Anthropology 101

superfamily homoinoidea

all apes and humans ex: chimpanzees, banboos and gorillas

genome

refers to the entire genetic makeup of an individual or species including all the dna and genes

phenotype

the physical expression of the genes

ethnographic research

the process of studying culture

zemithang valley

the region is biodiversity. Internationally recognized as a biological hotspot.

Malinowski

-Bronislaw Malinowski conducted research among the Trobriand Islanders -he noted the use o magic during sailing -he suggested that people turn to magic for matters they can't control of when there is a gap in their knowledge or power while an activity.pursuit must be continued -he argued that religion is born out of "the real tragedies of human life"

neandertals

-a very well known variety of human that occupied much of Europe, the Middle East, and parts of Asia as far east as Siberia -were typically rugged, with prominent brow ridges, large noses and powerful limbs -were adept tool makers, had a diverse diet including many kinds of animals, used spears and controlled fire

order primates

-about 400 other species ex: monkeys and apes

explanations for the collapse of civilization

-all civilizations eventually collapse -ecological -social/political -ideological

changing livelihood

-the growing need for industrial development has captured the eyes of the local elites -deteriorating biodiversity of grassland-impacted the livelihood activity -change in market demand for local grown products

introduction to culture

-all humans use their own cultural lenses to understand and interrpert their surroundings. The cultural lens guides our behaviour and interactions with others -all humans have the capacity for culture. We are born ready to learn culture, but nothing in our genes or biology determines what culture we learn. -understanding culture allows us to behave appropriately when we interact with others -expectations of how people behave based on their sex are an essential part of culture -sharing culture means people understand what goes on around them in approximately the same ways -we learn about culture by getting in the thick of it

evolution by natural selection

-all organisms face limited resources (places natural limit on population) -variation is present in any group of living organisms -within any group, there is competition for the limited resources available

why did people domesticate plants and animals?

-allowed access to more food with less risk, less work and better health -people began to increasingly manage their resources to the point of domestication -plant domestication may have been to produce alcohol or perhaps to gain status

biological anthropology

-also known as physical anthropology -focuses on human biology, past and present -includes the study of human biological evolution as well as the study of contemporary biological variability -study of skeletal material (bones and teeth) as well as DNA and other molecular substances

cultural anthropology

-also known as social anthropology or socio-cultural anthropology -studies past and present -involves immersing oneself within a culture for several months or more -beyond simply describing people's lifeways, it seeks to interpret and explain larger patterns of culture

1800's

-anthropology emerges in both Canada and the United States -important developments include establishment of Bureau of American Ethnology and museum collections

archaeology of the contemporary world

-archaeologists in the modern world study household trash, nuclear waste and trash in outer space -there are new sub fields of archaeology including forensic anthropology and disaster archaeology -contribute to practical ways to issues related to sustainability

ancient civilizations

-are equated with a state level of political organization. Often civilization is used to describe several distinct states in a region, with each one meeting the criteria of civilization.

identifying domestication in the archaeological record

-as domestication continues, the size of the edible part continues to increase ex: corncobs may be quite small, but as the deposits get younger, the size of the corncobs gets larger -the primary ways of identifying domestic animals are based on the size and completeness of skeletons and the age and sex ratios of the butchered animals -they tend to be smaller

radiocarbon dating

-assumed to be used for sites less than 50 000 years old -at the instant of death, carbon 14 begins to decay at a known rate -consequently with lab analysis involving measuring the amount of carbon 14 left, the date at which the organism died can be inferred

potassium argon dating

-best technique for determining the age of sites over 200, 000 years -when volcanic sediment is hot there is potassium, but no argon -as the sediments begin to cool potassium begins to change into argon and we know what the rate of change is -this is not a useful technique for sediments more recent than a few hundred thousand years

principle research methods social structure

-biologically finding or forming a new group keeps the gene pool diverse and prevents inbreeding among families of primates -research is often focused on how dominance is achieved and maintained such as through strength, bluff, cleverness and alliances.

the importance of anthropology in an increasingly connected world

-can work in educating or serving as mediators between those providing and those receiving aid -have much to offer in discussions and planning for a sustainable future on Earth -make useful contributions to climate change and food security -recognize the value of diversity both biological and cultural

was cooking the driving force of human evolution?

-control of fire and the advent of cooked meals. Cooking increased the value of our food. It changed our bodies, our brains, our use of time and our social lives -it makes our food safer, creates rich and delicious tastes, and reduces spoilage -cooking increases the amount of energy our bodies obtain from our food -after our ancestors started eating cooked food every day, natural selection favored those with small guts, because they were able to digest their food well -energetic efficiency

late 1900's

-criticism of anthropology by indigenous peoples in both Canada and the United States, largely accepted by anthropologists -begins to break focus on Indigenous people's instead focusing on other groups

the four fields of anthropology

-cultural anthropology -archaeology -biological anthropology -linguistic anthropology -applied anthropology

2000's

-discipline continues to grow in membership members, diversity and interest -many anthropologists becoming activists, including giving voice to the voiceless and disenfranchised and tackling issues of race and racism

Why domestication and food production?

-domestication increased the carrying capacity of the regions which humans filled -for most people, pastoralism and horticulture required more time spent on subsistence than a life based on foraging died -health suffered as a result of domestication -poor nutrition and diseases are reflected in the skeletons of early pastoralists and horticulturalists -produced a food surplus -reduced mobility -more people could live together -food production was linked with changing environments -once domestication begins and food surplus is created, the populations keep increasing and the cycle of increasing food production to keep up with demand continues -some food may have been domesticated to increase wealth and status -some plants may have been domesticated for the making of alcohol

ecological

-ecological catastrophe -climate change -diseases to crops -depletion of soil nutrients

Lactose Tolerance

-emerged independently among populations already using domestic cattle in various parts of the world -in each case a mutation occurred and allowed people to digest milk without problems. -this mutation became a favorable variation that was subsequently selected among populations, leading to many members of the descendant populations now being lactose tolerant -as children mature, the ability to produce lactase is switched off for about two-thirds of the world's population -"lactase persistence" to describe the condition, since it is the persistence of lactase that allows lactose tolerance

culture as community

-every culture has variations

social/political

-failure of trading networks -conflict with other groups

discovery of fermentation

-fermentation started with settling -often discovered by accident and led to deliberate contaimination with bacteria or molds

controlling fire

-fire provided warmth, light, protection, enhances diet, and provides a focus for social interaction -it enables more kinds of foods to be eaten, and increased the nutritional value of some. -by providing light it increased the practices that required or were enabled by light -by providing heat, it enabled the expansion into territories otherwise too cold -it also afforded protection from most animals and provided a focus for social interaction -fire is also associated with religion and ritual

carrying model of bipedalism

-food, children, rocks, sticks -repositioning of foreman magnum

increasing height

-for vision, more food, and display -lengthening of the femur -increased stride length

the fossil record

-fossil: is used to describe any preserved early human remains, no matter their condition. When one speaks of human fossil remains, it simply means they exist and may be in an extremely soft or fragile state. - fossil record: the interpretation of human evolution, based on the data of the collected remains. The fossil record may be taken to simply mean the assemblage of bones collected

how did the climate change?

-global warming caused the great glaciers to melt which made sea levels rise in coastal areas -landmasses and contintents were covered with water -many species and plants became extinct -thick forests replaces the tundra -humans could not live in areas that previosly had been uninhabitable

human dominant trait

-governs repair of hair cells in inner ear -mutation appears to cause protein overproduction that gradually damages dunction -only one mutant allele needed to cause the overproduction, so the condition is dominant and seen in anyone who inherits allele

effective heat management

-heat dissipation -changes to vertebral column -adding curves

Anthropology is

-holistic -comparative -field based -evolutionary

studying nuclear waste

-how to best mark nuclear waste sites so that people of the future will recognize the danger 1. multiple symbols, pictures, and languages should be used 2. structures should be made of natural materials such as earth or stone with no perceived value 3. large monoliths should ring the site 4. subsurface markers should be included at various levels

dating by association

-if two things are found in the same stratigraphic layer, and the antiquity of one object is already known, then the other object is likely the same age

principle research interests and communication

-includes studying vocalizations, gestures, expressions and language -vocalizations: get information from sender, their location, food sources, threats -gestures: waving, hugging

culture bound disorder

-individuals who deviate from the norm -when a person develops a biochemical brain disorder, he or she acts in ways that are considered deviant by the non-ill members of society -a mental disorder specific to particular ethnic groups

problems with the term race

-is a loaded term because it is used in many different contexts -serves as a useless label -enhances stereotypes that are not grounded in research

extinction

-is part of the evolutionary process -the last mass extinction occurred about 65 million years ago, causing many animals to become extinct, including the terrestrial dinosaurs

archaeology

-is the study of humans through their material remains which is the physical evidence of their activities -focused on prehistory -archaeological sites and artifacts found during fieldwork -primary objective is to describe and explain the human past and to document it

primatology

-is the study of nonhuman primates within a framework of anthropology -biological anthropologists are interested in the study of other primates to help us better understand our place in the animal workd

Charles Darwin

-is widely credited with developing the theory of evolution upon which much of biology today is based -says that any being under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life will have a better chance of surviving and thus be naturally selected `

code of ethics

-it is crucially important to have a set of guidelines that lay the foundation for interactions with others while in the field -the American Anthropological Association created such a set of guidelines called the Code of Ethics -seeks to provide a set of guidelines for proper conduct -protests those with whom they interact in the field and those who may be affected by their work -anthropologists must weigh the possible impacts of their actions on the dignity, health, and material well being of those among whom they work

walking in trees

-like orangutans -modification to knee -allowing full knee extension and locking in place -angling of femur inward -changes in the food (arch, realignment of big toe)

primate behavior methods

-long term commitment -studies primates in the wild -researchers try to be as unobtrusive as possible, observing the behavior of the primates and taking detailed notes

the culture concept

-members of a culture share a set of beliefs, customs, values and knowledge. These shared understandings allow us to act in ways that make sense to others

social systems

-membership would likely have been fluid and groups would almost certainly have been exogamous -women were not usually involved in hunting because it would have been difficult to hunt when pregnant or at caring for a child -the division of labor also likely created the need for a home base, a place where both males and females could return to at the end of the day

preservation

-not all human remains preserve equally. teeth tend to preserve the best, followed by the bones of the skull. The mandible (lower jaw) is the thickest and most dense bone of the skeleton and thus preserves the best of all bones and is sometimes found with the teeth intact. All the bones beneath the head, commonly known as the post-cranial bones, are preserved less often.

primate evolution

-occured in the cezoic 65 million years ago and continues to the present -understanding and describing primate evolution is simplified through the use of time periods called epocho -the last common ancestor that monkeys, apes and humans had with lemurs was more than 34 million years ago

cultural adaptation and maladaptation

-one important quality of humans is that we able to adapt. -we have biological adaptations like bipedalism and a vocal tract that allows speech

human recessive trait

-only one normal allele is needed to produce melanin

how can anthropologists contribute to discussion about and plans for sustainability

-primate ecology examples let us understand how forest environments are sustained -archaeology examples to demonstrate what did not work in the past -cultural examples to illustrate what works for contemporary populations (p.21)

Reasons why it is important to understand humans as primates

-provides an understanding of our place -evolutionary changes -explains the various ways of adapting to environments biologically -models of how early humans may have lived -how human culture and language evolved -important for sustainability -understanding issues related to diet

de-extinction

-refers to the idea of bringing back extinct animals, in a kind of cloning -bringing back now-extinct species can be an effective way of recovering natural habitats -opponents suggest that introducing previously extinct animals to environments could wreak havoc on contemporary ecosystems

finding sites

-researchers often return to the same general area year after year -typically they search in areas where there are sediments exposed from the time period of interest -want to search in areas that have a good preservation of organic remains -they look in caves because bones are often protected from the normal elements leading to decomposition (most people did not live in caves)

art and ideology

-some believe that engravings on shell dating to about 500, 000 years ago are evidence of art -the earliest undisputed evidence of art dates to about 40, 000 years ago. most of the art was found in caves in Europe -cave art or rock art is often linked with religion and ritual -art is linked to the burying of the dead -art is linked with playing flutes

components of culture

-subsistence/food getting/food procurement -diet -technology -language and communication -settlement patterns -economic systems -social systems -political systems -belief systems and ideology -arts -health and healing

chance

-such changes in allel/trait frequency due to chance are called genetic drift

situating anthropology

-teaching in colleges and universities -scholarly research -businesses -government agencies

was alcohol a driving force of human evolution?

-the ability to process alcohol was a driving force of becoming human -the ability to process alcohol and thus eat fementing fruit -the mutation thus became favorable, was selected for and spread -alcohol relieves pain, stops infection and seems to cure diseases -fermentation increased the nutritional value of wheat and barely and that by killing the pathogens in water through the fermentation process it was a safer and healthier option than drinking untreated water

domestic animals

-the animals tend to be smaller (at least in early stage of domestication) -there is a tendency to find more complete skeletons in the faunal assemblage -there is likely to be a high percentage of young, male animals in the assemblage -there is likely to be a high percentage of old female animals in the assemblage `

domestic plants

-the part of the plant that people use is usually larger -the plant may have lost its mechanism for natural dispersal -the part of the plant that people use may have become clustered -there is often a genetic change -there may be a loss of dormancy -the plants tend to ripen simultaneously -there is a tendency for less self-protection, such as thorns and toxins

garbology

-the study of contemporary north american trash -what people said they do at the household level and what they actually did was different indicated by their trash -landfill archaeology is that organic remains did not decompose very quickly -north americans are extremely wasteful, discarding a significant percentage of food, and that despite efforts to reduce trash, the average amount of trash thrown away by individuals continues to increase

What is anthropology?

-the study of human nature, human society, human language and the human past ex: of those little things that we study: drinking culture of business men in the north and how it relates to the ways of "doing business"

personality norms

-there is a wide variety of what can be considered normal personalities in any culture -each culture has its own norms, which help guide appropriate versus non appropriate behaviour

Charles Darwin Theory

-thought that we were dependent on each other in so complex a manner, and have all been produced by laws acting around us -the great principle of evolution stands up clear and firm, when these groups or facts are considered in connection with others

ideological

-too many resources spend on religious activity

Gregor Mendel

-took it upon himself to study how inheritance works through a very careful and comprehensive program of breeding pea plants

the oasis theory

-was seen as plausible explanation by archeologists for a number of years -suggested that at the end of the pleistocene a major climate change transformed the enviornment -concentration of settlements around fertile oasis -called neolithic revolution

characteristics of culture

-we learn it actively and acquire it passively from the people around us -what makes language symbolic is that it is conventional -members of a culture agree upon the meaning of the sounds and squiggles -culture is holistic or interrogated -all aspects of society are linked -culture must be shared. A personality feature that isn't shared by others could be called a quirk or unique attribute -the shared nature of culture allows people to understand each other's words and actions

ancient egypt

-where the world's second oldest civilization developed -featured the development of writing -early writing is known as hieroglpyphics and was deciphered in the 1800s using the rosetta stone

principle of science #1

-works on the premise that the universe is real and knoweable -science is unthinkable without provable measurements -scientific knowledge is always limited, which is why succession is important

statement on race

1. all humans living today belong to a single species. homo sapiens, and share a common descent. 2. biological differences between human beings reflect both hereditary factors and the influence of natural and social environment 3. there is great genetic diversity within all human populations 4. there are obvious physical differences between populations living in different geographic areas of the world 5. for centuries, scholars have sought to comprehend patterns in nature by classifying living things 6. in humankind as well as in other animals, the genetic composition of each population is subject over time to the modifying influence of diverse factors. 7. the human species has a rich past in migration, in territorial expansions, and in contrdictions 8. partly as a result of gene flow, the hereditary characteristics of human populations are in a state of perpetual flux 9. the biological consequences of mating depend only on the indivudal genetic makeup of the couple and not on their racial classification 10. there is no necessary concordance between biological charaacteristics and culturally defined groups 11. physical, cultural and social environments influence the bahavioural differences among individuals in society

four stages of the scientific method

1. develop one or more hypotheses to explain an observation o answer a question 2. to test the hypothesis which requires the collection and analysis of data 3. includes acceptance, rejection, or modification of the hypothesis. 4. involves the continual reevaluation of the hypothesis as new data becomes available

three principal dietary strategies of primates

1. frugivory: eating a diet of fruit, teeth have rounded cusps to crush fruit 2. folivory: eating a diet of leaves and other rough foliage, teeth are effective 3. insectivory: eating a siet of insects, have molars with pointed cusps -primate populations often switch between these three

questions that ethnographers ask

1. how do people think they should behave? 2. how do people say they behave? 3. how do people actually behave

dating techniques

1. potasium argon dating 2. radiocarbon dating 3. dating by association

trends in human biological evolution

1. skeleton was not as fully adapted as later members of the genus homo 2. lost most of our body hair to regulate our body temperature 3. darker pigmentation was selected to protect the skin from the intense sun in africa

principles and methods of science

1. there is a real and knowable universe 2. the universe operates according to understandable laws 3. these laws are unchanging

class mammalia

29 other orders, about 5500 other species ex: cats, dogs, bats, rats

domestication of dogs

30 000 years ago in Russia and Serbia, 14 000 years ago in Europe and Israel

Anthropology and Sustainability

Anthropologists study Indigenous people living in small-scale, traditional societies. Ex: these groups hold cast amounts of traditional knowledge about the ecosystems in which they and it is important to save biodiversity of the planet.

Anthropology and Food

Is important to study in the light of climate change and globalization. Ex: farmers may lose entire harvests during a severe storm or heat wave.

characteristics

Lamarck proposed that an individual that acquired specific traits could pass those traits on to its offspring

What is anthropology?

The study of human nature, human society, human language, and the human past

hypothesis

a guess leads to this. a hypothesis must be testable meaning there must be some way to collect and analyze data to either support or reject the hypothesis

participant observation

a process in which a researcher lives with a group of people and observes their regular activities, often for a year or more. the ethnographer participates in daily life while at the same time maintaining some observational distance to be able to reflect and analyze

artificial selection

a process similar to natural selection in which people encourage the reproduction of certain plants and animals to propagate characteristics better suited to their own needs

domestication

a process that yielded plants and animals that were distinct from wild species and depdendent upon humans

applied anthropology

a subfield of anthropology in which scholars use information gathered from the other anthropological specialties to propose solutions to practical cross-cultural problems

ethnography

a written description of that culture

infraorder catarrhini

about 200 other species ex: old world monkeys, apes

suborder haplothini

about 300 other species ex: old and new world monkeys and apes

europe sites

acropolis of athens, pompeii, stonhenge and nasca

what we do (behavior)

actions and interactions with others are behavioral

if humans were to suddenly die off, and rabbits then began to flourish and spread across the globe as a dominant species; this would be an example of

adaptive radiation (p.35)

primate evolution

all contemporary primates have evolved and continue to do so. This includes humans. Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees, but they have a common ancestor with them

biological adaptations

allow an organism to better survive in its present conditions or to live successfully and reproduce in a variety of habits

biological anthropology

also known as physical anthropology, it focuses on studying the evolution of humanity, biological and behavioural diversity with humankind and adaptations to different environments. It examines the physical form of the human body, the bones, muscles and organs and also how it unctions to facilitate survival and reproduction.

if you were conducting a dig hoping to find human remains, which of these sites would be least likely to yield good findings?

an area chosen through a random algorithm somewhere in west africa (p.68)

Fieldwork

an extended period of close involvement with the people in whose way of life anthropologist is interested, during which they collect most of their data

alleles

an individual inherits one unit from each parent

asia sites

angkor, moenjo daro, terra cotta warriors, bamyian valley

there is a real and knowable universe

anthropologists accept that figuring out how and why humans emerged, how they evolved, and understanding the relationships between the various taxa of hominins is knowable

studying trash in outer space

anthropologists document and study the many thousands of pieces of orbital debris from satellites and other objects in space, which pose serious hazards to space travel

anthropology and sustainability

anthropologists study indigenous people living in small-scale, traditional societies ex: these groups hold cast amounts of traditional knowledge about the ecosystems in which they live and it is important to save biodiversity of the planet

maladaptive

any behaviour that leads to a decrease in well being of the members of a culture or to the culture itself is not adaptive. They may lead to harmful results

artifact

any object that has been manufactured or modified or that shows evidence of being used by people

ethnographers

approach their subjects and what questions they ask. In particular, ethnographers seek to understand the emic views as well as the etic views

furthering Geertz's analogy, anthropologists are attempting to understand how culture functions through examining

apps or programs coded to write out out behavior (p.162)

popular culture

archaeologists are commonly portrayed as adventures and stories revolving around the past

mutation

are errors in the replication of dna and are the ultimate source of variation within populations

mutations

are errors in the replication of dna, are the ultimate source of variation within populations

base camps

are generally recognized by the presence of artifacts and ecofacts, often in specific patterns that can be identified as a feature

extinctions

are part of the evolutionary process. it is likely that more than 99% of all species that have ever lives are now extinct

DNA, teeth and bones are some of the key materials often studied by

biological anthropologists (p.9)

symbol

can be anything that stands for something else and carries meaning

archaeological site

can be defined as any location with physical evidence of past human activity

domesticated wheat

cannot reproduce without human intervention, brittle glume to facilitate winnowing, firm rachis

holistic

characterized by comprehension of the parts of something as intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole

who is widely credited with developing the theory of evolution?

charles darwin (p.54)

genetics

comes from mendal

cultural evolution

concerns change over time in beliefs behaviors and material objects that shape human development and social life

cultural evolution

concerns change over time in beliefs, behaviours, and material objects that shape human development and social life

early 1900's

continued focus on indigenous people in North America

emic

cultural insider

What are the parts of culture?

culture has three basic parts: what we think (cognition), what we do (behavior) and what we have (artifacts)

city

defined as a settlement having at least 5000 residents

which of the following is not a consequence of controlling fire?

disease and negative health effects (e.g. caused by smoke inhalation, etc.) (101-102)

pastoralism

domesticating animals

horticulture

domesticating plants

Culture should be understood as

dynamic, fluid and ever changing (p.6-7)

mesopotamia

earliest known civilization

the transition to food production

early plant domesticates included rice, wheat, potatoes, and maize (corn). early animal domesticates included sheep, goats and cattle

sexual selection

essentially means personal mate selection

natural selection

ex: led to significant loss of body hair and changes in skin color

limitations on oasis theory

focused on animal domestication but said little about plants, lacked the archeological evidence for the clustering of human populations around oasis and a full understanding of the environmental conditions in the late pleistocene

ergonomics

forensic anthropologists use their expertise in biological anthropology mostly to identify victims

studying household trash

found that the sheer colume of trash, the danger of the chemicals and toxins within the trash, pollution, animals feeding on plastics and the costs of packaging and recycling

evidence for domestication

from the archeological record wild and domesticated species differ physically

heterogeneous

groups that share few identity markers

Human

has a distinct meaning in anthropology and may be used in ways that are unfamiliar. Not referred to as homo sapiens

human

has a distinct meaning in anthropology and may be used in ways that are unfamiliar. Not referred to as homo sapiens

our understandings of bipedal evolution

have changed over time with new findings (i.e. bipedalism likely developed from our ancestors living in a mixed environment rather than savannahs)

archeological data

health actually declined in some human populations with the advent of food production and the rise of the first cities

all components of culture are intricately interrelated and thus anthropologists recognize the need for

holistic (p.11)

child rearing

how children are raised in any society

Bipedalism

human are a certain kind of primate whose normal means of moving is walking on two legs and emerged several million years ago

bipedalism

humans are a certain kind of primate whose normal means of moving is walking on two legs and emerged several million years ago

homogeneous

if a group shares many identity markers

ethnographic research

immersion in a culture

clinal

in human population studies, a cline is a gradual shift in population traits such as average skin colour or blood types seen between two regions

hominins

include all members of the genes homo and other taxa with evidence of bipedalism that have emerged since the split from the common ancestor of humans, chimpanzees, and bonobos about seven million years ago

cultural adaptations

include all the ways that humans use cultural knowledge to better adapt and succeed in their surroundings

identity markers

include ethnicity, socio economic status, religious beliefs, age, gender, and interest

ecofacts

include plant and animal remains

culture

includes aspects of ideology and behavior as well as the products of those thoughts and behaviors it is the learned and shared things that people think, do and have as members of society

rock art

includes pictographs, which are paintings on immovable rock surfaces, such as boulders, cliff faces or cave walls

cultural resources management/commercial archaeology

involves looking for and recording archaeological sites in advance of development projects

paleoanthropology

involves the study of early human biology and culture, is considered part of biological anthropology, it tends to involve the recovery, analysis, and interpretation of both early human biological and cultural evidence

group

is a looser term, referring to people who share culture

epigenetics

is a new area of research that is still in its infancy

epigenetics

is a new area of research that is still in its infancy. we realize that genes are the primary way traits are inherited, but that other factors, such as chemical reactions due to life events or stressors, may also have a role. Epigenetics essentially refers to the study of how factors other than DNA or genes may influence the occurence of specific traits

species

is a population of individuals that can ate and produce fertile offspring in the wild

species

is a population of individuals that can mate and produce fertile offspring in the wild ex: horse and a donkey are different species, when they mate they can produce a mule, but mules are almost always sterile

genetic drift

is a random factor in evolution ex: when a small group leaves its parent population and begins a new population elsewhere

ethnography

is a scientific form of systematic study of people and their relation with their surrounding. It is designed to explore cultural, social, environmental phenomenon from both etic or emic point of view.

Ethnography

is a written record or presentation of empirical data on human societies and cultures. It is often reflexive and based on direct contact with a culture

habitation site

is based on the inference that people wer eliving at the site, at least on a temporary basis

feature

is defined as a nonportable entity that has clearly been created by hmans `

anthropology and food

is important to study in the light of climate change and globalization ex: farmers may lose entire harvests during a severe storm or heat wave

cooperative behaviour

is linked to a set of cognitive abilities and motivations. The question is: which of these mechanisms derived from our evolutionary ancestors and which aspects are unique to humans? What is the role of culture and socialization?

religion

is said to include forms of social beliefs in supernatural powers which are public and which are given public expression without rituals.

race

is something akin to subspecies, identified by a combination of physical and behavioural characteristics

forensic archaeology

is the application of archaeology in legal contexts, usually in regard to assisting criminal investigations

speciation

is the process by which new species emerge

dependance training

is the set of child rearing practices that supports the family unit over the individual. In societies with dependance training, children learn the role of importance of compliance to the family group

genomics

is the study of genomes

archeology

is the study of human cultures and their development throughout history, through the recovery and analysis of building sites, artifacts and other material remains.

linguistic anthropology

is the study of human languages. Includes classifying languages (taxonomic categories) determining past migrations and interactions by examining languages and studying language change, the influence of language on other elements of culture and their influences on it and language usage

taphonomy

is the study of what happens to organic remains after death. It is through taphonomy that anthropologists can identify the natural and cultural processes that may have acted upon the assemblage. ex: somebody familiar with taphonomy should be able to determine if bone breakage, marking on bones, the distance between bones and what bones were present were due to specific kinds of natural or cultural causes.

society

is used somewhat interchangeably with the term group, to refer to a large number of people with social connections

adaptive radiation

is when a species rapidly adapts to an ecological niche, often expanding its population quickly and diversifying into multiple species

gene flow

is when genes move between populations that are members of the same species but who do not normally mate together

gene flow

is when genes move between populations that are members of the same species but who do not normally mate together ex: people moving out of africa in the distant past mated with pre-existing popultions in the middle east and asia

australia

kakadu

canada sites

lanse aux meadows, head smashed in buffalo jump, historic distrct of quebec city, old town lunenberg, anthony island

1700's

little work that qualifies as anthropological. Notable exception includes Thomas Jefferson excavating to ascertain who created large earthen mounds

biological evolution

looks at how the physical features and life processes of human beings have changed over time. It also examines human origins and the genetic variation and inheritance in living human populations

Biological evolution

looks at how the physical features and life processes of human beings have changed over time. It also examines human origins and the genetic variation and inheritence in living human populations

applied anthropology

many working anthropologists apply their knowledge of anthropological methods, theory and perspectives to solve human problems

Archaeology is the study of humans through what means

material remains (p.8)

theory

may be used to descibe multiple well supported hypotheses about evolution

theory

may be used to describe multiple well supported hypotheses about evolution including the role of natural selection, sexual selection, mutation, gene flow, genetic drift and more. The theory in evolution refers to notions of how evolution occurs rather than if it occurs.

monumental architecture

may include buildings, but it also often features other large structures like pyramids or megaliths

subcultures

may reflect ethnic heritage, such as maxican americans or they may denote common interests

Holistic

means characterized by comprehension of the parts of something as intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole

sexual selection

means personal mate selection

enculturation

members of a group share culture, the knowledge and understandings that make up culture must be passed on from member to member. culture is transmitted from one generation to the next, from parents and other adults to children. It combines all the formal teaching with the informal acquisition of culture that comes with every day life

united states sites

mesa verde, cahokia, chacho canyon, pueblo de taos, independence hall, monticello and university of virgina, statue of liberty

hypothesis

must be testable, meaning there must be some way to collect and analyze data to either support or reject the hypothesis

civilization

must have at least one city, monumental architecture, subsistence based on agriculture, a state level of political organization and a system of writing

dna

new discoveries of a new kind of human, an unsual bone or a different kind of strand of dna may cause anthropologists to reevaluate their idea

cultivation

new type of subsistence activity which consisted in growing plants

disaster anthropology

offers to help with the identification, recovery, interpretation of human remains

snowball sample

one informants introduces the ethnographer to other informants

medical anthropology

one of the most rapidly growing branches of applies anthropology. Studies human health and the factors that contribute to disease or illness and the ways that human populations deal with disease of illness. They can be employed in medical schools and research centres.

family hominnae

only humans ex: homo sapiens and ancestral humans

etic

outside observer

how does urban life affect us?

overcrowding and poor knowledge of sanitation and food storage and personal hygiene equals nutritional deficiencies and the spread of infectious disease and reduced growth rates

Informants

people in a particular culture who work with anthropologists and provide them with insights about the local way of life. Also called respondents

fluid

people would come and go

omnivorous

primates that eat a wide range of foods, including plants, insects, and in some cases, small mammals

bees and bats, among many other creatures, are affected by the endangerment of primates because

primates, through their feces, deposit fruit seeds in different locations (p.45)

after the discovery of the new species "x" three different hypotheses are put forward to explain its size. Through various experiments someone is able to definitely reject two of these hypotheses and declares that the third therefore must be correct. This is an example of

pseudo scientific rationale

africa sites

pyramids at giza, great zimbaabwe

grooming, among primates, serves the main purpose of

reaffirming their social identities (p.40)

clinal variation

refers to gradual variation between regions with no clear border between different traits

independence training

refers to the set of child rearing practices that foster a child's self reliance. It is found in indisutrial societies, like our own, and in socieities in which earning an income requires moving to where the jobs are. The individual is an actor who can shape his or her own destiny

emic

research method where researcher obtains the perspective from and within the group and observes things around them as a subject

the nature of science

science is a framework consisting of principles, methods and ways of evaluating explanations. it is often described as empirical, meaning it relies on things that can be observed, measured and analyzed. It often requires experiments. Results from those experiments must be repeatable by others.

principle of science #2

science works on the premise that the universe operates according to understandable laws (such as law of gravity) and these laws are unchanging -Charles Darwin's Origin of Species

the universe operates according to understandable laws

scientists work toward understanding laws, which are as certain as we get about something in science

evolution of ethnography

secondary literature, history, participatory observation, reflectivity ex: Malinowski (Magic Science and Religion)

judgment sample

selects informants based on skills, knowledge, insight, and or sensitivity to cultural issues. The fieldworker will usually develop close ties to one or more informants who are chosen for these reasons and will spend a lot of time with them

What is used to classify humans into races?

skin, pigmentation, nose shape and hair texture

collaboration

social acts in which two or more individuals coordinate their actions to produce outcomes they could not obtain alone

race

species, kind, or thing

genes

specific units or factors in individuals which are passed on to offspring

disporic

spread across the world

ethnology

studies, compares and analyzes characteristics and ways of life of different peoples and the relationship between them through the direct contact with them

Foraging (also known as hunting and gathering) pastoralism and horticulture are all methods by which people get food, which is otherwise described by anthropologists as

subsistence (p.6)

gradualism

suggests a slow steady change with a new species eventually emerging

punctuated equilibrium

suggests slow steady change occasionally interrupted by short periods of significant change

archaeology and sustainability

sustainability has failed to be maintained in the past in various way. some archaeologists focus on studying contemporary waste to provide raw data which can be used to move forward in increasing sustainability

domestication

that the plants or animals are under the control of humans

archaelogical record

the actual physical remains of human activities that have been recorded by archeologists

random sample

the ethnographer's goal is to allow everyone an equal chance to be interviewed, which is done by selecting people randomly

the primary way through which one learns culture is through

the experiences one has (e.g. dinnertime, clothing) (p.160)

what we have (artifacts)

the material products of our society are artifacts (portable items) and features (non-portable items)

albinism

the most common type of is caused by a mutation in the gene coding for a protein involved in melanin synthesis

genetic drift

the most significant in small populations due to the greater proportional effect of a single birth or death on the gene pool ex: one person carries 1% of the total genes of a 100 person tribe, but only 0.001% of the genres of a 100 000 person city

which of the following is not an empirical finding?

the observation, for the first time, of a pair of animals mating in the wild (p.51)

phenotype

the physical expression for genes

a basic way to define culture is as

the shared understandings that shape thought and guide behavior (p.161)

personality

the sole property of the field of psychology since it represents the unique way an individual thinks, feels and act. When your specific set of genes comes into contact with your culture and social environment

linguistic anthropology

the study of relationships between language and social life. having originally been developed out of a desire to preserve languages on the verge of extinction, this field has grown to encompass a broad range of questions about the important role played by language, including its impact on individual and social identities and ideologies

what we think (cognitive)

the values we learn from our parents and the symbols we understand in our environment

ethnography

the written or visual product of that research

how might teeth help identify a primate's diet?

their shape, which indicate the kinds of food strategies they employ (p.29)

these laws are unchanging

there are very few things that are so certain that they are called laws

food producers

they began to manipulate plants and animals to increase their productivity, creating surplus

which of these statements is true, concerning the management of the environment by early humans?

they deliberately set fires to areas to manipulate the varieties of plants and animals that would re-populate the region (p.128)

etic

this is when the ethnographer is observing from being an outsider

central american (including mexico) sites

tikal, copan, monte alban, chichen itza, palenque, teoihuacan, uxmal

south america sites

tiwanaku, rapa nui, machu picchu, lines and geolyphs of nasca

particpatory action research

to effect change in a community, the research prioritizes the needs and concerns of the people who desire change

wild wheat

tough, protective glume for seed, fragile rachis

genes

traits are determined by specific units or factors in individuals which are passed on to offspring

informants

trusted members of the community. People with particularly deep knowledge about the issues the ethnographer is interested in

exogamy

upon reaching mating age, members would find partners from outside the group

neolithic

used to indicate the beginning of domestication

cultural anthropology

very close to social anthropology or gets referred to as sociocultural anthropology. Focuses on the study of different cultures across the globe, identifying points of similarity and difference and seeking to record and analyze cultural practices, customs and beliefs. Ex: kinship and social organization, material life and technology, subsistence and economics, world view

paganism

was associated with non-Christian religions including public rituals, the concept of superstitions was largely reserved for descriptions of invisible interrelationships in the world which neither science, authorized religion nor common sense could account for

ideal behavior

what people say

genotype

what the genes code for

real behavior

what they do

mass extinctions

when approximately half the species on earth became extinct

empire

when one state dominates or exercises control over others

community

when people share a geographical space. a community of people lives, works, and plays together

participant observation

whereby one both observes and participates in a culture

digital ethnography

wherever there is human culture, there will be anthropologists. This means that anthropologists are also online, studying virtual communities

broad spectrum collecting

wider subsistence base and a more intensive exploitation of localized resources