Anthropology Chapter 10
Nádleeh
A Navajo gender. There were female-bodied and male-bodied ____________. Some of the ______________ were considered to be hermaphrodites. Given the rarity of hermaphroditism, it is unlikely all ___________ who were considered to be hermaphrodites actually were. As with the Mohave, the Navajo ____________ took on aspects of the gender role of the opposite sex, and they were also considered to have special supernatural powers. The Navajo interpreted homosexuality in terms of gender roles rather than biological sex. Female gendered male ___________ could have sex with men; male gendered female ______________ could have sex with women. However, it was strongly disapproved of for males to have sex with males, females to have sex with females, or even for a ________________ to have sex with a member of the gender with whom he or she identified.
Gender
A fluid concept. ______________ refers to the social or cultural social identities associated with one's sex. It Involves the role expectations of members of the same sex in a given culture. Well sex is typically straightforward gender is nothing of the sort and very considerably from culture to culture. It includes additional changes which are not necessary linked to biological sex.
Transvestite
A person who dresses in the attire opposite of the norms for his or her sex in a given culture. Transgender people are often transvestites, but not all transvestites are transgender. Many transvestites in American society are heterosexual men, often married and with children, who dress in women's clothing in the privacy of their homes.
Agender
A person who is _________ does not identify with any gender.
Transgender Person
A person whose gender identity or expression differs from conventional expectations of masculinity and femininity in a given culture. It is not the same thing as homosexuality. A transgender male, for example, may have been assigned the social role of a female at birth, but this person's sexual orientation may be for males, females or other transgender persons.
Secondary Sex Characteristics
A second critical period in sexual development occurs during puberty, where hormone ratios are largely responsible for the development of what are called ___________________________________. For females, during puberty their breasts enlarge, their hips widen, they develop public and underarm hair, and their body fat increases in hips, thighs and stomach. For men, their testes and penis enlarge, their voices deepen, they develop public, facilities, and other body hear, their muscle build and size increases, and they generally grow taller than women.
15th Amendment (1870)
African-American men's right to vote in the US was guaranteed with the ________ _____________ to the Constitution.
Hwane
An additional gender role among the Mohave which was a female who adopted aspects of the male gender role. Little is known about this role except that they married women, and like the alpha were believed to have special spiritual powers to heal the sick.
Hijras
An institutionalized third gender in Indian society. The category encompasses those born with ambiguous sexual anatomy, homosexuality, infertile and impotent men, and less commonly, infertile women. The defining characteristic is an individual who is sexually impotent with women. Sterotypically hijra is raised as a boy then undergoes ritual removal of the genitalia to become hijra. They typically live in a community with other hi-res. The emasculation surgery is a rite of passage and represents a type of rebirth into the third gender, after which they are considered neither male or female. The social structure of the hi-res falls outside the Indian Caste system. They often live together in households headed by a guru-mother and her disciple-daughters. The hi-res have ancient roots in Indian society. The classical Hindu text, the Rig Veda describes a time before the creation of the world when no distinctions existed between men and women. They worship Bahuchara Mata, an aspect of the Hindu mother goddess. The Hi-res are believed to have the ritual power to curse or bless children, and often perform burlesque satires of women at weddings.
Intersexuals
Another way the sex may vary is seen in hermaphrodites, or "________________." Biologically, distinctions are made between 'true hermaphrodites' and 'pseudohermaphrodite." True hermaphrodites have both ovarian and testicular tissue in some form, having either both male and female gonads, or having mixed tissue within the same gonad. True hermaphrodites are extremely rare, occurring only once in about every 25,000 births, and accounting for only about 5% of intersected individuals. Most have the XX (female) karyotype, and the cause is not well understood.
Guevedoche
As children genetic males appeared female, but a puberty physical appearance tend to be more masculine. Most switch gender identity adolescence and assumed a male gender role. The condition is locally known as _____________ or huevos a los doce, literally "eggs at twelve," which is like a slang euphemism meaning testicles at age 12. Some debate exists as to whether the children are culturally encouraged switch gender identities, with maleness being culturally valued over femaleness.
Alyha
Biological males who took on many aspects of the female gender role in Mohave society. They were considered to have a two-spirt gender role and they were considered to have supernatural powers and have the ability to heal the sick.
Travesti
In Brazil, the term ________________ is given to male gender homosexuals. They may inject themselves with female hormones to create more feminine appearing bodies but generally do not undergo sex change operations as castrations are viewed to create mental and physical illness. While they are not considered to be women, they are viewed as being like women and are placed in the same category. They generally have a difficult time in Brazilian society and many wind up as prostitutes and are victims of brutality. However, they do have an important role in the Brazilian Carnival festival
Mahu
In Polynesian and SE Asia a number of diverse gender roles exist. The Tahitian term ___________ literally means, half-man/half-woman. These are individuals who display attributes of both masculine and feminine culture norms, but the dominant role one takes is the of the opposite sex. Actually, sexual behavior is less important than the gender role one takes in public. The mahu are not considered homosexual. A male mahu identifies with women who have sex with men. Homosexuality is identified when individuals who are occupying the same gender role engage in sexual relations, and biological sex is less important. In Polynesia, male adolescent same-sex activity is considered to be a normal part of development. Homosexuality is only recognized in adult men and is considered to be a matter of personal choice.
Two Spirit People
Many native American groups recognize a third gender category called "two spirit people". Two spirit individuals who are believed to possess the spirits of both mean and women. Some documentation exists regarding male two spirit people but less is known about female two spirit people. They were often thought to possess special spiritual powers that men or women did not have. The Mohave people have a two-spirit gender role known as alyha. The alpha were biological males who took on many aspects of the female gender role. The Navajo have four genders: male, female, female-bodied nadleeh and male-bodied nadleeh. Some nadleeh were considered to be hermaphrodites, but few probably were. The Navajo interpreted homosexuality in terms of gender roles rather than biological sex. Female gendered male madleeh could have sex with men; male gendered female nadleeh could have sex with women. However, it was strongly disapproved of for males to have sex with males, females to have sex with females, or even for a nadleeh to have sex with a member of the gender with whom he or she identified.
Cultural Construction of Gender Roles
Mead attempted to determine whether masculinity or femininity could be attributed to biology or to cultural conditioning. From her findings, she argued that sex roles are culturally constituted rather than being sex-linked. Mead's work has been criticized on a number of fronts and the actual data challenged.
French Structuralism
Posited that it is the nature of the human mind to categorize reality into binary opposites such as good/evil, black/white, and male/female.
Sex
Refers to biological difference between males and females. One's sex involves chromosomal differences between men and women. Human beings have 23 chromosomes, 22 of which are matched pairs. The 23rd chromosome can exist as a matched pair of X chromosomes in women, or as a combination of an X and Y chromosome in males. Each parent contributes one sex chromosome to a child. Females always contribute an X chromosome, but males may contribute either an X or a Y chromosome. Thus, males are responsible for determining the sex of their offspring.
Sexual Dimorphism
Refers to physical differences between the sexes. Another aspect of _____________ between men and women relates to the timing of development. Males and females mature at different rates. Even within the womb (by seven weeks after conception) the faster maturation rate of females can be seen. By the time they are born, females are about four weeks ahead of males, and they continue this quicker rate of development until full maturation after puberty.
Sexual Variation
Refers to the variation in sexual organs seen in hermaphrodites, pseudohermaphrodite, etc. These individuals are born with the variation in sexual organs they possess.
Genderfluid
Some members of the trans*/genderqueer community are encouraging the use of gender neutral pronouns such as xe for (he and she) xem (him and her) and xyrs (his and hers). In many non-western societies the varieties of sexual and gender expression are incorporated into a third gender. Typically, the third genders are people who anatomically or temperamentally do not fit binary gender categories.
Three or more gender roles (Third and Multiple Genders)
The Mohave, Navajo, Inuit and the Hijras of India recognize _______________________ as normal.
Culture and Personality of School
The _______________________________ of thought has been criticized for overly stereotyping members of a culture and not adequately accounting for intra-cultural diversity.
Pseudohermaphroditism
These individuals have the gonads of only one sex, but their genitalia is either ambiguous, or is that of the sex opposite of their karyotype. The condition is believed to be caused by hormonal imbalances in utero that affect the fetus. One's sex is not just determined by the XX or XY karyotype, but by hormone rations. Both males and females have both androgens and estrogens, but androgens predominate in males and estrogens predominate in females. The most common form is male _____________________, where individuals with a male karyotype (XY) develop as females, is androgen insensitivity syndrome.
Turner's Syndrome
Two chromosomal variants the do result in abnormalities are ____________________ and Klinefelter's syndrome. The chromosomal pattern for _____________________ is XO, meaning that the child is born with only one chromosome in the sex cells, just an X, instead of two. Since XO individuals have no Y chromosome, they develop as females, but not as normal females. _________________ occurs approximately once in 2,500-3,000 female births. It is associated with a number of abnormalities. The genital and breast development, and the adult female body hair pattern may be absent or delayed. These women do not menstruate and are infertile. They also tend to be short in stature, have webbing of the neck , have a narrowing of the aorta, and tend to have some degree of mental retardation.
1920
When did woman obtain the right to vote in the US?
19th Amendment (1920)
Women's right to vote in the US was guaranteed with the ________ _____________ to the Constitution.
cisgender/cissexual
____________ and ____________ refer to individuals whose gender identity matches his or her sex at birth.
androgyne
________________ are persons who do not consider themselves to fit into either binary category of male or female. They may simultaneously possess both masculine and feminine characteristics, or neither.
Homosexuality
_________________ is defined differently in different parts of the world and varies widely cross-culturally. In some cultures, gender is closely linked with sex. In others, variant genders are recognized, and in some cases, valorized and viewed as special categories of persons with important sacred functions. In Latin America as well as Span and Portugal, male homosexuality is defined differently than in the United States. Men who have sex with other men are not necessarily homosexual. What makes one homosexual is the sexual position one takes. The penetrator is not considered to be homosexual because he is considered to be dominant, superior male role. But a man who is penetrated by another is viewed as taking the more feminine role, and he is considered homosexual. In Portuguese, it is the difference between pasivdade and atividade. It is not the sex act, but the social role. In Brazil, the term travesti is given to male gender homosexuals. In Polynesia and SE Asia a number of diverse gender roles exist.
Transsexuals
________________________ are those who have surgically altered their anatomy to fit the form of the opposite sex. Like transgender persons, transsexuals are not the same thing as homosexuals. Homosexual individuals are often happy with their biological anatomy and have no desire to change it. __________________ usually refers to an individual who has undergone sexual reassignment surgery and hormone therapy. Sexual orientation also varies with _____________.
Klinefelter's Syndrome
______________________________ involves a chromosomal variant of XXY. The syndrome occurs about once in every 500 live births. Individuals with this syndrome seem to develop as normal males until puberty, although there is a higher incidence of mental retardation in these individuals than is found in the general population. At puberty, these individuals who had previously followed a typical male development pattern have a degree of breast development, their testes do not fully develop and they are infertile. They also tend to be taller, more prone to osteoporosis, and more prone to learning disabilities than average males.
xem
him or her
xyrs
his or hers
Anthropology of gender
is a wide-ranging sub discipline in anthropology, it can broadly be described as being concerned with three major questions: 1) to what extent can we explain the differences between men and women cross-culturally as due to biological differences versus cultural differences? 2) how can we explain both the cross-cultural tendency for men to exert authority over women, and the varied expression of male authority over women from near equality to near domination; and 3) what is the extent of cross-cultural variability in gender roles, not just for men and women, but for cultures where third and multiple genders are recognized?
Navajo gender roles
male, female, female-bodied nadleeh and male-bodied nadleeh. Some of the nadleeh were considered to be hermaphrodites. Given the rarity of hermaphroditism, it is unlikely that all nadleeh who were considered to be hermaphrodites actually were. The nadleeh took on aspects of the gender role of the opposite sex. The Navajo interpreted homosexuality in terms of gender roles rather than biological sex.
xe
means he or she
