATP synthase works by...

allowing protons to flow down their gradient from the intermembrane space to the matrix<div>converts ADP + P_i&nbsp;-&gt; ATP, an endergonic reaction</div><div>4 protons / ATP</div><div>NADH from glycolysis and FADH₂&nbsp;produce less ATP than NADH from Krebs</div><div>Net 36-38 ATP for whole process</div>

Dark field microscopy

allows imaging of unstained live cells, only scattered light is viewed

All hormones produced from the adrenal medulla are examples of _______

amino-acid (tyrosine) derived hormones

Capillary action in plants:

an adhesive force due to attraction between water and xylem causes water to climb up

The accumulation of protons in the thylakoid lumen generates ...

an electrochemical gradient that is used to produce ATP as protons move from the thylakoid lumen back into the stroma&nbsp;

A totipotent cell can differentiate into..

an entire organism

Arthropoda (insecta)

ant, grasshopper<div>have spiracles (allow air to enter)</div><div>Malpighian tubules act similar to nephridia, excrete uric acid</div><div>3 pairs of legs</div>

B cells manage release of...

antibodies, can also act as antigen-presenting cells

T cells must bind to _________ to be activated

antigen-presenting cells

Primary growth is vertical growth occuring at..

apical meristems, occurs before secondary growth

Solutes are reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate travels up the ___________

ascending limb of the loop of Henle, causing the filtrate to be less concentrated

Under favorable conditions, fungi reproduce ______

asexually by producing a haploid spore which produces more spores via mitosis

Lub sound

atria are relaxed, ventricles contracting<div>noise comes from AV valves snapping shut</div>

P wave

atria depolarization

Flower petals:

attract animals to achieve pollination

As opposed to bone, cartilage is _____

avascular

What part of the eye has photoreceptors?

back / retina

Osmotic pressure brings fluid...

back into capillaries at the venule end

MHC I presentation to T cells will cause them to ...

become cytotoxic / CD8, kill infected cells with perforin and granzymes

Laminin&nbsp;

behaves similar to fibronectin<div>major component of basal lamina, a layer of ECM secreted by epithelial cells&nbsp;</div>

Trachea:

below larynx, has ciliated epithelial cells to filter air

Systole occurs ...&nbsp;

between the lub-dub sound

What exocrine hormones does the pancreas secrete?

bicarbonate, amylase, trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen

Rotifera

bilateral, triploblasts, cerebral ganglia, protonephridia and flame cells<div>not truly segmented, can reproduce sexually or parthenogenetically (clone of mother)</div>

Chordates

bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa, deuterostomes<div>ALL HAVE:</div><div>1. notochord - rod derived from mesoderm, forms primitive axis and supports body, replaced by bone usually</div><div>2. dorsal hollow nerve cord - forms spinal cord, basis of CNS&nbsp;</div><div>3. pharyngeal Gill slits - forms pharynx, gills, forms eustachian tubes in humans</div><div>4. muscular post-anal tail - lost during embryonic development in humans and many others</div>

Arthropoda (all)

bilateral, triploblasts, eumetazoa,&nbsp;<div>open circulatory system with hemolymph</div><div>fused ganglia nervous system</div><div>one-way digestion, protostome</div><div>more species than any other phylum</div><div>chitin exoskeleton</div>

Chloroplast thylakoid

bilayered organelle in stroma<div>Site of light dependent reactions</div><div>individual layer = thylakoid, stack = granum</div>

Homosporous plants:

bisexual gametophyte, produces one type of spore

The hollow, fluid filled center of the blastula is called a :&nbsp;

blastocoel&nbsp;

Deuterostome

blastopore becomes anus

Central chemoreceptors

blood brain barrier, sense low pH / buildup of CO₂, signals to <b>increase</b> breathing rate

Inside the villus, nutrients are absorbed into:

blood capillaries

Ossification is the opposite of resorption

bone formation and bone loss

Peroxisome function

break down stored fatty acids and help with detoxification<div>contain catalase, which breaks down hydrogen peroxide</div>

Root pressure:

builds up in roots producing an osmotic gradient which drives water from soil into the roots

<div>Viral Reverse transcriptase will convert RNA to...</div>

cDNA, which can integrate into the host genome and enter lysogenic cycle

Parathyroid hormone is the opposite of ______, and will ___________.

calcitonin, increase blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts and depressing osteoblasts

Polyspermy slow block is caused by:

calcium ions released in the egg stimulating a cortical reaction / exocytosis of cortical granules, which make the zona pellucida impenetrable

Food enters the stomach via the:

cardiac sphincter

Water and mineral absorption occur at the:

cecum (small pouch in large intestine)

Eubacteria and archaea similarities

cell walls<div>70S ribosomes</div><div>circular plasmid DNA</div><div>move with flagellum</div><div>binary fission</div>

Pepsin is made by ____ cells, breaks down ____, and is secreted in the _____

chief, proteins, stomach

Prophase II

chromatin condenses<div>nuclear envelope disappears</div><div>no crossing over</div>

One map unit is defined as...

chromosomal distance that would allow 0.01 crossover events per generation<div>20 MU - 0.2 crossover events per gen / 20% of recombination</div>

tunicates

closed and open circulatory systems<div>gills</div><div>sessile, filter feeders, sexual and asexual reproduction</div><div>benthic habitats (bottom of a body of water)</div><div>only have notochord as larvae</div>

Lancelets

closed circulatory system, no heart, gills, lack vertebrae<div>commonly used to study origin of vertebrates</div>

The _________ in the ear uses fluid and hairs to convert mechanical signal into a neuronal signal.<div>This is known as _________</div>

cochlea<div>transduction</div>

in pseduocoelomates....

coelom is partially surrounded, it is a hydroskeleton that helps with motility

Water absorption is completed in the:

colon

Restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs) allow for..

comparison between individuals, analyzes non-coding DNA

Microfilaments

composed of a double helix of two actin filaments<div>involved in cell movement</div>

Cell-cell junctions

connect adjacent cells<div>tight junctions</div><div>desmosomes</div><div>adherens junctions</div><div>gap junctions</div>

centrosomes&nbsp;

contain a pair of centrioles, which replicate during S phase so each daughter cell has one centrosome

Purkinje fibers

contract the ventricles

Inspiration / inhalation involves

contraction of diaphragm (pull lungs down) and external intercostal muscles (expand ribs)<div>decrease intrapleural pressure, volume increases as air is brought into lungs</div>

Cardiac cycle

controlled by cardiomyocytes, which have automaticity<div>SA node is pacemaker</div><div>AV node adds delay between contraction of atria and ventricles&nbsp;</div>

The pharynx:

controlled by epiglottis, diverts air into the larynx and food into the esophagus

Nitrifying bacteria will...

convert ammonia and ammonium to nitrites then nitrates which can be taken up by plants and made into amino acids and chlorophyll

Cori cycle is used to

convert lactate back to glucose once oxygen is available again<div>transports lactate to liver cells</div>

Epidermis of plant

covered by cuticle / waxy layer which limits water evaporation&nbsp;

Chloroplasts are not found in what type of bacteria?

cyanobacteria

microfilament functions

cyclosis / cytoplasmic streaming<div>Cleavage furrow during cell division&nbsp;</div><div>Muscle contraction with myosin motor proteins</div>

The complement effects are amplified by releasing ______

cytokines

The adrenal cortex will:

deal with long-term stress<div>release steroid hormones, glucocorticoids, and mineralocorticoids</div><div><br></div>

Expressivity

degree of a certain phenotype despite having the same genotype

Interferons will activate _____&nbsp;

dendritic cells

Q wave

depolarization through interventricular septum

Water is reabsorbed into the blood as the filtrate travels down the ____________

descending limb of loop of Henle, causing the filtrate to be more concentrated

Echinoderms and chordates are ______ while all other phyla are _________

deuterostomes, protostomes

The shaft of the long bone is called the:

diaphysis

IgA

dimer, confers passive immunity to infants through breast milk

Where does secretion from blood to the nephron tubule filtrate occur?

distal and proximal convoluted tubules

Root growth: root cap roots roots protecting the apical meristem<div>The root tip has three zones:</div>

division, elongation, maturation

Prokaryotes

do not have membrane bound nuclei or organelles<div>Eubacteria, archaea</div>

Sensory neurons send signals to the spinal cord through...

dorsal roots

Highly flexible and found in ears and epiglottis:

elastic cartilage

Indirect creation of bone through a cartilage model is called:

endochondral ossification

Hormones moving through the bloodstream are:

endocrine

Holoenzyme

enzymes bound to their cofactors

apoenzymes

enzymes not bound to cofactors

Integumentary system layers and functions:

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis<div>Vitamin D production, protects from pathogens</div>

What organs are made from the ectoderm?

epidermis, hair, nails, nervous system, lens of eye, teeth enamel, adrenal medulla

The end of a long bone that contains red bone marrow is called the:

epiphysis

Animals are...

eukaryotic, diploid, multicellular heterotrophic aerobes

Retinoblastoma gene is a tumor-suppressor which prevents....

excessive cell growth during interphase

Hormones moving through ducts are:

exocrine

Chloroplast stroma

fills are inside inner membrane<div>site of calvin cycle</div>

Platyhelminthes

flatworms, trematoda, flukes<div>bilateral with cephalization, triploblasts, two nerve cords</div><div>protonephridia (flame cells) involved in osmoregulation</div><div>sexual or asexual, parasite, most primitive triploblast</div>

Pleural space

fluid-filled space between parietal and visceral layers<div>lower pressure than atmosphere, creates <b>intrapleural pressure</b></div>

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) causes

follicle growth in females and sperm maturation in males

Antigen:

foreign molecule, target of immune response

Hyphae

form a network of fungi (mycelium)<div>can be septates or coenocytic where cytokinesis does not occur</div>

Glycocalyx

found mainly on epithelial cells, helps with adhesion, protection, and cell recognition

5' end of DNA has a:

free phosphate

Abscisic acid:

functions during plant stress, promotes dormant seeds, closes stomata, inhibits growth

In alternation of generations, gametes undergo _____ to give _____

fusion, zygote

Genomic imprinting refers to..

genes expressed depending on parental origin and are influenced by epigenetic factors

Glycogenolysis releases..

glucose-6-phosphate from glycogen

Nasal cavity contains&nbsp;

goblet cells (mucus) and ciliated epithelial cells (move debris)

Rhizoids:

hair-like projections on bryophytes that aid in water absorption and minor anchorage

Pathogens are..

harmful microorganisms that cause disease

Central vacuoles in plants will..

have a specialized membrane called the tonoplast which helps maintain cell rigidity by exerting turgor<div>Also function in storage and material breakdown</div>

Bohr effect on Hb

hemoglobin has decreased oxygen affinity when carbon dioxide is high

The F1 generation has all ______ offspring

heterozygous

Respiratory alkalosis&nbsp;

high blood pH because of rapid breathing (hyperventilation)

What will shift a hemoglobin curve to the LEFT?

high pH / low [H⁺], low temperature, low CO₂, fetal Hb

Basophils contain granules with _____ and _____

histamine, heparin

Oxygenated blood in fetus goes to LA through..

hole in heart called foramen ovale

Centrioles

hollow cylinders made of microtubules (9x3)

Anaphase I

homologous chromosomes separated from each other<div>will not begin unless at least one chiasmata has formed within each tetrad</div>

Bacteria increase genetic diversity through...

horizontal gene transfer

What hormone maintains the corpus luteum after implantation of an embryo into the uterus?&nbsp;

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

The limbic system is composed of (3) and is resonsible for (4)

hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala<div>emotion, memory, learning, motivation</div>

Where is the thyroid gland located?

in front of the trachea

The absolute refractory period is due to....

inactivation of voltage gated Na channels

Vitamin D will:

increase blood calcium, activated by PTH

Mineralocorticoids will:

increase blood volume and blood pressure by raising reabsorption of sodium

T3 and T4 willL

increase metabolism in body, negatively affect TSH secretion

Root hairs

increase surface area of roots for greater nutrient and water uptake

What effect would a very long loop of Henle have?

increased osmolarity gradient from cortex to medulla

Peptide hormones function through _______ stimulation while steroid hormones function through ________ stimulation

indirect, direct

The lac operon is an ______ operon, while trp operon is a ______ operon

inducible, repressible

Somatostatin will:

inhibit growth hormone and secretion of glucagon and insulin

The energy source for chemoautotrophs comes from:

inorganic molecules

Types of inherited animal behaviors? (4)

instincts, reflexes, fixed action patterns, imprinting

________ connects cardiomyocytes

intercalated discs<div>are made of desmosomes and gap junctions</div>

Thylakoid lumen

interior of thylakoid and site of proton accumulation, making it acidic

Hair structure, origin, and function:

keratin, made from hair follices, stands up via erector pili muscles, and offers sun and hypothermia protection

a junction between two grana is called a&nbsp;

lamella

Microtubles

largest of cytoskeleton, give structural integrity to cells<div>hollow and made up of tubulin dimers</div><div>also function in cell division, cilia, and flagella</div>

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation is carried out by the...

light dependent reactions<div>1. water is split (photolysis)</div><div>2. photons excite electrons in PS II, passing e^-&nbsp;on</div><div>3. electron acceptor sends them to ETC</div>

Calvin cycle

light independent reactions<div>takes place in chloroplast stroma of plant mesophyll cells</div><div>fixes carbon dioxide that enters stomata</div><div>CO₂&nbsp;+ RuBP -&gt; PGA by RuBisCo</div><div>PGA then phosphorylated and reduced to form G3P</div><div>G3P -&gt; RuBP and eventually glucose&nbsp;</div>

Bile is made by the ____ and stored by the _____

liver, gallbladder

arthropoda (crustacea)

lobster, crab<div>some have gills</div><div>green glands (osmoregulatory structures) for aquatic species&nbsp;</div>

The hypodermis is made of and functions to:

loose connective tissue and fat, store fat

Respiratory acidosis

lowered blood pH because of inadequate breathing (hypoventilation)

A codon is _____ while anticodon is _____

mRNA, tRNA

Casparian strip:

made of fat and wax, is an impenetrable substance in cell walls of roots<div>forces water coming from the cell walls into the cytoplasm for filtering before entering the plant</div>

Middle ear is composed of (3) ossicles. What are they and what do they do?

malleus, incus, stapes<div>transfer vibrations through middle ear and amplify signal</div>

Semelparity:

mate once in a lifetime

Vital capacity

max amount of air that can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation<div>inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume + expiratory reserve volume&nbsp;</div>

inspiratory reserve volume

max volume of air that can be inhaled

expiratory reserve volume

maximum volume of air that can be exhaled

single nondisjunction occurs during...

meiosis I, results in 2(n+1) and 2(n-1) haploid daughter cells

In alternation of generations, sporophyte undergoes _____ to give _____

meiosis, spores

In coelomates...

mesoderm surrounds coelom on all sides

Area between diaphysis and epiphyseal plate:

metaphysis

What hormones does the adrenal cortex release and what do they do?

mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone), causes kidney to increase salt and water reabsorption and potassium secretion in distal tubules

Residual volume

minimum amount of air to keep lungs from collapsing

Plant growth takes place via...

mitosis at meristems

In alternation of generations, spores undergo ____ to give _____

mitosis, gametophyte

In alternation of generations, zygote undergoes ______ to give ______

mitosis, sporophyte

IgE is found on....

monomer, basophils and mast cells, can trigger histamine

IgG

monomer, most abundant antibody, can cross placenta to give fetus passive immunity<div>causes opsonization</div>

IgD

monomer, not much information

Turner syndrome is...

monosomy of X chromosome in females, individuals are sterile

T cells differ from NK cells in that they are

more specific, require antigen presentation

Bryophytes:

mosses, hornworts, liverworts<div>small, short, moist habitats, horizontal growth,</div><div>are nonvascular, spend most of life in gametophyte stage</div>

Astrocytes :&nbsp;

most abundant glial cell, form blood-brain barrier

Angiosperms:

most abundant plant. flower-bearing, produce fruit (plant ovary, protects seed)<div>sperm is non-flagellated and dispersed by wind or animals</div><div>can exhibit double fertilization (1 female, 2 male)</div>

Collagen&nbsp;

most common structural protein<div>organized into fibrils</div>

Upper respiratory tract:

nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx

Cilia and flagella have..

nine doublets of microtubules with two singlets in the center<div>produced by basal body</div>

Immuno-naive

no active immunity (as in fetuses and newborns)

Pain stimuli neurons are called:

nociceptors

Photosynthesis

non-spontaneous, endergonic, produces glucose after an input of solar energy<div>opposite of cellular respiration</div>

Innate immune system is also known as ______

nonspecific / generalized response

C₃&nbsp;photosyntheis

normal photosynthesis, where 3C PGA is produced

What are the steps of the evolution of chordates?

notochord (lancelets) -&gt; head (hagfish) -&gt; vertebral column (Lampreys) -&gt; jaw (sharks) -&gt; lungs (ray-finned fish) -&gt; lobed fins -&gt; limbs with digits (amphibians) -&gt; amniotic eggs (reptiles) -&gt; milk (mammals)

Telophase and Cytokinesis II

nuclear membranes reform, chromosomes decondense into chromatin<div>Four haploid daughter cells produced in total</div>

Telophase and cytokinesis I

nuclear membranes reform<div>chromosomes decondense into chromatin</div><div>cleavage furrow in animals, cell plate in plants</div>

Density centrifugation most to least dense:

nuclei &gt; mitochondria / chloroplast &gt; ER fragments &gt; ribosomes

Karyotyping

observing chromosomes under light microscope during metaphase, used to diagnose aneuploidies

Where does photorespiration occur and what does it do?

occurs in the stroma, producing a phosphoglycerate that moves to peroxisomes and mitochondria to make PGA<div>net loss of fixed carbon atoms and no new glucose is made</div><div>also called C₂&nbsp;photosynthesis</div>

Where do smell signals go and integrate?

olfactory cortex, thalamus and orbitofrontal cortex

Polygyny:

one male multiple females

Motor unit definition:

one neuron and all its' muscle fibers

Passive immunity is when:

one organism passes antibodies to another

Identical twins result from:

one zygote splitting, two embryos with identical genetic material

Proto-oncogenes follow the _____ hypothesis

one-hit, gain-of-function in one copy of gene turns it into an oncogene

Fermentation

only relies on glycolysis<div>oxidizes NADH -&gt; NAD⁺, can continue glycolysis</div><div>occurs in cytosol</div><div>lactic acid and alcohol are common types</div>

The blind spot of the eye where the optic nerve passes through is the:

optic disk

The bundle of axons that transmit visual information to the brain is the:

optic nerve

Centrosomes are..

organelles containing a pair of centrioles. Act as microtubule organizing centers during cell division

Microtubule organizing centers (MTOCs)

organize microtubule extension

Build bone and use blood calcium, maturing into osteocytes:

osteoblasts

Organic component of bone, containing many proteins:

osteoid

If implantation occurs, what happens?

outer layer of the placenta produces human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), which maintains the corpus luteum. Progesterone and estrogen levels are maintained

What are the hardy-weinberg equations, and what do the variables represent?

p + q = 1<div>p = frequency of dominant allele, q = frequency of recessive allele</div><div><br></div><div>p²+ 2pq + q²&nbsp;= 1</div><div>p²&nbsp;= frequency of homozygous dominant, 2pq = frequency of heterozygous, q²&nbsp;= frequency of homozygous recessive</div>

Sebaceous glands are located all over the body except:&nbsp;

palms and soles

Accessory organs in digestive system:

pancreas, liver, gallbladder

What type of cell would have a high concentration of golgi bodies?

pancreatic cells

Epitope:&nbsp;

part of antigen that is recognized by immune cell

An unfertilized egg develops to a viable organism in...

parthenogenesis

IgM

pentamer, largest, first, activates complement system

Natural killer cells use ______ and ______

perforin and granzyme

The efferent arteriole exiting the bowman's capsule go on to form the

peritubular capillaries

Cyclic photophosphorylation happens when...

photosystem I passes its electrons back to the first ETC, causing more proton pumping and ATP production, but no NAPDH

Cell walls in different organisms

plants - cellulose<div>Fungi - chitin</div><div>Bacteria - peptidoglycan</div>

Sieve cells and companion cells are connected via:

plasmodesmata

The hindbrain gives rise to the metencephalon and the myelencephalon which then give rise to... (2,1)

pons, cerebellum<div>Medulla oblongata</div>

Stomata

pores underneath leaf for gas exchange

MHC II is used to...

present foreign antigens to activate immune cells

p21 functions to...

prevent phosphorylation

X-inactivation is...

process of inactivating one X chromosome, forming a Barr body and preventing excess transcription<div>may cause carrier to become affected if wrong allele is inactivated</div>

Heterosporous plants:

produce two types of spores: micro (male) and mega (female)

C₄&nbsp;photosynthesis

produces oxaloacetate, occurs in hot environments<div>PEP carboxylase fixes CO₂&nbsp;-&gt; PEP</div><div>converted into malate in the mesophyll cell</div><div>Malate transferred to bundle sheath cells, then decarboxylated&nbsp;</div><div>pyruvate converted back into PEP</div>

Reproductive cloning

producing a copy of an organism from a somatic cell<div>multipotent cell must be converted to a totipotent cell</div>

During the luteal phase, the corpus luteum will produce ___________ to thicken the uterine lining

progesterone and some estrogen

Penetrance (heredity)

proportion of individuals who have the phenotype associated with a specific allele

Reduced hemoglobin

protonated, lowers oxygen binding affinity but increases CO₂&nbsp;affinity

Extracellular matrix

provides mechanical support between cells<div><br></div>

Nuclear lamina

provides support to the nucleus and regulates DNA and cell division

Pulse Chase experiments

pulse: AA are labeled, incorporated into proteins<div>chase: prevents radioactively labelled protein production</div><div>radioactive proteins can be tracked</div>

Right ventricle

pumps deoxy blood through pulmonary semilunar valve to pulmonary artery<div>When it contracts, it is sending blood (SL valve open)</div><div>When it relaxes, it is filling (AV valve open)</div>

Western blotting

quantifies amount of protein after SDS PAGE<div>treated with primary and secondary antibody</div>

FLIM provides a...

quantitative measure of concentration of ions, molecules, and gases in a cell

FRAP provides a...

quantitative measure of how and where biomolecules move in a live cell

Hamilton's rule of altruism:

r x B &gt; C<div>r - genetic relatedness between altruist and relative</div><div>B - # of genes passed on by relative after being saved by altruist</div><div>r x B = indirect fitness&nbsp;</div><div>C - direct fitness</div><div>for altruistic behavior to occur, r x B must be greater than C</div>

What does the nucleolus make?

rRNA

larynx:

receives air, contains voice box

Right atrium

receives deoxy blood from vena cava&nbsp;<div>passes through Tricuspid AV valve to right ventricle</div>

Esophagus:

receives food and connects to stomach

Left atrium

receives oxy blood from pulmonary vein, passes through bicuspid / mitral to left ventricle

Atrial natriuretic peptide will:

reduce blood volume and blood pressure by increasing glomerular filtration rate, decreasing sodium reabsorption and inhibiting RAAS

Cytokinins:

regulate cell differentiation and division with auxins, can prevent aging

What are the functions of the hypothalamus?

regulate thirst, hunger, temperature, ANS, pituitary gland, produce ADH

Expiration / exhalation involves

relaxation of diaphragm and external intercostal muscles, closes rib cage through elastic recoil<div>increases intrapleural pressure as volume in lungs is decreased</div><div>internal intercostal muscles can contract during a forced expiration</div>

GRH will cause&nbsp;

release of GH

TRH will cause&nbsp;

release of TSH

Sympathetic nervous system effects:

release sugar<div>increase heart rate</div><div>dilation of bronchioles to allow for more air</div><div>dilation of pupil&nbsp;</div>

RAAS pathway

renin converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I<div>ACE converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, the active hormone</div>

Vascular cambium is..

ring of meristematic tissue located between <b>primary xylem (center) </b>and <b>primary phloem (edge)</b><div>Cells produced inside become <b>secondary xylem (wood)</b>, while outside become <b>secondary phloem (bark/cork)</b></div><div><b>New xylem is produced every year, while new phloem replaces old phloem</b></div>

Amylase is secreted in _____ and breaks down ______

saliva, carbohydrates

Electron tomography

sandwiches TEM images to create 3D images of internal structure&nbsp;

The protective connective tissue that surrounds the eye is the:

sclera

Capacitation of sperm is triggered by...

secretions in the uterine wall

Gel electrophoresis&nbsp;

separates DNA based on charge and size, smaller fragments travel further from the positive anode

Single nucleotide polymorphisms can..

serve as marks for genetic diseases

under unfavorable conditions, fungi reproduce....

sexually, two hyphae fuse their cytoplasm (plasmogamy) and produce a diploid cell<div>diploid cell then produces a spore producing structure which produces spores via meiosis</div>

The adrenal medulla:

short term stress, stimulated by sympathetic nervous system, releases catecholamines

Cnidaria and annelida use ________ for respiration

simple diffusion

Chyme (acidic, semi-digested food) exits to the _____ via the ____

small intestine, pyloric sphincter

What makes up the spliceosome?

small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and proteins<div>known collectively as snRNPs</div>

Polyspermy fast block consists of :

sodium ions diffusing into egg, depolarizing membrane and preventing sperm binding

The peripheral nervous system is divided into...

somatic (voluntary motion) and autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems

A multipotent cell can give rise to...

some of the three germ layers, not all

Pressure flow hypothesis:

source cells produce sugar and load into phloem -&gt; high [sugar] creates a gradient pulling water into phloem,&nbsp;<div>turgor pressure in phloem increases resulting in bulk movement of sugar from leaves to roots</div>

Adaptive immune system is a ______

specific immune response, targets specific antigens

Apocrine glands are located at __________ and function to:

specific sites, secrete into a hair follicle<div>produce earwax (ceruminous) or milk (mammary)</div>

Arthropoda (arachnida)

spider, scorpion<div>Four pairs of legs, land habitats, book lungs (vascularized tissue to increase SA)</div><div>jointed appendages</div>

male plant sex organ, composed of anther (microspore) and filament (supports anther)

stamen

The ________ transfers vibrations from middle to inner ear via the ______

stapes, oval window

All hormones made by the adrenal and reproductive organs are examples of...

steroid hormones

Cell fixation types and details:

sticking cells to slide and preserving them in life-life state<div>1. heat fixation, run over a bunsen burner</div><div>2. staining adds color and often kills cells</div>

Growth hormone / somatotropin will:

stimulate cells to grow and divide

Prolactin will:

stimulate mammary gland development and increase milk production after childbirth

Luteinizing hormone (LH) will:

stimulate ovulation and corpus luteum formation in females, and testosterone production in males

Angiotensin II effects in the body:

stimulates aldosterone release, Na⁺&nbsp;reabsorption in the proximal tubule, vasoconstrictor (increases TPR), increase thirst

PTH ______ calcium reabsorption in the tubules, while calcitonin _______ it

stimulates, inhibits

What is the function of the plant endosperm?

storage material, provides the embryo with nutrients

During non-cyclic photophosphorylation, protons are pumped from the _____ to the _____

stroma to the thylakoid lumen

Type 1 epithelial cells

structural support

"Which layer of the integumentary system helps the body conserve heat and protects the body from injury by acting as a ""shock absorber""?"

subcutaneous layer

Nucleotides contain:

sugar, base, phosphate group

Bundle sheath cells will:

surround and protect the vascular bundle

Lichens are...

symbiotic autotrophs where a fungi pairs with algae or cyanobacteria

Heart rates above 100 bpm are ______ while heart rates below 60 bpm are ______

tachycardic, bradycardic

Opsonization definiton

tags antigens for subsequent phagocytosis

Respiration is:

the exchange of gases between outside environment and inside of an organism

Recombination frequencies of less than 50% mean..

the genes are linked

Eccrine / sweat glands are located on ________ and are important in _________

the whole body, thermoregulation

Rigor mortis occurs when..

there is no ATP available to release myosin from actin

Gram negative bacteria

thin peptidoglycan layer<div>stain pink</div><div>contain periplasm between innter and outer membrane</div><div>LPS present, no teichoic acids</div><div>have endotoxins</div>

Frontal lobe functions:

thinking, memories, emotions

Calcitonin is produced in the _____ and works by __________.

thyroid, decreasing blood calcium levels by depressing osteoclasts&nbsp;

Lower respiratory tract:

trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli

integrin

transmembrane protein that facilitates ECM adhesion and signals to other cells how to respond to the extracellular environment

Cornea:

transparent, focuses light and protects the eye

Chylomicrons will..

transport lipids to lacteals&nbsp;

Klinefelter's syndrome is a...

trisomy of sex chromosomes in males, XXY&nbsp;<div>Causes several disorders</div>

p53 is a...

tumor-suppressor gene, guardian of the cell, upregulated to prevent cancer

Fraternal twins result from:

two separate eggs being fertilized by two separate sperms

Test-cross pairs...

unknown genotype with homozygous recessive

No circulatory system:

use simple diffusion, includes bacteria, protists, fungi, invertebrates

alcohol fermentation

uses 2 NADH to convert 2 pyruvate -&gt; 2 ethanol<div>NADH -&gt; NAD⁺</div><div>involves decarboxylation into acetaldehyde</div>

Lactic acid fermentation

uses 2 NADH to reduce 2 pyruvate into 2 lactic acid<div>happens in muscle cells and RBC, which do not have mitochondria</div><div><br></div>

Fluorescence microscopy&nbsp;

uses fluorophores and a dichroic filter to allow certain wavelengths of light to be reflected and others to pass through

CAM photosynthesis

uses temporal isolation of carbon dioxide to prevent photorespiration in hot environments<div>stomata are closed during the day to avoid water loss</div><div>they open at night to let CO₂&nbsp;in, and function as C₄&nbsp;photosynthesis</div>

Similar functions to lysosomes are performed by ______ in plants

vacuoles

Efferent neurons send signals to the muscles through....

ventral roots

R wave

ventricular depolarization

Phase contract microscopy

view thin samples, light refracted through a ring creating a phase shift and high contrast

Total lung capacity

vital capacity + residual volume<div>maximum volume of lungs</div>

Tidal volume

volume of air that moves through lungs between inhalation and exhalation

The stele is formed by...

xylem, phloem, and pith, which is actually ground tissue but functions like vascular tissue!

To implant in the uterine wall, the blastocyst undergoes _______

zona hatching