Annual Assessed Biology EOC Flash Card Review

Uncontrolled Cell Growth

Cancer is unchecked cell growth. Mutations in genes can cause cancer by accelerating cell division rates or inhibiting normal controls on the system, such as cell cycle arrest or programmed cell death. As a mass of cancerous cells grows, it can develop into a tumor.

Cell Theory

"The theory that all living things are made of cells, that cells are the basic units of organisms, and that cells come only from existing cells"

Scientific explanations of the origin of life (chemical evolution)

1) Carbon and other biogenic elements (C,H,N,O,S and P) are some of the most abundant in the universe. 2) The interstellar medium has been found to contain a diversity of molecules of these elements. 3) Some of these molecules have also been found in comets which are considered the most primordial bodies of the solar system. 4) The atmospheres of the outer planets and their satellites, for example, Titan, are actively involved in the formation of organic compounds which are the precursors of biochemical molecules. 5) Some of these biochemical molecules, such as amino acids, purines and pyrimidines, have been found in carbonaceous chondrites. 6) Laboratory experiments have shown that most of the monomers and oligomers necessary for life can be synthesized under hypothesized but plausible primitive Earth conditions from compounds found in the above cosmic bodies. 7) It appears that the primitive Earth had the necessary and sufficient conditions to allow the chemical synthesis of biomacromolecules and to permit the processes required for the emergence of life on our planet. 8) It is unlikely that the emergence of life occurred in any other body of the solar system, although the examination of the Jovian satellite Europa may provide important clues about the constraints of this evolutionary process.

Biochemical Reaction ezymes (how enzymes affect activation energy, substrate complex)

A fundamental task of proteins is to act as enzymes—catalysts that increase the rate of virtually all the chemical reactions within cells. Although RNAs are capable of catalyzing some reactions, most biological reactions are catalyzed by proteins. In the absence of enzymatic catalysis, most biochemical reactions are so slow that they would not occur under the mild conditions of temperature and pressure that are compatible with life. Enzymes accelerate the rates of such reactions by well over a million-fold, so reactions that would take years in the absence of catalysis can occur in fractions of seconds if catalyzed by the appropriate enzyme. Cells contain thousands of different enzymes, and their activities determine which of the many possible chemical reactions actually take place within the cell.

Gene Mutation

A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that the sequence differs from what is found in most people. Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere from a single DNA building block (base pair) to a large segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes. A change in the sequence of the bases in a gene, which changes the structure of the polypeptide that the gene codes for.

Cell Wall

A rigid layer of nonliving material that surrounds the cells of plants and some other organisms. A rigid structure that surrounds the cell membrane and provides support to the cell

Role of ATP

ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) ATP is a nucleotide that performs many essential roles in the cell. It is the major energy currency of the cell, providing the energy for most of the energy-consuming activities of the cell.

Distinguishing characteristics of Archae

Cell walls: virtually all bacteria contain peptidoglycan in their cell walls; however, archaea and eukaryotes lack peptidoglycan. Various types of cell walls exist in the archaea. Therefore, the absence or presence of peptidoglycan is a distinguishing feature between the archaea and bacteria. prokaryote, no peptidoglycan, unicellular, auto or hetero

Cellular Respiration (Equation, location, products and reactants)

Cellular respiration is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

DNA Replication

DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule. This process occurs in all living organisms and is the basis for biological inheritance. DNA is made up of a double helix of two complementary strands. DNA unzips into two parts and splits with the cell. In it's new home each side of the DNA strand attack to matching nucleotides to create 2 exact copies. It is important in puberty and other times of growth as it is the reproducing of your cells.

Biotechnology on the individual (DNA fingerprinting & medications)

DNA typing, and DNA profiling is a molecular genetic method that enables identification of individuals using hair, blood ... DNA fingerprinting serves several uses in medicine. Helps the sick with medications and cures. Also identifies people with fingerprints

Effect of environmental factors - enzymes (pH and temperature)

Environmental factor or ecological factor or ecofactor is any factor, abiotic or biotic, that influences living organisms. Abiotic factors include ambient temperature, amount of sunlight, and pH of the water soil in which an organism lives.

General Structure of Eukaryotic Cells

Eukaryotic cells are often described by comparision with prokaryotic cells. There are many differences between these types of cells, the simplest distinction being that as prokaryotic cells are more primative than eukaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are generally larger and much more sophisticated than prokaryotic cells due to the presence of a complex series of membranes that divide a typical eukaryotic cell into compartments and also due to the many different types of specialized organelles present in most eukaryotic cells. These features result in most eukaryotic cells being complex structures that have many self-controlled systems, e.g. for generating energy, moving materials around, and even self-destruction in appropriate circumstances. Organisms with a membrane enclosed nucleus and organelle

Increasing Genetic Variation

Genetic variation is essential for natural selection because natural selection can only increase or decrease frequency of alleles that already exist in the population. Genetic variation is caused by: mutation. random mating between organisms. Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments

Cell Cycle - M phase

In cells with a nucleus, as in eukaryotes, the cell cycle is also divided into three periods: interphase, the mitotic (M) phase, and cytokinesis. During interphase, the cell grows, accumulating nutrients needed for mitosis, preparing it for cell division and duplicating its DNA.

Significance of environmental factors (prevention of infectious disease)

Most emerging infections appear to be caused by pathogens already present in the environment, brought out of obscurity or given a selective advantage by changing conditions and afforded an opportunity to infect new host populations (on rare occasions, a new variant may also evolve and cause a new disease) (2,4). The process by which infectious agents may transfer from animals to humans or disseminate from isolated groups into new populations can be called microbial traffic (3,4). A number of activities increase microbial traffic and as a result promote emergence and epidemics. In some cases, including many of the most novel infections, the agents are zoonotic, crossing from their natural hosts into the human population; because of the many similarities, I include here vector-borne diseases. In other cases, pathogens already present in geographically isolated populations are given an opportunity to disseminate further. Surprisingly often, disease emergence is caused by human actions, however inadvertently; natural causes, such as changes in climate, can also at times be responsible (6). Although this discussion is confined largely to human disease, similar considerations apply to emerging pathogens in other species.

Consequence of biodiversity - human activity (Invasive species & habitat fragmentation)

Population: Growth of the human population is a major factor affecting the environment. Simply put, overpopulation means that there are more people than there are resources to meet their needs. Almost all the environmental problems we face today can be traced back to the increase in population in the world. The human population is at 6 billion; with an annual global growth rate of 1.8%, three more people are added to the earth every second. This represents an increase of almost 60% since 1970 and over 150% since the second world war. (Miller, 1992) Affluence: Simultaneously, the world has experienced an annual economic growth rate of 2.7% over the past three years. Affluence is a problem because with increasing affluence comes an increase in the per capita resource utilization. Less than 20% of the world's population controls 80% of the world's wealth and resources. The high standard of living that accompanies the increased production and consumption of goods is the major cause of pollution and environmental degradation.

Evidence for Evolution - Molecular Biology

The fields of genetics and molecular biology are able to provide strong evidence for evolution. All organisms on Earth are composed of the same building blocks: DNA, RNA, and proteins. ... Protein is composed of specific sequences of amino acids encoded by the sequence of nucleic acids in RNA. Using molecules to identify evolution

Evaluating Scientific Claims

There are several questions to ask when being faced with a scientific claim. Probably the first and most obvious question is: do other scientists agree? Does this claim fit with previous scientific studies, or does this one say something new or different? If the claim is the same one that most scientists have been making for a while, it's more likely that you don't need to worry. That doesn't mean that it's definitely right - nothing in science is ever completely certain, only very likely based on the data. But it might mean it's not worth the time to analyze really carefully. On the other hand, if a claim is new or somehow special or different, it's important to evaluate it more carefully. Here are a few of the questions you can ask to figure out how reliable the claim is: What is the scientist actually saying? Sometimes the news media will say one thing about scientific research, even though the scientist is advising caution. Go back to the source, and see what the scientist actually concluded. Were the results statistically significant? Studies that have large numbers of people, or large numbers of data collections are more likely to lead to accurate results. A good study should analyze its statistical significance, and talk about it in the actual paper. This is measured in multiple ways, but one is the number of 'sigmas'. For example a 1 sigma result means that there is a 68.2% chance of it being valid, where as a 3 sigma result has a 99.8% chance of being valid.

Analyzing Data

This involves determining what the results of the experiment show and deciding on the next actions to take. The predictions of the hypothesis are compared to those of the null hypothesis, to determine which is better able to explain the data. In cases where an experiment is repeated many times, a statistical analysis such as a chi-squared test may be required. If the evidence has falsified the hypothesis, a new hypothesis is required; if the experiment supports the hypothesis but the evidence is not strong enough for high confidence, other predictions from the hypothesis must be tested. Once a hypothesis is strongly supported by evidence, a new question can be asked to provide further insight on the same topic. Evidence from other scientists and experience are frequently incorporated at any stage in the process. Depending on the complexity of the experiment, many iterations may be required to gather sufficient evidence to answer a question with confidence, or to build up many answers to highly specific questions in order to answer a single broader question.

Trends in Hominid Evolution - Skull Shape

Thus Sahelanthropus and the early australopithecines had cranial capacities within the range of modern chimpanzees (average around 400cc), with the later australopithecines reaching 550cc. Skulls attributed to early Homo begin at around 510cc, and there was a marked increase with Homo erectus, where later specimens had brain sizes of up to 1225cc, well within the modern range. The average cranial capacity of the Neandertals was larger than that of modern humans (1450cc and 1350cc respectively), but this may simply reflect the larger body mass of neanderthalensis. There is a strong positive correlation between body size and brain size, even within species e.g. male humans have larger body mass than females, and correspondingly larger cranial capacity. Equally importantly, the brain size in hominids, particularly Homo species, is greater than would be predicted for animals of their body mass. Skull shape changes with evolution

Male reproductive organs and functions

To produce, maintain, and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen) To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract during sex To produce and secrete male sex hormones responsible for maintaining the male reproductive systemPenis: This is the male organ used in sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped part at the end of the penis. The glans, also called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin. This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called circumcision. The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the penis. The glans of the penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings. The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three circular shaped chambers. These chambers are made up of special, sponge-like tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection. Semen, which contains sperm (reproductive cells), is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm. Scrotum: This is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind and below the penis. It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum acts as a "climate control system" for the testes. For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than body temperature. Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth or farther away from the body to cool the temperature.Testicles (testes): These are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubes are responsible for producing sperm cells.

Fertilization to birth (milestone in each trimester)

Weeks 1 and 2. These are the weeks after your last menstrual period before conception. Weeks 3 and 4. In week three, the egg is fertilized, becoming a zygote with 23 chromosomes from each of the mother and father. Chromosomes determine a person's sex, physical traits and even some intelligence and personality traits. Week four sees the zygote developed into a blastocyst and attaching to uterine wall. This attachment is called implantation. The placenta begins to form at this time as well. Weeks 5 and 6. During the embryonic period of week five, the baby begins brain, heart and spinal cord development. Other organs will begin to develop as well. Week six is a busy time, as the baby forms basic facial features and tiny buds, the beginnings of arms and legs. The body now is curved into a C-shape as well. The neural tube in the back closes, and the heart pumps blood. Weeks 7 and 8. At week seven, the baby's head continues development, with brain growth and some facial features filling in. The arm buds continue growth as well. In the eighth week, your baby has eyes, a nose and an upper lip. Ears are forming and fingers are emerging as limbs grow. The baby is still tiny, about one-half inch long at the end of eight weeks. Weeks 9 and 10. Weeks nine and 10 are busy. Facial features continue to develop, including eyelids. Bones form in the arms, which now even bend at the elbows. Details continue to fill in with your rapidly developing baby. There are now toes, a neck and a rounded head. Weeks 11 and 12. At week 11, the baby may be about 2 inches long and weigh as much as 8 grams, states the Mayo Clinic. The baby is now technically termed a fetus. Genitals have formed, and the arms and legs are longer and thinner. Red blood cells begin to form in the liver as well. Week 12 marks the end of the first trimester. Your baby now has fingernails and an identifiable human profile. He can make a fist, and the beginnings of teeth appear.

Changes in ecosystem - seasonal variations (temperature in lakes/ponds)

As the weather gets hotter, the density difference between warm surface waters (the epilimnion) and cold bottom waters (the hypolimnion) increases to a point where the two layers do not mix. This phenomenon, called summer stratification, prevents whole lake mixing, and nutrients from the lake sediments are no longer available to surface organisms. Bacteria consume nutrients and dead organisms that fall through the water column, using up oxygen in the hypolimnion.Since this oxygen cannot be replaced by photosynthesis (too dark) or diffusion with the atmosphere, the hypolimnion loses all oxygen and becomes anoxic. Some bacteria (anaerobic) can still slowly digest organic material, Summer Pond Diagramresulting in the formation of hydrogen sulfide gas, which has a 'rotten egg' smell. This gas generally stays in the hypolimnion until autumn cooling allows the lake to mix again. Warm water actually holds less oxygen than cold water, and when coupled with increased respiration rates, summer lakes can be depleted of much of their oxygen. This can lead to summer fish kills. This is especially common after large algae blooms that overcome the oxygen supply when decomposing after dying off. Aerating lakes combats summer problems by preventing stratification and increasing the overall oxygen supply in the lake. Autumn Cooler autumn temperatures reduce the energy required to mix lakes, allowing complete lake turnover to occur. This mixes nutrients and gasses (like smelly hydrogen sulfide) from the summer hypolimnion throughout the water column. MiAutumn Pond Diagramxing of the lake increases oxygen by exposing a greater volume of water to the atmosphere, but if a substantial portion of the lake volume lost oxygen in the summer, a rapid fall turnover can cause fish kills in autumn by diluting the oxygen that was available in the surface layer before mixing. Aerating during the summer can prevent this type of fish kill. As autumn temperatures continue to drop, ice formation at the surface gradually reduces mixing as the lake is cut off from the atmosphere. Winter As cold temperatures slow the metabolisms of all living creatures, winter lakes and ponds exhibit reduced rates of photosynthesis and respiration. In temperate lakes covered by ice, water temperatures are about 4˚C (39˚F) top to bottom except at the very top where ice forms between 0˚C (32˚F) and 4˚C. The unique properties of Winter Pond Diagramwater molecules make ice less dense than water, so it floats on the top of the lake, allowing fish and other life to remain alive below. Ice can become so thick that little light penetrates to the water below. Photosynthesis, already slowed by the cold temperatures, ceases to take place altogether in the dark. The ice also separates the lake water from the atmosphere so that no direct diffusion of oxygen can occur. Although fish and other organisms need very little oxygen when water temperatures are so cold, oxygen may entirely deplete, resulting in a winter fish kill. These fish kills can be prevented by keeping a hole open in the ice, which is easily accomplished by moving the water with a small aeration system. Aeration systems may also be used to prevent ice around docks and other structures in winter. Spring Spring Pond DiagramAs temperatures increase and melt winter ice, lakes in spring experience warming at the surface that leads to stratification, or temperature layering. Whole lake mixing usually occurs in spring just after ice melts, but the difference in temperature between the surface and the bottom soon prevents mixing of the two layers, especially in lakes deeper than 5 or 6 feet. Frequent spring storms bring not only water to the lake, but an influx of nutrients from the landscape. This often leads to a series of spring algae and zooplankton blooms that allow nutrients in the lake to be cycled up through the food chain.

Changes in ecosystem - climate change

A changing climate forces plants and animals to migrate in order to survive. (Credit: noelzialee via Flickr.) Climate change is altering the pattern of life on the planet, causing widespread species extinction, migration and behaviour changes. A changing climate forces plants and animals to migrate in order to survive.

Food Web

A food web (or food cycle) is the natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation (usually an image) of what-eats-what in an ecological community. Another name for food web is a consumer-resource system. Ecologists can broadly lump all life forms into one of two categories called trophic levels: 1) the autotrophs, and 2) the heterotrophs

Making Inferences

An inference is the explanation we use to depict events we experience are often called inference. Inferences are based on observation are are simply explanations of observations. The ability to infer helps us make sense of our environment. you need to be logical when making an inference.

Mitosis - Anaphase

Anaphase is the fourth phase of mitosis, the process that separates the duplicated genetic material carried in the nucleus of a parent cell into two identical daughter cells. Before anaphase begins, the replicated chromosomes, called sister chromatids, are aligned at along the equator of the cell on the equatorial plane. The sister chromatids are pairs of identical copies of DNA joined at a point called the centromere.

Sexual vs. asexual reproduction

Asexual reproduction generates offspring that are genetically identical to a single parent. In sexual reproduction, two parents contribute genetic information to produce unique offspring. Sexual and asexual reproduction have advantages and disadvantages—which is why some organisms do both!

Determining Genotype

At least one dominant trait makes that trait. Two of the recessive traits make it that trait

Codominance

Codominance is a form of dominance wherein the alleles of a gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed. This results in offspring with a phenotype that is neither dominant nor recessive. A typical example showing codominance is the ABO blood group system. A condition in which neither of two alleles of a gene is dominant or recessive.

Evidence for Evolution - Comparative Embryology

Comparative embryology is the branch of embryology that compares and contrasts embryos of different species. It is used to show how all animals are there or not the organism has a notochord or gill arches) Shows a comparison of embryos

Understand Classification (system today based on____)

Dichotomous Key

Changes in ecosystem - succession

Ecological succession is the gradual process by which ecosystems change and develop over time. Nothing remains the same and habitats are constantly changing. ... Secondary succession is the series of community changes which take place on a previously colonized, but disturbed or damaged habitat.

Sex-Linked Inheritance

Females have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome (XY). ... One special pattern of inheritance that doesn't fit Mendel's rules is sex-linked inheritance, referring to the inheritance of traits that are located on genes on the sexes A trait that is carried on the X chromosome and rarely on the Y chromosome is considered ____.

Moderate Temperature

For example, a cool oven has temperature set to 90°C (200°F), and a slow oven has a temperature range from 150-160°C (300-325°F). A moderate oven has a range of 180-190°C (350-375°F), and a hot oven has temperature set to 200-230°C (400-450°F).

Biotechnology on the environment (GMO)

GMOs are organisms such as plants, animals and micro-organisms (bacteria, viruses, etc.), the genetic characteristics of which have been modified artificially in order to give them a new property (a plant's resistance to a disease or insect, increased crop productivity, a plant's tolerance of a herbicide, etc.). Less pesticides used. Less water pollution. Less bad things for the environment.

Using renewable resources

Generating electricity from renewable energy rather than fossil fuels offers significant public health benefits. The air and water pollution emitted by coal and natural gas plants is linked to breathing problems, neurological damage, heart attacks, and cancer.Apr 8, 2013

Trends in Hominid Evolution - Brain Size

Human Characteristics: Brains. Endocasts of Homo erectus (left) and Homo sapiens (right) illustrate rapid increase in brain size. As early humans faced new environmental challenges and evolved bigger bodies, they evolved larger and more complex brains. Large, complex brains can process and store a lot of information. the key difference between pre-Homo and Homo species.

Human impact on environmental systems (Pollution in food web, invasive species)

Human impact on the environment or anthropogenic impact on the environment includes impacts on biophysical environments, biodiversity, and other resources. The term anthropogenic designates an effect or object resulting from human activity.

Significance of genetic factors (active immunity vs passive immunity)

Immunity involves both specific and nonspecific components. The nonspecific components act as barriers or eliminators of a wide range of pathogens irrespective of their antigenic make-up. Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when a person is exposed to a live pathogen, and develops a primary immune response, which leads to immunological memory. This type of immunity is "natural" because it is not induced by deliberate exposure.Active and Passive Immunity. Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response. Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen.

Analyze patterns of inheritance.

In general, inheritance patterns for single gene disorders are classified based on whether they are autosomal or X-linked and whether they have a dominant or recessive pattern of inheritance. These disorders are called Mendelian disorders, after the geneticist Gregor Mendel.

Inherited variation (crossing over/recombination)

In meiosis, genetic recombination occurs as a result of the random segregation of these homologous chromosomes into different cells or from the process of transferring genes between homologous chromosomes, known as crossing over differences in genetic information passed down through ancestors

Changes in organisms classification

In the 18th century, Carl Linnaeus published a system for classifying living things, which has been developed into the modern classification system. People have always given names to things that they see, including plants and animals, but Linnaeus was the first scientist to develop a hierarchal naming structure that conveyed information both about what the species was (its name) and also its closest relatives. The ability of the Linnean system to convey complex relationships to scientists throughout the world is why it has been so widely adopted. Modern classification is simply an extension of the system of classification proposed by Carolus Linnaeus. Linnaeus introduced four categories namely class, order, genus and species in each of the two kingdoms proposed by him - the plant kingdom and the animal kingdom.

Nonspecific Immune Response

Innate; every response is the same; no memory & cannot differentiate between types of invasions (every pathogen is treated the same)

Cerebrum

Largest part of the brain

Life in aquatic system - depth

Light - plants thats need light will be closer to the surface as they need sun for photosynthesis. Depth - the oxygen concentration will change with diffferent depths. There will be more oxygen nearer the surface, so probably more animals. More aerobic organisms. Anaerobic organisms will be at the bottom where there is less oxygen. Temperature - may be warmer at the surface because the sun. So if an organism is cold blooded and needs heat from the sun then it may stay near the surface. Salinity - some organisms and plants can't grow in a saline environment. If theres a saline in environment it would select for organisms that are able to grow in that difficult environment.

Mitosis vs. meiosis

Meiosis has two rounds of genetic separation and cellular division while mitosis only has one of each. In meiosis homologous chromosomes separate leading to daughter cells that are not genetically identical. In mitosis the daughter cells are identical to the parent as well as to each other.

Role of Mitosis - Asexual reproduction

Mitosis plays an important part in the life cycle of most living things, though to varying extents. In unicellular organisms such as bacteria, mitosis is a type of asexual reproduction, making identical copies of a single cell. In multicellular organisms, mitosis produces more cells for growth and repair.

Distinguishing characteristics of Fungi

Most fungi grow as tubular filaments called hyphae. An interwoven mass of hyphae is called a mycelium. The walls of hyphae are often strengthened with chitin, a polymer of N-acetylglucosamine. ... Fungi disperse themselves by releasing spores, usually windblown. ... Fungi are heterotrophic. eukaryote, chitin, most multi, hetero

Frontal Lobe

Part of the brain associated with motor control, decision making, and long-term memory storage.

Photosynthesis vs cellular respiration

Photosynthesis takes place in the chloroplasts of cells. ... Cellular respiration, on the other hand, is the process by which living things convert oxygen and glucose to carbon dioxide and water, thereby yielding energy. It does not require the presence of sunlight and is always occurring in living organisms.

Plant Structure - Photosynthesis

Photosynthesis takes place in the mesophyll of the leaves, inside the chloroplasts. Chloroplasts contain disc-shaped structures called thylakoids, which contain the pigment chlorophyll. Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.

Distinguishing characteristics of Plantae

Plants are multicellular and eukaryotic, meaning their cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Plants perform photosynthesis, the process by which plants capture the energy of sunlight and use carbon dioxide from the air to make their own food. eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthetic, and most are autotrophs

Polygenic Inheritance

Polygenic inheritance occurs when one characteristic is controlled by two or more genes. Often the genes are large in quantity but small in effect. Examples of human polygenic inheritance are height, skin color, eye color and weight. combined effect of two or more genes on a single character

Blood Pressure

Pressure exerted by the blood upon the walls of the blood vessels, especially arteries, usually measured by means of a sphygmomanometer and expressed in millimeters of mercury.

Disease

a disorder of structure or function in a human, animal, or plant, especially one that produces specific signs or symptoms or that affects a specific location and is not simply a direct result of physical injury. Any condition that interferes with the proper functioning of the body or mind

Role of Meiosis - Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction is able to generate genetic variation in offspring because the process of meiosis randomly shuffles genes across chromosomes and then randomly separates half of those chromosomes into each gamete. The two gametes then randomly fuse to form a new organism.

Plant Stems

Stems have four main functions which are: Support for and the elevation of leaves, flowers and fruits. The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits. Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem.

Compare Microscopes (Light vs. Electron)

Similarities: Form larger (magnified) and more detailed (highly resolved) images of small objects or small areas of larger objects e.g. a leaf, part of a bone, etc. than can be formed by the human eye. Used in study and research in biology and medical sciences (more about histology), material sciences e.g. metallurgy and other aspects of science. Specimens must be carefully prepared using techniques appropriate for both the equipment and the sample e.g. slicing, staining, mounting, etc. (e.g. how to prepare histology slides). Differences: Size: Light microscopes are smaller and lighter, so are easier to move and set-up. Cost / Availability: Light microscopes are less expensive than electron microscopes. Radiation Type: Light microscopes use light (approx wavelength 400-700 nm), electron microscopes use beams of electrons (approx equivalent wavelength 1 nm). Control of image formation : Light via glass lenses, beams of electrons can be focused using electromagnets due to negative charge on electrons. Resolution*: Electron microscopes have much higher resolution than light microscopes Magnification*: Electron microscopes have much higher magnification than light microscopes Colour Images: Light microscopes form images including the range of wavelengths (colours) provided by the light source - but remember that the colours seen are often due to stains rather than the actual colours present in nature). Electron microscopes produce greyscale (sometimes called "black and white") images. However, "false-colour" electron micrographs are common - and can be very beautiful! Preparation of specimens : Generally involves harsher processes, e.g. using corrosive chemicals, for viewing via electron microscope than preparation of slides for viewing using a light microscope. Therefore more skill required - both to prepare specimens and to interpret EM images (due to "artefacts" in images, artefacts = features in images that are not present in the specimen but rather are due to the processes used to prepare the specimen and produce the image) Image Formation : Light microscope images can be viewed directly. Electron microscopes require use of a fluorescent screen, photographic plate or electronic display because electrons cannot be observed directly by the human eye. Usage Limitations : Living specimens cannot be viewed using electron microscopes because electron microscopes require there to be a vacuum in the tube - otherwise the electrons would be absorbed by air molecules.

Monitoring environmental parameters (Climate change affects to ecosystem & changes to the ozone layer)

The 2011 EU Common Agricultural Policy aims to strengthen the competitiveness of the agricultural sector, to promote innovation, contribute to environmental protection and to support jobs and growth in rural areas. The consecutive reforms in agricultural policy have created adequate environment for developing and implementing innovative, environmentally friendly farming methods, allowing the farmers to increase the production and manage the local environment, which is essential for the sustainable development of the agricultural sector.

Prokaryotic Cells vs. Eukaryotic Cells

The distinction between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is considered to be the most important distinction among groups of organisms. Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus, while prokaryotic cells do not. Differences in cellular structure of prokaryotes and eukaryotes include the presence of mitochondria and chloroplasts, the cell wall, and the structure of chromosomal DNA. One cell doesn't have a nucleus and one cell doesn't

Freezing

The fact that water expands upon freezing causes icebergs to float. The fact that water reaches a maximum density at about 4°C causes bodies of water to freeze on the top first. Then the further expansion as a part of the phase change keeps the ice floating with some 8% of its mass above the surface.

Female reproductive organs and functions

The internal sex organs are the uterus and Fallopian tubes, and the ovaries. The uterus or womb accommodates the embryo which develops into the fetus. The uterus also produces vaginal and uterine secretions which help the transit of sperm to the Fallopian tubes. The ovaries produce the ova (egg cells). The external sex organs are also known as the genitals and these are the organs of the vulva including the labia, clitoris and vaginal opening. The vagina is connected to the uterus at the cervix.[1]

Primary function of carbohydrates

The role of carbohydrates is to provide energy, as they are the body's main source of fuel, needed for physical activity, brain function and operation of the organs. All the cells and tissues in your body need carbs, and they are also important for intestinal health and waste elimination.

Transcription

Transcription is the first step of gene expression, in which a particular segment of DNA is copied into RNA (especially mRNA) by the enzyme RNA polymerase. Both DNA and RNA are nucleic acids, which use base pairs of nucleotides as a complementary language. (genetics) the organic process whereby the DNA sequence in a gene is copied into mRNA

Similarities in genetic code

The three-base codes are called "codons." Each codon specifies only one amino acid, although some amino acids are specified by more than one codon. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is called the genetic code, and it is essentially the same for every organism on Earth. collection of codons of mRNA, each of which directs the incorporation of a particular amino acid into a protein during protein synthesis

Water Cycle

The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time but the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, saline water and atmospheric water is variable depending on a wide range of climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor. The water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings and cools the environment. When it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. These heat exchanges influence climate. The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater. The flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, through processes including erosion and sedimentation. The water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet.

Biotechnology on the society (cloning, transgenic plants, & gene therapy)

Transgenic animals, i.e., engineered to carry genes from other species, have the ... recombinant DNA (artificially-produced DNA); genetic cloning; analysis of gene .... Human gene therapy involves adding a normal copy of a gene (transgene) to ... decision-making cannot be ignored by the biotechnology industry, scientists, . Helps optimize organisms by allowing more ideal organisms to be alive (cloning). Gene therapy also helps.

Blood Viscosity

Thickness of blood

Multiple Alleles

Three or more alternative forms of a gene (alleles) that can occupy the same locus. However, only two of the alleles can be present in a single organism. For example, the ABO system of blood groups is controlled by three alleles, only two of which are present in an individual.

Properties of Water

Water (H 2O) is a polar inorganic compound that is at room temperature a tasteless and odorless liquid, nearly colorless with a hint of blue. This simplest hydrogen chalcogenide is by far the most studied chemical compound and is described as the "universal solvent" for its ability to dissolve many substances.[14][15] This allows it to be the "solvent of life".[16] It is the only common substance to exist as a solid, liquid, and gas in nature.[17]

Universal Solvent

Water is at times recognized as a universal solvent because of the many substances that it can dissolve. However, water is not capable of dissolving all substances, especially those that are nonpolar or hydrophobic in nature.

Vaccines

a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases, prepared from the causative agent of a disease, its products, or a synthetic substitute, treated to act as an antigen without inducing the disease. "there is no vaccine against HIV infection" preparations for weakened or killed pathogens

Cohesive Behavior

cohering or tending to cohere; well-integrated; unified: a cohesive organization. 3. Physics. of or relating to the molecular force within a body or substance acting to unite its parts. ... cohesiveness, noun.

Plant Roots

penetrates soil and absorbs minerals The first root that comes from a plant is called the radicle. A root's four major functions are 1) absorption of water and inorganic nutrients, 2) anchoring of the plant body to the ground, and supporting it, 3) storage of food and nutrients, 4) vegetative reproduction and competition with other plants.

Plant Cell vs. Animal Cell

plants cells have a cell wall, a chloroplast, larger vacuoles than animals, and can do photosynthesis Plant and animal cells have several differences and similarities. For example, animal cells do not have a cell wall or chloroplasts but plant cells do.

Resistance

the act of fighting against something that is attacking you, or refusing to accept

Brain Stem

the central trunk of the mammalian brain, consisting of the medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain, and continuing downward to form the spinal cord. Connection to spinal cord. Filters information flow between peripheral nervous system and the rest of the brain.

Carrying Capacity

the number of people, other living organisms, or crops that a region can support without environmental degradation.

Photosynthesis (Equation, location, products and reactants)

the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.

Translation

the process whereby genetic information coded in messenger RNA directs the formation of a specific protein at a ribosome in the cytoplasm

Vascular Tissue

the tissue in higher plants that constitutes the vascular system, consisting of phloem and xylem, by which water and nutrients are conducted throughout the plant. Plant tissue consisting of cells joined into tubes that transport water and nutrients throughout the plant body.

Gene Flow

the transfer of alleles or genes from one population to another. Migration into or out of a population may be responsible for a marked change in allele frequencies (the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population