Anthropology 161 Final
Hardy-Weinberg Equation
p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
"Homo erectus" in Europe*
H. antecessor*
"Homo erectus" in Asia
H. erectus
"Homo erectus" in Africa
H. ergaster
"Homo erectus" in Europe*
H. heidelbergensis
Homo erectus: The "New Story"
H.habilis->H.ergaster->H.erectus(Asia), H.sapiens(Africa), H.heidelbergensis(Europe) -Early departure from Africa (H. ergaster?) -Acheulean tools develop in Africa after first departure -Asians develop into H. erectus -H. ergaster into H. sapiens and H. heidelbergensis?
Homo erectus: The "Old Story"
Homo habilis -> Homo erectus -> Homo sapiens -Evolved in Africa -Developed Achulean tools -Eventually left for Asia and Europe -Gradual change in brain size, culture, etc.
Recent African Origin Model - RAO - (Out of Africa)
-"Anatomically modern Homo sapiens evolved from an Archaic H. sapiens in only one region and migrated to other regions out-competing and replacing Archaic H.sapiens"
Multi-Regional Evolution (Regional Continuity) Model
-"Anatomically modern Homo sapiens in Europe, Africa, and Asia each evolved from archaic H. sapiens ancestors in each region" -This model also implies that Archaic H. sapiens evolved from Homo erectus in the same regions
Findings in Europe
-"H. erectus" -> H. heidelbergensis -Specimen found in Ceprano, Italy dated to 800 kya -Specimen found in Atapuerca, Spain dated to at least 780 kya -Many Achulean tools have been found in Europe, but few skeletal remains of "H. erectus"
Homo floresiensis
-"The Hobbit" -Found in Flores, Indonesia -May or may not be a different species -Has many morphological similarities to H. ergaster
Pleistocene - Ice Age
-1.6 mya - 10 kya -Cooling begins 3.2 mya and becomes more intense 2 mya -Widely acknowledged as a key part of our lineage -Glacials: Periods of Glacial Advance: Glaciers cover much of Europe and North America -Interglacials: warm periods between glacials -Fluctuations of colder and warmer periods led to fragmentation of environments and the development of environments such as tundras
Homo erectus
-1.8 mya -Brain near 1000 cc -Modern body shape -Modern height -Encephalization quotient becoming much higher (becoming more intelligent) -Rapid acceleration of evolution
Scavenging Meat & Marrow
-10 sites at Olduvai are "stone cache" sites: easy processing of scavenged animal remains -Tools were for cutting and chopping, not killing -Antelope leg bones were found as evidence for the scavenging of meat and the marrow within the bone -Cut marks on the bone are made over teeth marks: this shows who was there first, the hunter before the scavenger
Nariokotome Boy
-9-12 years old -Modern body -5'6": Would have grown to be 6 feet tall based on modern growth tendencies -Found by the Leakey's in Kenya -Originally thought to be H. erectus
1 or 2 more species?
-A broad pattern of "H. erectus" was stable for over 1 mya -Some group more modern looking African fossils as H. ergaster (higher cranium and smaller facial bones and thinner bones) and East Asian finds as H. erectus -H. antecessor used for some migrants into Europe: its brain is 1000cc but face is modern (Gran Dolina, Spain) -After 400K brain size is still increasing
Genetic Drift
-A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.
Beringia
-A land bridge between Europe/Asia and North America -Glacier advance = sea levels dropped -Last glaciation occurred 120 meters below modern sea levels -The continental shelves were exposed -The earliest Americans likely followed the herds, unaware that they were entering a new continent
The Great Chain of Being
-A way to explain where every living thing fit into the ladder of relationships with everything else.
Where did the Anatomically Modern Homo sapiens (amHs) come from?
-About 100-110 kya there are moderns in Israel, who are then replaced by Neanderthals, then amHs again by 80 kya -About 40 kya amHs in Eastern Europe with new toolkit (Aurignacian) -By 36 kya amHs in Southern Germany -By 36 kya amHs in Southwestern France -By 30 kya amHs are throughout Neanderthal territory an Neanderthals are gone
New Tool Technology
-About 36 kya Neanderthals in France use a new tool technology called Chatelperronian -It is a blend of blade tools(Aurignacian-like) and flake tools(Mousterian) -Believed to be evidence of Neanderthal trying to copy Aurignacian tools of amHs
Movius Line
-Acheulean technology made by "Homo erectus" is not found East of the Movius line -The Movius Line is coterminous with East India -Drawn almost horizontal through Southwest Asia
MRE vs RAO: Genetic Evidence Conclusion
-All groups are very similar -African women are the most diverse which is expected in the oldest population because they have the longest time for mutations to occur. -Samples from the rest of the world appear to have branched later and have less variation -Molecular clock suggests origin of amHs around 200 kya -Genetic record supports RAO and Africa as the source of amHs
Topper
-Allendale County, South Carolina -Flakes and micro-tools found 40 cm below the Clovis layer -"Hearth" feature: lens of charcoal -Date 50 kya on sediments around this feature
Archaic H. sapiens: Biology
-Archaic H. sapiens replace "H. erectus" -Bigger brains: over 1200 cc -Steeper foreheads -Thinner cranial bones -Flatter faces
Problems with Topper
-Are the tools of human manufacture? -Are they in context? -Is the charcoal lens a hearth? -Are the sediments of the same age as the human occupation?
Archaic H. sapiens
-As some of the "H. erectus" group continues to change, they start to look more like H. sapiens -By 400 kya, there were fossils found in Europe and Africa with brain size larger than H. erectus -This new stage is called Archaic H. sapiens -Archaic H. sapiens are poorly understood due to the limited amount of fossils found -Originated about 400 kya in Africa -Present in Europe by 320 kya -Present in Asia by 200 kya but the evidence is very poor
Criteria for legitimateness/dating of sites
-Best evidence: Human Skeleton that can be directly dated using radiometric techniques -Next Best Evidence: Artifacts that are clearly made by humans, the context in which the evidence is found (site must be undisturbed, and must demonstrate the primary association of artifacts and stratigraphy), and the minimum age of the site must be demonstrated by primary associations of material suitable for reliable isotopic dating (radiocarbon dating)
What are the 4 subdisciplines of Anthropology?
-Biological -Linguistic -Cultural -Archaeology
MRE vs RAO: Cultural Evidence in Africa
-Blade tools associated with amHs around 200 kya -By 90 kya amHs associated with stone blades (spear points, bone harpoons, ochre, and other specialized tools)
Evidence of Fire Use
-Bone: burned for extended periods of time at a high temperature, not natural -Charred organic/plant remains -Possible hearth areas -Definitely used by Archaic H. sapien times
How do Bonobos differ from other chimps? Why is this important?
-Bonobos are different because they have a tendency to walk upright when they have to -This is important because thought the process of analogy we know that the behavioral adaptations of primates today were likely behaviors of our ancestors
H. erectus Brain and Language
-Brain size larger (1000cc) but relative to body size is proportional to earlier hominids -Endocasts show clear brain asymmetry: some near modern capacities -Basicranium suggests: some speech? 6 year old? -Cooperative hunting and tool manufacture require abstract thought and complex communication
Neanderthal Ideology
-Burial of the Dead: Shanidar ("flower child"), La Ferraise ("family burial"), Teshik Tash ("goat boy") -Caring for the Sick and Infirmed: Shanidar and La Chapelle -Art: Grooved and Perforated bones, teeth pendants, polished ivory, ochre, whistle, flute -Cannibalism? Bear Cults? -Body Decoration: pierced shells, teeth, ivory, jewelry
End of the Miocene
-Characterized by a restriction of apes to Southeast Asia and Africa -The restriction was caused by plate tectonics, changing weather patterns, and restricting tropical zones
Monte Verde
-Chile -Waterlogged site -Lots of preserved organics -12,500 kya
Evidence from genetic comparisons indicates that humans are closest to....
-Chimpanzees and bonobos
Other new finds, new dates
-China -Longuppo Cave (Dragon Bone Hill) hominid remains that date to 1.8 mya -These and the early Indonesian finds look a lot like H. ergaster from East Africa
Some of the oldest sites in Americas
-Clovis: named for type of site in New Mexico (Classic fluted point style), type of tool, very spearhead-like
MRE vs RAO: Fossil Evidence in East Asia
-Continuity in local traits: extra cranial sutures, shovel shaped lateral incisors, ridge inside lower mandible (supports MRE) -Oldest clear amHs dates to 100 kya in China -Poor dating complicates evidence (not much 100-40 kya) -Moderns appear in Australia by 70 kya but not in Asia by 70 kya -Dates for H. erectus in Indonesia are about 30 kya: suggests replacement -"Asian" traits not limited to Asia in ancient times
What upset the use of literal interpretations of the Bible as the documented history as of the World?
-Copernicus' notion that the Earth revolved around the Sun -The findings of geologists such as Lyell (uniformitarian concepts created the Earth's surface) -The finding of the Neanderthal skull
Race is a _________ construct.
-Cultural
Sexual Dimorphism
-Differences in physical characteristics between males and females of the same species. -Could affect society and/or culture
Archaics in Europe
-Earliest Archaics in Europe are in the 300-500 kya range -The problem with the European specimens is that the oldest are least complete: Swanscombe (UK) may be 500 kya, but is only the back of the skull & Mauer (aka H. heidelbergensis) is only a lower jaw but may be 500 kya -In both cases the most diagnostic portion (the face) is missing
MRE vs RAO: Fossil Evidence in Africa
-Earliest amHs are found in Africa: Klaises River Mouth (chin) -> 84-120 kya, Border Cave (high forehead) -> 62-115 kya, Omo 1 (modern looking) -> 195 kya -Transitionals: Florisbad, Jebel Irhoud, Omo 2 about 200 kya -> more rounded cranium, larger foreheads, smaller brow ridges than early archaic forms at Bodo and Broken Hill
Still other new finds, new dates
-Europe -Dmanisi, Georgia: excavation of the walls of a medieval well to find at least three hominids that look a lot like H. ergaster and date to 1.8 mya -Found in what would have been a temperate climate -Atapuerca, Spain: lots of bones dating to 780 kya but they don't look like H. erectus
The Eve Hypothesis
-Everyone has Mitochondrial DNA from an African Woman from 200 kya -Suggests her descendants left Africa no later than 135 kya -Displaced Neanderthals and colonized the rest of the world -Challengers of the Replacement Hypothesis agree that there might have been a mitochondrial Eve -But she was likely Homo erectus not amHs
Mutations
-Evolutionary because any change in allele frequencies is evolutionary and mutations introduce new alleles. It is the only way new alleles are introduced
Physical Changes: Homo erectus vs Homo habilis
-Flatter face -Smaller brow -Average brain size around 1000cc -Higher front of cranium and more rounded back -Modern size and morphology -Body size is much more like modern humans than Australopiths
Has culture evolved along with "H. erectus"
-Food: they are probably still largely scavenging and foraging and hunting for small animals (eggs, baby birds, young animals) -Tools: they are still using Achulean tools -We still don't find many sites where they lived: No burials or evidence of ritual ideas, but they moved a lot so it is difficult to find a place where they "lived"
Tuang specimen from South Africa
-Foramen magnum was placed under the skull indicating bipedalism -Dentition: the teeth were parabolic and missing a diastema -These two characteristics made it clear to Raymond Dart that this was not an ape
MRE vs RAO: Fossil Evidence Conclusion
-Fossil record supports RAO and Africa as source of amHs -Africa=earliest fossils and transitional forms -There is no overlap of amHs and Archaic forms on Africa as there is in the Middle East and Europe -Earliest amHs in Europe appear tropical (like African amHs) -Continuity suggested from East Asia is not convincing, and earliest amHs dates to 100 kya
MRE vs RAO Conclusion
-Fossil, genetic, and cultural evidence all tend to support the Recent African Origin or Mostly Out of Africa and suggest that Anatomically Modern Humans evolved in Africa around 200,000 years ago.
Oldowan Tools
-Found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania -Associated with Homo habilis: the producer of tools -Pebbles with flakes struck off to make a sharp edge -Dated to about 1.8 mya -Although A. garhi suggests that Australopithecus made stone tools, it is only after the advent of Genus Homo that hominids start to rely on tools and culture to a great extent
The Fayoum
-Found in Egypt -The area in which most Miocene fossils are found
Archaic Homo sapiens
-Found in Europe, Asia, Africa -"H. erectus", but looks much more modern: cranial capacity, etc.
Findings in China: Lantian
-Found in Lantian County: northwest China -700 kya -Occurred in the same time period as Java findings -"Lantian Man" looked like H. erectus from Zhoukoudian
Findings in China: Zhoukoudian
-Found in Zhoukoudian: cave system in Beijing -"Peking Man": H. erectus -500-300 kya -More than 40 individuals -Found tools, hearths, animal bones, plant remains
The clinal decrease in type B blood from East Asia to Western Europe is probably a result of...
-Gene flow
Founder Effect
-Genetic drift that occurs when a few individuals become isolated from a larger population and form a new population whose gene pool composition is not reflective of that of the original population.
Male chimps compete for and maintain dominance largely through...
-Gestures -Expressions -Vocalizations
Pleistocene Megafauna
-Giant bison, beaver, sloth, mammoth, and mastodon -Paleoindians followed the migrating herds of animals so that they would have game to hunt -Paleoindians also ate smaller animals, nuts, berries, etc. -Many Paleoindian sites in the Eastern US -Many of the earliest ones are in the Southeast US
What was happening in the Rest of the World?
-Glacial Maximum: ice sheets were at their maximum extension -Sunda (New Guinea) and Sahul (Australia) shelves exposed -Islands joined or moved closer together
Uniformitarianism
-Gradual change in the Earth over time
Therefore...
-H. ergaster (Africa) -> H.heibelbergensis/antecessor -H. ergaster (Asia) -> H.erectus
Findings in Dmanisi, Georgia
-Has been called Homo georgicus -Some claim that the fossils represent a number of species, others say they represent variation within one species -Pre-Acheulean technology found at Dmanisi
"Generalized" dental pattern
-Having a pattern formed by the incisors, canines, premolars, and molars (2.1.2.3) -Adaptively, this means the individual would have a generalized diet -Evolutionarily, the dental pattern was flexible as it needed to change to be beneficial for certain species in certain environments
"Homo erectus" Regional Variations
-Homo erectus -> Asia -Homo ergaster -> Africa -Homo heidelbergensis -> Europe
Advantages of Stone Tools
-Homo habilis was probably a scavenger rather than a hunter -Tools make it much easier to scavenge
Recap
-Homo sapiens sapiens emerges in Africa around 200 kya -Homo sapiens sapiens leaves Africa by 135 kya -Homo sapiens sapiens are found in southwest Asia by 100 kya: Skhul and Qafzeh -Homo sapiens sapiens reaches Europe by 40 kya -Neanderthals are gone by 30 kya
Traits which are similar in two species due to common ancestry are...
-Homologies
Australia: Kow Swamp
-Human remains -30-10 kya -Archaic like features -Earlier skeletons have less archaic features -Artificially deformed head -Larger brows -Rugged face
Were early ancestors of humans, hunters or scavengers?
-Hunters: there has been evidence that shows signs of cooperative hunting ->spears, large kill sites, packs of animals found around each other, charred plants/organic material -Scavengers: there has been evidence that shows scavenging -> cut marks over teeth marks on bones, scavenging sites, and parts of the kill gone and found elsewhere in the same general area
Two routes to the Americas
-Ice Free Corridor: as the glaciers retreat they could walk over land. The last glaciers cleared around 12 kya -Coast Route: along the exposed continental shelf which is now underwater so we have no evidence
Archaic H. sapiens: Larger Brains
-Increasing size and emphasis on frontal section -Lessening of post-orbital constriction -Higher forehead -Face smaller compared to rest of cranium -Less prognathism as frontal section gets larger
Pleistocene Glaciations
-Increasingly, humans are able to live through the cold northern conditions with cultural innovations -European Sites where evidence of cultural innovation was found: Wurm (75-15 kya), Riss (180-130 kya), Mindel (300-230 kya)
Natural selection acts on _______ causing evolutionary change at the _______ level.
-Individuals -Population
Differences in Pelvic Morphology
-Initial theory: Larger size of infants at birth compared to modern humans -Modern theory: Thought to be due to the differing centers of gravity/locomotion
According to what you have learned in this class, evolution...
-Is change in allele frequencies -Has no goal -Is driven by natural selection
Problem with Meadowcroft and Monte Verde
-It is not certain that the dates relate to the artifacts as well as the layer of earth
Did they talk?
-It seems as if they must have, given the complexity of their behavior -But if they grew up fast, that means they had less time to learn the language before the brain becomes "fixed"
Prominent Female Primatologists
-Jane Goodall: chimps -Dian Fossey: gorillas -Birute Galdikas: orangutans -All were long term studies
Modern Human Taxonomy
-Kingdom: Animalia -Phylum: Chordata -Class: Mammalia -Order: Primate -Family: Hominidae -Genus: Homo -Species: sapiens
Differences between male and female pelvises
-Larger hole in the middle of female pelvises for birthing and such -Male pelvises have larger pubic symphysis than females
The _______ is based upon Mendel's observation that "particles" were separated into gametes that joined together during _______, generating continuing variation.
-Law of Segregation -Recombination
Prosimian
-Lemur -Unique Traits: Grooming claw, post-orbital bar
Paleoindians
-Makers of the Clovis points -The "earliest" Americans -Date 11,500 years ago -Mobile, big game hunters -Paleoindian points with handles
Cold Adapted
-Many robust features in cranium and body can be interpreted as adaptations to cold environment -Enlarged nasal cavity to warm the air -Post-cranial robusticity = strong and powerful -Short & Heavy: Bergmann's rule -Short limbs: Allen's rule -Neanderthal skeleton demonstrates "barrel shaped" torso -The large head helps conserve heat (Bergmann's rule): a significant amount of body heat is lost through the head -Modern arctic populations have 100-150cc larger cranial capacity then that of equatorial populations
New World Monkey
-Marmosets or Tamarins or Capuchins -Unique Traits: Prehensile tail, 2.1.3.3 dental formula
Why no Acheulean in Eastern Asia?
-Maybe a barrier to population movement: Southeast Asia is densely forested and humans are poorly adapted to survive in jungles without food production -Geographical barrier such as rain forests: the food resources are not dense enough for hominid species to survive
Australia: Conclusion
-Mitochrondrial DNA and skeletal evidence support the Replacement Hypothesis
How did they cope with the Ice Age Environments?
-Mobility of Resources: meat based diet, animals are highly mobile (Caribou), cope by being strong and mobile, game provided everything (food, warmth, shelter) -Seasonal fluctuations: food storage, alliance -Withstand cold: They had evolved to deal with this kind of cold, clothing(bone tools: needles enables them to make different clothing), hearths, shelters (mammoth bone huts), they may well have lived in other shelters too
MRE vs RAO: Genetic Evidence - Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA
-Modern humans show little genetic variation: much less than apes which suggests a recent origin of amHs (RAO) -Nuclear DNA: 2 clusters of variation - Sub-Saharan Africans and everyone else (suggests origin of amHs in Africa because that way variations would have a longer time to accumulate = RAO) -Mitochondrial DNA: similar results to Nuclear DNA
MRE vs RAO: Fossil Evidence in Europe
-Moderns by 36 kya in Germany and 27 kya in France (Cro-Magnon) -Neanderthals as late as 35 kya: unlikely ancestral to moderns and overlap with moderns -No evidence of transitional forms -First amHs has tropical build: taller, leaner, more slender -Europe does not appear to be the site of modern evolution: Supports replacement (RAO) and contradicts MRE
Physical Changes: Homo habilis vs Homo erectus
-More prognathic -Large brow ridge -Average brain size is 680cc -Lower forehead and less rounded back of cranium -Body=Australopiths
Neanderthal Settlements
-Most settlements are found at the mouths of caves -Most facing Southward -They were very important during the coldest times of the year -They were repeatedly occupied: therefore, discarded material built up over time -Better preservation: protected from the elements
The most basic social unit among all primates...
-Mother-Infant relationship
Gene Flow
-Movement of alleles into or out of a population due to the migration of individuals to or from the population
Later Archaic H. sapiens
-Much more numerous in Europe: Germany, France, Greece, Hungary -More developed tool culture than "H. erectus" -Wooden spears found in Germany (400 kya) with horses that were probably the prey -Hunting is an important stable food source in increasingly cold areas in which they were living
Darwin's Evolutionary Theory
-Natural Selection: When the environment changes, organisms that have characteristics that enable them to survive will do so, reproduce and have offspring that share these beneficial characteristics. Organisms that do not have beneficial characteristics will not survive, will not reproduce and gradually their characteristics will disappear
Darwin's finches are a good example of...
-Natural selection -Local adaptation to geographic conditions -Adaptive radiation
What happened to Archaic H. sapiens?: Neanderthal example
-Neanderthals are the most famous archaic -A specialized version of Archaic H. sapiens -Frequently called H. neanderthalensis -First found in Germany in 1856 -Difficult to explain without the idea of evolution
What happened to Archaic H. sapiens?: Neanderthal example
-Neanderthals seems to be an offshoot that don't appear to have survived or evolved into modern forms -Became extinct -Were a great success for nearly 200,000 years -Well represented in the fossil record: 200-30 kya & found in Europe and SW Asia
Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium assumes...
-No gene flow, mutation, genetic drift, or natural selection
Archaic H. sapiens: Living in Challenging Environments
-Not like ancestral warmer regions -Needed to control fire -Perhaps some kind of clothing or covering
The Creative Explosion/Upper Paleolitic
-Not until between 50-30 kya do we see significantly modern behavior -The creative explosion refers to the shift from basic subsistence activities, to more complex strategies -Greater breadth of subsistence -People living in larger groups -More complex expressions of humanity (Artistic expression, "non-utilitarian" objects, Wider range of raw materials) -More efficient hunters ... Big and small game, fish and bird exploitation -Tools are developing and expanding and new forms of art being seen (body decoration, cave art, carving, figurines, etc.) and other kinds of modern behavior developing like burials and caring for others
Homo habilis
-Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania -2.2 - 1.7 mya: the earliest member of the genus Homo -Found by the Leakeys -Post Cranial skeleton similar to Australopithecus -Much bigger brain (600-700cc), forehead was more vertical, doesn't have complete zygomatic arches, marked brow ridge, short, prognathic face, smaller molars -Stone tools
Old World Monkey
-Papio hamadryas or Macaque -Unique Traits: All have non-prehensile tails
Implications (Fossil Evidence) of Multi-Regional Model
-Parallel changes in each region (Europe, Africa, Asia) occurring more or less simultaneously -Transitional forms widespread, at least IN each region, if not THROUGHOUT each region -Simultaneous appearances of traits world-wide ~~Therefore, in each area archaic H. sapiens would have evolved into amHs thereby permitting the retention of some regional anatomical variation within the modern species ~~This means so called "racial" differences have had over 1 million years to evolve in place, leading to geographically distinct populations of amHs
Meadowcroft Rock Shelter
-Pennsylvania -Archaeological deposits 11 feet deep -Earliest dates 19 kya
Which fossil finding was later proved to be a hoax?
-Piltdown Man
Determining Primate Locomotion
-Placement of the foramen magnum on skull (bottom or back) -Shape of pelvis (open, rounded): The more rounded, the more bowl shaped (bipedal)
MRE vs RAO: Cultural Evidence in East Asia
-Poor evidence
Archaeological Dating Techniques
-Potassium Argon Dating (KAr): archaeologists measure the amount of potassium and argon at or in the sites and since we know the rate at which these elements decay, we can use them for dating sites (chronometric/absolute) -Relative/Group Dating: using the findings from sites in the same area or same site to come up with a range or time period for the dating of the object (relative)
Levallois/Mousterian Technology
-Prepared core techniques -Conserve raw material -More cutting edge per pound of raw material -Faster -Sharper -More standardized -63 types of tools in "toolkit": expanded to harpoons, needles, etc. -Variation of toolkit reflects site function -Well established Hunting-Gathering economy - planned, seasonal exploitation of resources -Evidence of culture and idealogy
Arboreal Hypothesis
-Primates have specialized characteristics that are advantageous for an arboreal lifestyle. -Rotary shoulder motion -Grasping hands and feet -Stereoscopic, color vision
Visual Predation Hypothesis
-Primates' adaptations suited for seeing and preying on small animals (insects) in branches. -Requires visual acuity and grasping hands.
The oldest confirmed primate fossils most closely resemble modern....
-Prosimians
The idea that long periods of stasis are followed by short periods of rapid evolutionary change is called...
-Punctuated equilibrium
Darwin's influence on Modern Thought
-Purifying of races (Social Darwinism) -Communism -The rise of the elite businessmen (capitalism)
MRE vs RAO: Cultural Evidence in the Middle East
-Qafez: amHs with blades
The Law of Superposition
-Relevant to stratigraphy -A general law stating that in any sequence of sediments or rocks that has not been overturned, the youngest sediments or rocks are at the top of the sequence and the oldest are at the bottom
Grooming in primates serves to...
-Remove dirt and parasites -Maintain group harmony -Reassure group members of their social unity
Fitness, in an evolutionary sense, refers to an individual's...
-Reproductive success
Primates arboreal adaptations
-Retention of the clavicle -Stereoscopic vision -Grasping hands and feet
Underground Storage Organs (USOs)
-Roots and other plants that have parts that stay underground. -Advantages: they are rich in nutrients and are available for consumption all year round -Problems: they can be hard to find because they are underground -Overcoming that problem: hominids had to learn what the surface breaking part of the plant looked like to be able to dig, scrape and reach the USOs
Despite their difficult lives, they cared for each other
-Shanidar: Israel, 60 kya -Kebara burial: a Neanderthal was formally buried with arms crossed and with tools
Language
-Shape of basicranium of Australopiths is flat and similar to Apes (breathe and swallow) -Lack of modern larynx and pharynx shows that they were not capable of modern speech -Endocasts show brain asymmetry (no help) -Minimally as capable as Apes, but level of social cooperation and tool use suggests more -They made a range of sound that they could tell the difference between
Hunting Evidence
-Sheer Numbers: possible stampeding of animal herds (horses, cattle, rhinos, deer) -Large Kill Sites: animals trapped in bog or swamp areas -Use Of Weapons: stones & clubs -Butchering Marks Found On Bones
Sickle Cell Anemia
-Single locus 2 allele gene -Codominant -It occurs with a normal allele -The sickle cell trait is selected for West Africa because it is advantageous to those who are susceptible to Malaria
Pre Clovis
-Some sites appear to date before Clovis -All are controversial
Where are monkeys with prehensile tails found?
-South America
New Finds, New Dates
-Southeast Asia: Indonesia -Redating with absolute (chronometric) dating methods of Southeast Asian specimens showed them to be nearly 1 million years older than previously believed -Java (Trinil, Sangrian, Modjokerto) date in excess of 1.8 mya -New dating techniques showed some fossils dated to almost twice as early as originally thought
Australia: Lake Mungo
-Southern Australia -40 kya -High rounded modern skull -Earliest human remains found in Australia
Cooperative Hunting by 400 kya
-Spears found in Germany around 400 kya -Torralba & Ambrona (Spain): Evidence shows that they used fire to drive animals such as elephant, deer, and horses into the swamp where they couldn't escape. -BK II (Olduvai Gorge): Drove wild cattle into a swamp -Olorgesailie (Kenya): 60 baboons killed and butchered (7-900 kya)
Lamarck's Evolutionary Theory
-Species will change over time due to environmental challenges and restrictions -The idea that characteristics acquired during an organisms lifetime can be passed onto it's offspring: WRONG (Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics)
Archaic H. sapiens: Culture
-Still making Achulean tools -Definitely using wooden tools: Evidence found at Kalambo Falls (Tanzania) -New tool technology about 200 kya: Levallois tools brought about the shift from core tools to prepared flakes of uniform size -Flake tools may have been given handles -Tool manufacturing became more efficient
Acheulean Improvements to Olduwan tools
-Straighter edges -Thinner tools -Sharper edges -> bifacially flaked -Standardized -Specialized -More complex
Stone tools
-Suggests a fundamental difference -Larger brain = larger capacity for culture -Stone tools = material evidence for problem solving: to make stone tools there must have been a lot of evaluating
Australia: Mitochondrial DNA
-Suggests people migrated to Australia 40-70 kya -Lots of variation -Suggests several migrations of people
What was one of the driving forces behind the constriction of habitat at the end of the Miocene?
-Tectonic shift causing a massive climate change, which then caused the contraction of vegetation
Where and what is the Fayoum and what is its significance?
-The Fayoum is an area in Egypt in which a lot of Miocene fossils have been found. It is important to primate evolution because it gives us clues of migration patterns and reasons for certain adaptations
Earliest Americans
-The Last Glaciation occurred between 70-12 kya -Most convincing evidence for humans in Americas post dates 12 kya -Some earlier sites, but controversial
New Tool Technology: 200 kya
-The Levallois or "prepared core " technique -Much more standardized and efficient -Not using any old flake -The core was pre-shaped so 6-8 similar shaped flakes could be removed: Standardized flake tools (points, scrapers, drills), also may have ben given handles for easier grip.
The most important aspect of an archaeological artifact is...
-The context of the artifact
Deep Time
-The essential concept donated by geology that stated that the Earth was old enough for biological evolution to be a possiblity
Genus Homo
-The first of those that we consider our direct ancestors
The Fixity of Species
-The idea that living things are as God initially created them, and they have never changed
Darwin's postulates?
-The population grows faster than the food supply -There is a differential success to survive and reproduce -Variation is present in a population and it is heritable
Monogenism
-The theory that all humans are descended from a single pair of ancestors
Polygenism
-The theory that all humans come from more than one original pair of ancestors
Catastrophism
-The view that most of earth's geological features are the result of large-scale catastrophes such as floods, volcanic eruptions, etc.
Baboons are of particular interest to anthropologists because...
-Their social behavior is so humanlike
Science is considered self-correcting because...
-Theories can be modified or replaced subject to new findings -Hypotheses are built on meticulous observation -Hypothesis-testing can result in rejection of previous hypotheses
Humans in the Americas
-There are many contenders in South America -The earliest known Clovis sites are in the SE states
Siberia
-There have been no artifacts found that resemble Paleoindian points
Darwin's Postulates
-There is competition because a population grows faster than its food supply -There is a differential success to survive and reproduce -Variation is a population is present and heritable
New Technology: Solutrean
-These tools have finely worked bifacial points unlike other European technologies
Why couldn't they have come from Europe?
-They could have come before the glaciers retreated -That would explain the earlier dates, especially in the Southwest
What was the contribution of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace to the study of biological change?
-They demonstrated a viable mechanism for evolutionary change
Neanderthal Demography
-They grew up fast -Lived to be about 40 years old (only 10% over 40, compared to 50% in modern non-industrial populations) -Young age of death may have meant more orphans which means fewer opportunities to learn from long-term experience of elders -They lived a rough life: broken bones, arthritis
Where do Archaic H. sapiens come from?
-They probably originate from Africa -First found in Bodo, Ethiopia: 600 kya -Findings in Bodo has cut marks on the skull congruent with defleshing or scalping -Archaics remain present in Africa until they give way to modern H. sapiens between 200 and 300 kya
What happened to Neanderthals?
-They were too specialized for their own good -By 45-50 kya, modern H. sapiens develop: a more sophisticated tool kit, improved hearths, and better clothes -Moderns adapted more quickly with culture than biology -Moderns were able to better deal with the same problems Neanderthals had -This slight advantage could lead to extinction of Neanderthals in 30-40 generations
Methods of determining the age at death
-Tooth eruption/wear -Cranial sutures -Pubic symphysis wear
Implications (Fossil Evidence) of RAO Model
-Transitional finds should appear in only Africa and they should be earliest there -Outside of Africa, we should see Archaics and Moderns either co-existing or at least some time overlap ~~Therefore, Archaic H. sapiens would have evolved into amHs in only one region, and then spread out to others ~~This means so called "racial" differences would have had only a few tens of thousands of years to develop, meaning geographical variation among populations of amHs is relatively recent and biologically insignificant
Implications (Fossil Evidence) of the Mostly Out of Africa Model
-Transitional finds should be widespread, but they should be "hybrids" with regional "racial" traits present -amHs should be earliest in one area and later everywhere else -Time overlap should be present between archaic and amHs
Bipedalism: Physical Indicators
-Transverse and longitudinal arches in feet -Foramen magnum on bottom of skull -Open shaped pelvis
Australia: Ochre
-Used as pigment for rock art and body painting -60 kya -Very early art (although the art has not been found)
Archaic/Neanderthal teeth
-Used as tools for gripping, processing, etc.
Soft Hammer Percussion
-Using a bone, antler, or other soft material -Makes thinner, flatter flakes -More control -Allows for more refined flakes and edges
KAr dating is used to date which material?
-Volcanic sediments
Implications (Genetic Evidence) of Multi-Regional Model
-We would expect that since human populations had such long-term in place evolution, substantial genetic variation should be present BETWEEN each region -We should also expect the same amount of genetic diversity WITHIN each population
MRE vs RAO: Fossil Evidence in Middle-East
-amHs at Skuhl and Qafzeh caves in Israel (92kya) -Modern/Transitional findings: rounded cranium, higher forehead, and chin, BUT large brow ridges and prognathic face -Neanderthals at Amud and Kebara in Israel -Moderns at Qafzeh (thermoluminesence dating) from 92 kya predates end of Neanderthals by 30 kya -Supports RAO
The most accurate description of the environment in which primates evolved...
-arboreal
Social Darwinism
-the concept of Darwinian ideal, such as the survival of the fittest and reproduction, applied to human society (purifying of races) -Survival of the Fittest inspired the want and need for economic stability, therefore bringing about the rise of the elite businessman and the notion of capitalism
Components of the RAO Model
1)Transition (transitional fossils) to amHs occurs in one region and one time 2)Archaic and modern forms of H. sapiens overlap in some time and places 3)Moderns out-compete Archaics with superior tools, adaptations, and/or intellect 4)Can have 3 erectus-like species (with only one, H. ergaster, evolving into modern humans)
Components of the Multi-Regional Model
1)long-term gradual evolution - from H. erectus through Archaics to amHs 2)all H. erectus world-wide (ergaster, antecessor, etc.) are H. erectus 3)continuous gene flow among populations and regions - traits spread to all regions 4)regional modern populations show affinity to hominid ancestors
Late Period Archeological Sites
Later H. erectus (ergaster?) found in Africa -Eritrea -Ethiopia -Olduvai Gorge (Tanzania) -South Africa
Asian/European Sites with Tool/Butchering Evidence
Terra Amata (France) -300,000 years ago -Southern France -Small bands of hunter gatherers -Seasonal occupation: late spring/early summer -Found shelters: little huts, maybe they could have been windbreakers
Later "Homo Erectus"
The fact that the regional populations are distinct species explains why we see the differences in morphology between Asian and African/European populations
Theories of Modern Human Origins
Three Main Models 1. Multi-Regional Evolution - MRE - (Regional Continuity) 2. Population Replacement Hypothesis or Recent African Origin - RAO - (Out of Africa) 3. Mostly Out of Africa Model - a hybrid
Neanderthals have bigger skulls than Archaics
-1400 mL -Long, low cranium: occipital bun and large brows -Mid facial projection: Large nasal passages = warming of air -Large front teeth and no chin -Big brow ridges -Larger nasal area -Well worn front teeth -A reconstruction of what a Neanderthal would have looked like would be like working from a modern face and Neanderthal skull
Paranthropus boisei
-2 mya -540 cc brain size -very specialized and very robust -extinct by 1.2 mya
The dental formula of Hominids and Old World Monkeys
-2.1.2.3
Homo rudolfensis
-2.2-1.8 mya -Found in Kenya -More vertical forehead -Skull more rounded -Larger molars -Longer, flatter face -Less brow ridge -But shared a lot of similarities with H. habilis
What is a trait common to Apes?
-Absence of tail
Australia
-Archaeological sites date to 60 kya -Found artifacts. hearths, ground ochre
The recognition that organisms in cold climates tend to have stockier bodies.
-Bergmann's Rule
Supraorbital Torus
-Big brow ridges -Possibly related to big front teeth used as tools -Brow is part of reinforcement/bossing
What are the amHs like?
-Called Cro-Magnons -Bigger, more robust than modern Europeans -Taller with long limbs (Allen's rule)
Hunting
-Evidence from Terra Amata showed that they hunted for large and small animals, birds, fish, mollusks
First Uses of Fire
-For warmth -Protection from predators -Light source -Increased time to think, interact, plan
Apes
-Gorilla -Unique Traits: No tails, Y-5 molar pattern
The relationship between sexual dimorphism and social organization among non-human primates.
-In a social group in which they practice polyandry(1 female, 2 males), there is little to no sexual dimorphism. Therefore there is less likely to be an alpha individual because a lot of the time, in sexually dimorphic groups, the larger male/female will take control of the group as the leader.
The sickle cell allele, a genetic lethal, is found in high frequency in some areas because...
-In heterozygous form, sickle cell confers an immunity to malaria
Variation, according to Darwin...
-Is always present in the population
Implications (Genetic Evidence) of the Mostly Out of Africa Model
-Modern genetic diversity should be high between regional groups due to the continued presence of variation due to regional populations -The highest amount of genetic diversity should be present within the region of origin because that is the oldest population and would have had the longest time to accumulate variation
Implications (Genetic Evidence) of RAO Model
-Modern genetic diversity should be low, as all moderns are recent descendants of the first amHs -The highest amount of genetic diversity should be present within Africa because that is the oldest population, and would have had the longest time to accumulate variation
MRE vs RAO: Cultural Evidence in Europe
-Neanderthals in Europe used Mousterian tools 200-36 kya -Around 36 kya they started to use Chatelperronian and Mousterian but added blades (hybrid) -Blades were twice as long as they were wide
P. boisei vs. "H. erectus"
-P. boisei: large molars, small front teeth -H. erectus: smaller molars, larger front teeth
Technology
-Paleolithic: Old Stone Age -Lower Paleolithic: Olduwan and Acheulean tools
Why is bipedalism advantageous?
-Scavenging:Bipedalism may have may have made scavenging safer: taking part of the kill away from the carcass (take some and run) -Carrying: It freed up our hands and children could now be carried -> might be an important element in bipedalism, but maybe not. -Efficiency: Effective way to cover long distances such as might be found in savanna regions -> slow and steady, also allows viewing of longer distances, quadrupeds can't travel for very long -Thermal Regulation: Bipedalism may be related to heat dissipation through evaporative cooling in breezes, also smaller solar target to absorb radiation: sun hits head and shoulders -> might be why we retained hair on our head
Each Model has specific implications and expectations of evidence to support it
Types of Evidence A. Fossil Record B. Genetic Record (among modern children) C. Cultural Record (archaeology)
