ANT 101: Chap 8 Power, Politics, and Social Power

The transition to democracy is especially difficult when __________. -the majority of the population has strong, and homogenous, religious beliefs -the state is also undergoing transition from agricultural to industrial/digital modes of livelihood -gender equality exists -the change is from a highly authoritarian socialist regime

the change is from highly authoritarian socialist regime

What is a frequent way that a state extracts resources from its citizens? -redistribution -taxation -warfare -requiring a certain amount of community labor each year

taxation

Power

the ability to bring about results with the potential or use of force. Closely related to power are authority and influence.

Cultural Anthropologists

Compared with political scientists, cultural anthropologists take a broader view of politics that includes many kinds of behavior and thought beyond formal party politics and government as most readers of this book have experienced. Cultural anthropologists offer examples of political systems and behavior that do not look "political" to people who have grown up in modern states.

Democratization

Democratization is the process of transformation from an authoritarian regime to a democratic regime. This process includes several features: the end of torture, the liberation of political prisoners, the lifting of censorship, and the toleration of some opposition (Pasquino 1996). In some cases, what is achieved is more a relaxation of authoritarianism than a true transition to democracy, which would occur when the authoritarian regime is no longer in control. Political parties emerge, some presenting traditional interests and others oppositional. -The transition to democracy appears to be most difficult when the change is from highly authoritarian socialist regimes. This pattern is partly explained by the fact that democratization implies a transition from a planned economy to one based on market capitalism (Lempert 1996). The spotty record of democratization efforts also has to do with the fact that many principles of democracy do not fit in with local political traditions that are based solely on kinship and patronage.

Ethnic conflict

Ethnic conflict and grievances may result from an ethnic group's attempt to gain more autonomy or more equitable treatment. It may also be caused by a dominant group's actions to subordinate, oppress, or eliminate an ethnic group by genocide (killing large numbers of a distinct ethnic, racial, or religious group) or ethnocide (destroying the culture of a distinct group).

Patrick Tierney

Following Ferguson's position, but with a new angle, journalist Patrick Tierney points the finger of blame at Chagnon himself (2000). Tierney maintains that it was the presence of Chagnon, with his team of coresearchers and many boxes of trade goods, that triggered a series of lethal raids due to increased competition for those very goods. In addition, Tierney argues that Chagnon intentionally prompted the Yanomami to act fiercely in his films and to stage raids that created aggravated intergroup hostility beyond what had originally existed.

Band

-A band, the form of political organization associated with foraging groups, involves flexible membership and no formal leaders. -Just as foraging has been the predominant mode of livelihood for almost all of human existence, the band is humanity's oldest form of political organization. And just as foraging is in danger of extinction as a way of life, so is band political organization. -A band typically comprises between 20 and a few hundred people at most, all related through kinship. These units come together at certain times of the year, depending on their foraging patterns and ritual schedule. -The band level of organization barely qualifies as a form of political organization, because groups are flexible, leadership is ephemeral, and there are no signs or emblems of political affiliation. Some anthropologists argue, therefore, that true politics did not exist in undisturbed band societies. Bands still exist, but their members have had to learn to interact with other forms of political organization.

Chiefdoms

-A chiefdom is a form of political organization that includes permanently allied tribes and villages under one chief, a leader who possesses power. -They are more centralized and socially complex. Hereditary systems of social ranking and economic stratification are a central feature of chiefdoms. Chiefs and their descendants have higher status than commoners, and intermarriage between members of the two strata is forbidden. -The chiefship must be filled at all times. When a chief dies or retires, he or she must be replaced. In contrast, the death of a band leader or of a big-man or big-woman does not require that someone else be chosen as a replacement. -A chief has more responsibilities than a band or tribal leader. He or she regulates production and redistribution, solves internal conflicts, and plans and leads raids and warring expeditions. - Criteria for becoming a chief include both ascribed and achieved qualities. Ascribed criteria include birth in a chiefly lineage and being the first son or daughter of the chief. Achievement is measured in terms of personal leadership skills, charisma, and accumulated wealth. Chiefdoms have existed throughout the world.

A Law

-A law is a binding rule created through custom or official enactment that defines correct behavior and the punishment for misbehavior. -Systems of law are more common and more elaborate in state-level societies, but many nonstate societies have formalized laws. Religion often provides legitimacy for law. -Australian Aborigines believe that law came to humans during the Dreamtime (also called the Dreaming), a period in the mythological past when the ancestors created the world. -The terms law and religion are synonymous in contemporary Islamic states. Secular Western states consider their laws to be religiously neutral, although, in fact, much Western law is based on Judeo-Christian beliefs.

Tribal headman

-A tribal headman (most tribal leaders are male) is a more formal leader than a band leader. -A headman must be hardworking and generous and must possess good personal skills. - A headman is a political leader on a part-time basis only. This role is more demanding than that of a band leader. Depending on the mode of livelihood, a headman will be in charge of determining the times for moving herds, planting and harvesting, and for setting the time for seasonal feasts and celebrations. Internal and external conflict resolution is also his responsibility. A headman relies mainly on authority and influence, rather than on power. These strategies are effective because tribal members are all kin and are loyal to each other.

Tribe

-A tribe is a more formal type of political organization than the band. -A tribe is a political group that comprises several bands or lineage groups, each with a similar language and lifestyle and each occupying a distinct territory. - Tribal groups may be connected through a clan structure, in which most people claim descent from a common ancestor although they may be unable to trace the exact relationship. -Kinship is the primary basis of membership. Tribal groupings contain from a hundred to several thousand people. -Tribes are found in the Middle East, South Asia, Southeast Asia, the Pacific, Africa, and the Western Hemisphere.

All three terms

-All three terms are relational. A person's power, authority, or influence exists in relation to other people. Power implies the greatest likelihood of a coercive and hierarchical relationship, and authority and influence offer the most scope for consensual, cooperative decision making. Power, authority, and influence are all related to politics, power being the strongest basis for action and decision making—and potentially the least moral.

Systems of Social Control

-Anthropologists distinguish between small-scale societies and large-scale societies in terms of conflict resolution, social order, and punishment of offenses. -The overall goal in dealing with conflict in small-scale societies is to return the group to harmony. Village fission (breaking up) and ostracism are mechanisms for dealing with more serious conflict.

Fay Gale, Australia

-At the invitation of Aboriginal leaders in Australia, Fay Gale and her colleagues conducted research comparing the treatment of Aboriginal youth and White youth in the judicial system (1990). The question posed by the Aboriginal leaders was "Why are our kids always in trouble?" Two directions can be pursued to find the answer. First, structural factors—such as Aboriginal displacement from their homeland, poverty, poor living conditions, and bleak future prospects—can be investigated. Second, the criminal justice system can be examined to see whether it treats Aboriginal and White youth equally. The researchers decided to direct their attention to the judicial system because little work had been done in that area by social scientists. Findings show that Aboriginal youth are overrepresented at every level of the juvenile justice system, from apprehension (being caught by the police) through pretrial processes, to the ultimate stage of adjudication (the judge's decision) and disposition (the punishment): "A far greater proportion of Aboriginal than other young people follow the harshest route... . At each point in the system where discretion operates, young Aborigines are significantly more likely than other young persons to receive the most severe outcomes of those available to the decision-makers" (1990:3). At the time of apprehension (being caught by the police), the suspect can be either formally arrested or informally reported. A formal arrest is made to ensure that the offender will appear in court. Officers ask suspects for a home address and whether they have a job. Aboriginal youth are more likely than White youth to live in an extended family in a poor neighborhood, and they are more likely to be unemployed. Thus, they tend to be placed in the category "undependable," and they are formally arrested more than White youth for the same crime (Figure 8.2). The next step determines whether the suspect will be tried in Children's Court or referred to Children's Aid Panels. The Children's Aid Panels in South Australia have gained acclaim worldwide for the opportunities they give to individuals to avoid becoming repeat offenders and take their proper place in society. But most Aboriginal youth offenders are denied access to them and instead have to appear in court, where the vast majority of youthful offenders end up pleading guilty. The clear and disturbing finding from this study is that the mode of arrest tends to determine each subsequent stage.

Big Man and Big Woman Leadership

-BIG-MAN AND BIG-WOMAN LEADERSHIP - In between tribal and chiefdom organizations is the big-man system or big-woman system, a form of political organization in which individuals build a political base and gain prestige, influence, and authority through a system of redistribution based on personal ties and grand feasts -Political ties of a successful big-man or big-woman include people in several villages. A big-man tends to have marginally greater wealth than his followers, although people continue to expect him to be generous. The core supporters of a big-man tend to be kin, with extended networks that include nonkin. -A big-man has heavy responsibilities. He is responsible for regulating internal affairs, such as the timing of crop planting, and external affairs, such as intergroup feasts, trade, and war. In some instances, a big-man is assisted in carrying out his responsibilities by a group of other respected men. -These councils include people from the big-man's different constituencies. -an aspiring big-man develops a leadership position through a process called moka (mawka) (Strathern 1971). -Moka is a strategy for developing political leadership in Melanesia that involves exchanging favors and gifts, such as pigs, and sponsoring large feasts where further gift-giving occurs. -A crucial factor in big-manship in the Mount Hagen area is having at least one wife. An aspiring big-man urges his wife or wives to work harder than ordinary women to grow more food to feed more pigs. - The number of pigs a man has is an important measure of his status and worth. -An aspiring big-man builds moka relationships first with kin and then beyond. By giving goods to people, he gains prestige over them. The recipient is under pressure to make a return gift of equal or greater value. -The exchanges go back and forth, over the years. The more the aspiring big-man gives, and the more people he can maintain in his exchange network, the greater prestige he develops.

Napoleon Chagnon

-Since the 1960s, biological anthropologist Napoleon Chagnon has studied several Yanomami villages. He has written a widely read and frequently republished ethnography about the Yanomami, with early editions carrying the subtitle The Fierce People (1992 [1968]). He also helped produce classic ethnographic films about the Yanomami, including The Feast and The Ax Fight. Chagnon's writings and films have promoted a view of the Yanomami as exceptionally violent and prone to lethal warfare. According to Chagnon, about one-third of adult Yanomami males die violently, about two-thirds of all adults lose at least one close relative through violence, and over 50 percent lose two or more close relatives (1992:205). He has reported that one village was raided 25 times during his first 15 months of fieldwork. Although village alliances are sometimes formed, they are fragile and allies may turn against each other unpredictably. The Yanomami world, as depicted by Chagnon, is one of danger, threats, and counterthreats. Enemies, human and supernatural, are everywhere. Support from one's allies is uncertain. All of this uncertainty leads to what Chagnon describes as the waiteri (a Yanomami word) complex, a set of behaviors and attitudes that includes a fierce political and personal stance for men and forms of individual and group communication that stress aggression and independence. Fierceness is a dominant theme in socialization, as boys learn how to fight with clubs, participate in chest-pounding duels with other boys, and use a spear. Adult males are aggressive and hostile toward adult females, and boys learn to be aggressive toward girls from an early age. Chagnon provides a biological, Darwinian explanation for the fierceness shown by the Yanomami. He reports that the Yanomami explain that village raids and warfare are carried out so that men may obtain wives. Although the Yanomami prefer to marry within their village, a shortage of potential brides exists because of the Yanomami practice of female infanticide. Although the Yanomami prefer to marry endogamously, taking a wife from another group is preferable to remaining a bachelor. Men in other groups, however, are unwilling to give up their women—hence the necessity for raids. Other reasons for raids are suspicion of sorcery or theft of food. Chagnon argues that within this system warfare contributes to reproductive success because successful warriors are able to gain a wife or more than one wife (polygyny is allowed). Thus, successful warriors will have higher reproductive rates than unsuccessful warriors. Successful warriors, Chagnon suggests, have a genetic advantage for fierceness, which they pass on to their sons, leading to a higher growth rate of groups with violent males through genetic selection for fierceness. Male fierceness, in this view, is biologically adaptive. -Marvin Harris, taking the cultural materialist perspective, says that protein scarcity and population dynamics in the area are the underlying causes of warfare (1984). The Yanomami lack plentiful sources of meat, which is highly valued. Harris suggests that when game in an area becomes depleted, pressure rises to expand into the territory of neighboring groups, thus precipitating conflict. Such conflicts in turn result in high rates of adult male mortality. Combined with the effects of female infanticide, this meat-warfare complex keeps population growth rates down to a level that the environment can support. -A third view relies on historical data. Brian Ferguson (1990) argues that the high levels of violence among the Yanomami were caused by the intensified Western presence during the preceding 100 years. Furthermore, diseases introduced from outside, especially measles and malaria, severely depopulated the Yanomami and greatly increased their fears of sorcery (their explanation for disease). The attraction to Western goods such as steel axes and guns would also increase intergroup rivalry. Thus, Ferguson suggests that the "fierce people" are a creation of historical forces, especially contact with and pressure from outsiders.

Anthro Connections

A political leader of the Ashanti people of Ghana, West Africa. British colonialists referred to such leaders with the English term "chief." Perhaps the English word "king" might have been more appropriate. Nonetheless, the term chief has endured. In 2012, Ashanti people in the United States installed their New York chief who is laden with gold necklaces, bracelets, and a crown as well as wearing kente cloth (Semple 2012). -A kente cloth is a royal and sacred fabric associated with Ghana's Akan people and characteristics by geometric shapes, bright colors, and designs associated with proverbs, leaders, events, and plants. At the ceremony elders poured libations, and drummers inspired hundreds of guests, draped in kente, to dance. The New York chief, as of 2011, is Acheampong-Tieku (try pronouncing it as you read it), who goes by Michael in his civilian life and works in the Bronx as an accountant. He was nominated by a 10-member council of regional Ashanti elders and voted on by community members. His ceremonial and practical duties include mediating family and business disputes before they reach the courts and helping Ghanaian immigrants find work, housing, health care, and legal aid. His most pressing challenge, however, is the survival of his organization. Many of the New York Ghanaian association's original members have moved back to Ghana or died. Ghanaian-American youth are not interested in the association and its support of Ghanaian traditions. -Legal anthropology, the subject of the second section, is the study of socially accepted ways of maintaining social order and resolving conflict.

Robert Carneiro's low opinion of the United Nations is related to which of the following factors? -The variety of beliefs and assumptions that different cultural representatives bring to the UN leads to haphazard decision making. -The power reserved for certain countries causes the UN to act in favor of their interests. -By involving all states, the UN is a chaotic zone for many competing interests and therefore cannot gain consensus on any issue. -Because the UN rarely uses force, it is ineffective

Because the UN rarely uses force, it is ineffective.

Which is a characteristic of Puerto Rico that makes it an example of the difficulty of applying the definition of a nation to a society with fluid populations? -Second-generation Puerto Ricans born outside the island tend to adhere to more conservative Catholic beliefs than island residents. -The population identifies strongly as either U.S. citizens or native Puerto Ricans, but not both. -The agricultural economy is at odds with the U.S. government's support of manufacturing and digital business. -Immigration increases diversity in the local population, while emigration from the island disrupts the identification with a territory.

Immigration increases diversity in the local population, while emigration from the island disrupts the identification with a territory.

Social Control in States

In densely populated societies with more social stratification and more wealth, increased social stress occurs in relation to the distribution of surplus, inheritance, and rights to land. In addition, increased social scale means that not everyone knows everyone else. Face-to-face accountability exists only in localized groups. Three important factors in state systems of social control are as follows: Specialization of roles involved in social control Formal trials and courts Power-enforced forms of punishment, such as prisons and the death penalty -Informal mechanisms of social control, however, exist alongside these formal systems at the local level.

Why do small-scale societies use ostracism as a means of social control? -Leaders are unwilling to use other mechanisms because of United Nations regulations. -Forcing someone to leave the community is a symbolic form of rebirth for the person. -The emphasis is on hurtfully punishing an offender as opposed to restoring social equilibrium. -It is the most serious form of punishment because small-scale societies are based on principles of personal relatedness and interdependence.

It is the most serious form of punishment because small-scale societies are based on principles of personal relatedness and interdependence.

Militarism

Militarism is the dominance of the armed forces in administration of the state and society. -So far, the people of West Papua have responded with little direct resistance to outside forces but have displayed behavior that could be called collaboration for survival.

According to the textbook, why would the United States not be considered a nation? -The United States has a long tradition of states' rights in opposition to the central government. -One definition of a nation is that it is culturally homogeneous, which the United States is not. -The United States lacks a contiguous territorial base. -States within the United States constitute a political threat to state stability and control.

One definition of a nation is that it is culturally homogeneous, which the United States is not.

War

One definition of war says that it is an open and declared conflict between two political units. This definition, however, rules out many warlike conflicts, including the American-Vietnam War because it was undeclared. Or, war may be defined simply as organized aggression. But this definition is too broad, because not all organized violence can be considered warfare. Perhaps the best definition is that war is organized conflict involving group action directed against another group and involving lethal force (Ferguson 1994, quoted in Reyna 1994:30).

Benedict Anderson

Political scientist Benedict Anderson, in his classic study Imagined Communities (1991 [1983]), writes about the symbolic efforts that state builders employ to create a sense of belonging—an "imagined community"—among diverse peoples. Strategies include the imposition of one language as the national language; the construction of monuments and museums that emphasize unity; and the use of songs, dress, poetry, and other media messages to promote an image of a unified country. Some states, such as China, control religious expression in the interest of promoting loyalty to and identity with the state.

What can be concluded from the high rate of incarceration of Blacks in the United States? -This pattern is explained by the relatively high rates of incarceration of Black girls and women. -Racial inequality in the United States is demonstrated through unequal imprisonment. -Across the United States, there is a consistent pattern of incarceration rates. -White men are less likely to commit crimes than any other group in the United States.

Racial inequality in the United States is demonstrated through unequal imprisonment.

Sunni women who experienced poor treatment in obstetric clinics in northern Pakistan during Sunni-Shia conflict were the victims of __________. -sectarian conflict -ethnic conflict -indirect warfare -non-formal warfare

sectarian conflict

What role might cultural anthropology play in international peacekeeping?

Robert Carneiro (1994) has a pessimistic response. Carneiro says that during the long history of human political evolution from bands to states, warfare has been the major means by which political units enlarged their power and domain. Foreseeing no logical end to this process, he predicts that war will follow war until superstates become ever larger and one mega-state is the final result. He considers the United Nations powerless in dealing with the principal obstacle to world peace: state sovereignty interests. Carneiro indicts the United Nations for its lack of coercive power and its record of having resolved disputes through military intervention in only a few cases. If war is inevitable, little hope exists that anthropological knowledge can be applied to peacemaking efforts. Nonetheless, and despite Carneiro's views, cultural anthropologists have shown that war is not a cultural universal and that some cultures solve disputes without resorting to war. The cultural anthropological perspective of critical cultural relativism (review this concept in Chapter 1) can provide useful background on issues of conflict and prompt a deeper dialogue between parties. -Two positive points emerge. The United Nations at least affords an arena for airing disputes. International peace organizations may thus play a role in world peace and order by providing a forum for analysis of the interrelationships among world problems and by exposing the causes and consequences of violence. Another positive direction is the role of NGOs and grassroots organizations in promoting local and global peacemaking through initiatives that bridge group interests.

Sectarian Conflict

Sectarian conflict is conflict based on perceived differences between divisions or sects within a religion, and often related to rights and resources. For hundreds of years, sectarian conflict has occurred within the British Isles, between Catholics and Protestants, both groups being Christian. Sectarian conflict between Muslims often follows a split between Shias and Sunnis (discussed in Chapter 12). -This division is expressed in outright violence such as attacks on each other's sacred sites. It also takes the form of indirect, structural violence, as shown by a study conducted in northern Pakistan during a period of Shia-Sunni conflict (Varley 2010). During the conflict, exclusionary medical service provision occurred in which Sunni women experienced second-class treatment at obstetric clinics to the extent that they retreated to using alternative medicine.

How is social control different in small-scale societies compared with states? -Small-scale societies have less face-to-face accountability than states, and therefore need more formal measures of social control. -Small-scale societies can handle disputes on interpersonal levels, but states are much larger and need specialized forms of punishment. -Small-scale societies focus more on punishing an offender than on restoring social equilibrium, as occurs in states. -Small-scale societies have increased social stress in relation to the distribution of resources and must have specialized rules of social control.

Small-scale societies can handle disputes on interpersonal levels, but states are much larger and need specialized forms of punishment.

What is the main difference between a social norm and a law? -Enforcement of social norms is formal but does not extend to punishment, as do laws. -Social norms are learned through socialization; laws are created through official enactment. -Social norms define the punishment for misbehavior and laws define correct behavior. -Religion often provides legitimacy for social norms, but not for laws.

Social norms are learned through socialization; laws are created through official enactment.

What is one way the term waiteri complex, as defined by Napoleon Chagnon, leads to high rates of violence among the Yanomami? -It places a high value on animal sources of protein that are scarce. -It is the genetic basis for frequent village raids. -Socialization of boys promotes aggressive attitudes and behavior. -It promotes a belief system about female witches.

Socialization of boys promotes aggressive attitudes and behavior

Global Local Conflict

The categories of conflict described previously involve units that are roughly parallel: ethnic groups, sectarian groups, or states. Another form of conflict has been taking place around the world since at least the fifteenth century when powerful European countries began to colonize tropical countries. This process, far from being over, is ongoing, though the major actors have shifted over time.

Specialization

The specialization of tasks related to law and order, such as those performed by police, judges, and lawyers, increases with the emergence of state organization. Full-time professionals such as judges and lawyers emerged with the state. These professionals are often members of powerful social groups, a fact that perpetuates elite biases in the justice process itself.

What is true about leaders of bands? -They have both authority and power. -They gain authority through a system of redistribution. -They can force others to accept their views. -They have influence, but not power.

They have influence, but not power.

Which of the following is a characteristic of chiefdoms? -They typically comprise more than one village. -Authority is maintained through a system of redistribution. -Political structures are not based on kinship relations. -They are found in the foraging mode of livelihood.

They typically comprise more than one village.

What does the fact that women form about 19 percent of all the world's parliamentary members illustrate? -Matriarchal societies still exist in the world. -Political opportunities for women have declined in the last century from 50 percent. -Women in most countries have limited access to political power. -The political power of women is decreasing with globalization.

Women in most countries have limited access to political power.

Social Justice

a concept of fairness based on social equality that seeks to ensure entitlements and opportunities for disadvantaged members of society.

Trial by ordeal

a way of judging guilt or innocence in which the accused person is put through a test that is often painful. -An accused person may be required to place his or her hand in boiling oil, for example, or to have a part of his or her body touched by a red-hot knife. Being burned is a sign of guilt, whereas not being burned means that the suspect is innocent.

What is the social norm? -a power-enforced form of punishment for bad behavior -an accepted standard for how people should behave -a binding rule created through official enactment that defines correct behavior -global agreements enforced by the United Nations

an accepted standard for how people should behave

Political Organization

as the groups within a culture that are responsible for public decision making and leadership, maintaining social cohesion and order, protecting group rights, and ensuring safety from external threats.

Authority is the ability to bring about results __________. -by maintaining social order and resolving conflict -by exerting social or moral pressure -based on a person's status, respect, and reputation -with the potential or actual use of force

based on a persons status, respect, and reputation

What is one of the greatest offenses among the highland horticulturalists of Sumba? -not accepting a handshake -breaking a promise -watching a neighbor planting his or her garden -ostracizing a family member

breaking a promise

In what way(s) has Turkey tried to suppress Kurdish identity? -by referring to them as "Mountain Turks" and restricting the use of the Kurdish language -by forcing them to switch from agriculture to pastoralism -by razing their villages and using chemical weapons against them -by forcing them to abandon their religion and become Sunni Muslims

by referring to them as "Mountain Turks" and restricting the use of the Kurdish language

Hereditary systems of social ranking and economic stratification are features of __________. -big-man/big-woman --leadership -bands -chiefdoms -tribes

chiefdoms

Two instruments of social control

norms and laws

The ability to bring about results with the potential use of force is known as __________. -influence -authority -power -social capital

power

What does political scientist Benedict Anderson mean by "imagined communities"? -communities that lack a territorial base but are culturally homogenous -communities in which increased international migration has created a heterogeneous population within a single territorial base -communities in which state builders employ symbolic efforts to create a sense of belonging among diverse people -communities in which all people share a language, culture, territorial base, and political organization

communities in which state builders employ symbolic efforts to create a sense of belonging among diverse people

What quality did the Mao jacket worn by the leadership in China intend to communicate? -peace -power -equality wealth

equality

Which of the following would be a research focus of critical legal anthropology? -applying the mechanisms of consensus building found in native North American communities to corporate conflicts -organizing a protest against the incarceration of wrongly accused men -studying the symbols involved in the legal system of a West African village court -examining the judicial system in Afghanistan to see if it discriminates against women

examining the judicial system in Afghanistan to see if it discriminates against women

The parliament of a small state has changed from having a male majority to a female one. The new parliament has changed a number of policies that once clearly benefited men more, to now benefiting women more. What concept would this development be directly related to? -gender essentialism -gender pluralism -gender compensation -gender as an ascribed category

gender essentialism

On what did Stuart Kirsch base his decision to act on behalf of the indigenous residents of Ok Tedi? -the idea that all anthropologists should act on behalf of studied cultures -his dedication to gender equality -his belief that he should consider his research findings an item of exchange -his acceptance as a permanent member of one of the villages

his belief that he should consider his research findings an item of exchange

What does the process known as moka illustrate? -how leadership develops through exchange in a big-man system -the fact that all members of a band are social equals, including the leaders -the fact that if a chief dies or retires he or she must be immediately replaced -the way that several chiefdoms can come together to join a confederacy

how leadership develops through exchange in a big-man system

State

is a centralized political unit encompassing many communities, a bureaucratic structure, and leaders who possess coercive power. -The state is now the form of political organization in which all people live. - Band organizations, tribes, and chiefdoms exist, but they are incorporated to varying degrees within state structures.

Policing

is a form of social control that includes processes of surveillance and the threat of punishment related to maintaining social order (Reiner 1996). Police are the specific organization and personnel who discover, report, and investigate crimes. As a specialized group, police are associated with states.

a nation

is a group of people who share a language, culture, territorial base, political organization, and history (Clay 1990)

Social norms

is an accepted standard for how people should behave that is usually unwritten and learned unconsciously through socialization.

Critical legal anthropology

is an approach within the cross-cultural study of legal systems that examines the role of law and judicial processes in maintaining the dominance of powerful groups through discriminatory practices rather than protecting members of less powerful groups.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR)

is increasingly adopted by large multinationals, though implemented to varying degrees. The definition of CSR is contested, but most would agree that it boils down to business ethics that seek to generate profits for the corporation while avoiding harm to people and the environment: The goal is to pursue profits in line with protecting people and the planet. -Other anthropologists work as advocates on behalf of the so-called "affected people" to document harm inflicted by businesses and to gain compensation, meager as it typically is, and late-coming due to extended legal processes (see Anthropology Works). Another role for anthropology is at the beginning of the process of a resource extraction process, documenting the legal steps involved in the Environmental Impact Assessment phase and how, typically, the process is tilted in favor of the companies due to their power networks. In one case, in Peru, the mining company was able to bring in scientific experts to attest on its behalf; the campesinos (small farmers), who resisted the mine, lacked the ability to bring in their own counter-experts (Li 2009).

Authority

is the ability to bring about results based on a person's status, respect, and reputation in the community. Authority differs from power in two ways: - Power is backed up by the potential use of force, - and power can be wielded by an individual who lacks authority.

Influence

is the ability to bring about results by exerting social or moral pressure. Unlike authority, influence may be exerted from a low-status, marginal position.

Social control

is the process by which people maintain orderly life in groups. - Social control systems include informal social controls that exist through socialization for proper behavior, education, and peer pressure. -They may also include formal systems of codified rules about proper behavior and punishments for deviation.

Which of the following situations would be an example of a state's attempt to create an "imagined community" per Benedict Anderson's definition? -marking high-visibility locations, consumer goods, and school uniforms with the country's flag -enacting policies designed to improve the welfare of disadvantaged microcultures within the state -encouraging democratic participation at all levels -ethnic "cleansing"

marking high-visibility locations, consumer goods, and school uniforms with the country's flag

A distinguishing feature of a band is that it has __________. -a bureaucratic structure -no formal leader -a headman -grand feasts

no formal leader

Which of the following is the best general description of social control? -the resolution of conflicts by informal means -the set of formal rules concerning conduct and punishment in a society -an unconscious mechanism that constrains individual behavior -the way people maintain orderly life in groups through both formal and informal means

the way people maintain orderly life in groups through both formal and informal means

The emergence of warfare as defined in the text emerged with what form of political organization? -chiefdoms -tribes -states -bands

tribes