Ap Art History

Pantheon Artist: Unknown Date: 118 - 125 CE Medium: Concrete with stone facing Location: Rome, Italy

Form: Content: Function: Served as a place of worship for the multiple gods: it was originally used as a temple, then as a church. Context: The Greeks were polytheistic so they believed in multiple Gods. The Pantheon was dedicated to these Gods. Meaning: This version replaced the original Pantheon (80 CE)

Terra cotta fragment Artist: Unknown - Lapita People Date: 1,000 BCE Medium: Terracotta (Incised) Location: Lapita, Solomon Islands, Reef Islands

Form: 3 in. high, geometric shapes and lines, various shades of brown, various indentations present within the work Content: Depiction of a human face among various geometric shapes and lines; it is unknown what the figure represents (feel free to fact check me on this) Function: Most likely the fragment of Lapita pottery work, which was used for cooking, storing, or serving food Context: The Lapita were a seafaring people who settled primarily on the coast rather than inland and their skilled navigators traversed the ocean with ease. Meaning: Unknown, Believed to serve a solely functional purpose

Athenian Agora Artist: organized by Peisistratos Date: 600 - 150 BCE Medium: Marble Location: Athens, Greece

Form: Carving of marble to precision and portrayal of Greek architecture characters Content: Buildings of great size dedicated to praying to the Greek Gods and for merchants to sell goods. Function: Serve as the center of political and public life in Athens. Context: To show control over the Athenian people and to show their importance over other nations. Meaning: Political statement made by Peisistratos to assert his tyranny and political legitimacy.

Catacomb of Priscilla Artist: Unknown Date: c. 200-400 C.E Medium: paint on Roman concrete walls Location: Rome, Italy

Form: In situ, earthly tones, paint appears to be fading Content: could be Jesus Christ raising his arms praying for the saving of the dead man to his left in the painting. Function: to show religious affiliation in a time when it was dangerous to do so Context: The Romans were in a time where religion was not as easy to come by and could be done secretly as Romans were encouraged to believe in their government and polytheistic gods. Meaning: shows religious affiliations

Temple of Amun-Re and Hypostyle Hall Artist: Temple design instituted by Hatshepsut, Hypostyle hall begun by Seti I; continued by ramesses II Date: 1292 - 1190 BCE Medium: Sandstone, mud brick, paint Location: Karnak, at Luxor, Egypt

Form: Large sandstone temple walls encasing structures, pillars and a body of water Content: Low relief sculptures depicting human figures in profile, boat shapes, and hieroglyphics; Use of egyptian pillars with open papyrus columns in the middle and closed (bud) papyrus columns on either side. Pillars supporting additionally beams. Outer walls depict wars, Inner walls depict the creation of a document. Function: Place of worship, social gathering location, a place to keep records Context: The wars depicted were wars fought by Seti I and the document is a peace treaty drafted by Ramses II. Took many years to complete, spanning over several Pharaohs. Meaning: Believed to keep record of events and be a religious record as well

Tlatilco female figurine Artist: Unknown people of the Tlatilco region (Central Mexico) Date: 1200 - 900 BCE Medium: Ceramic Location: Central Mexico at site of Tlatilco

Form: 3-12 in. high, 3-D figurine, organic shapes, various shades of brown and gray Content: Figurine is the shape of a human female, with a slightly exaggerated face. Lacking arms, fingers and feet (they have stubs), thighs are emphasized Function: Used as a symbol of fertility and maternity, as well as a charm for women Context: The Tlatilco people had been noted for high quality pottery pieces and had a chiefdom center and complicated burials with grave offerings using ritual and utilitarian ceramics. Meaning: Believed to be a symbol of fertility and maternity. Could also suggest rare possibility of matriarchal society

Standard of Ur from the Royal Tombs at Ur Artist: Unknown Date: c. 2600 - 2400 BCE Medium: Wood inlaid with shells, lapis lazuli and red limestone Location: Tell el-Muqayyar, Iraq

Form: 8.5 inches high x 19.5 inches long; has two panels one showing Content: The pharaohs were given luxuries that most Egyptians lacked access to and this was seen as a luxury due to its inlaid materials. Function: It is likely to have been a sound box for the pharoahs. Context: It was found in one of the largest graves in the Royal Cemetery at Ur lying in the corner of a chamber above a soldier who was thought to have been carrying a pole with the royal emblem of a king. Meaning: The meaning behind the Standard of Ur is to show the importance of those found in the tombs at Ur.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses Artist: Unknown Date: 520 BCE Medium: terra-cotta Location: Found in ancient Etruscan city of Caere in Italy, now displayed in Rome

Form: A full-length portrait of a married couple in terra cotta. Originally, four separate pieces before being put together Content: Portrays a married couple laying on a banquet couch together, fulfilling the ancient tradition of reclining while eating.. The piece itself is highly concentrated on the figure's upper bodies, for they have broad shoulders that were barely anatomically modeled (unproportionate to the average human body). The legs are barely given attention, and they make an unrealistic 'L' turn. The couple's unity is obvious in the depiction of their relationship: the woman feeds the man (representing women's high standing in Etruscan society) and the man has a protective arm around the woman. Function: The resting place of a married couple, whose ashes were placed inside. Context: Etruscan works avoided nudity and emphasized the broad shoulders and hairstyles of men. Meaning: Both figures held something in their hand, which has been suggested to be an egg to symbolize life after death, tying the entire work together to its meaning.

The Code Stele of Hammurabi Artist: Unknown Date: 1792 - 1750 BCE Medium: basalt stone (relief) Location: Musée du Louvre, Paris

Form: A stele made of black basalt stone, standing at 2.25 meters tall. Content: At the top of the stele, one can see Hammurabi receiving the law codes from the god Shamash, which was depicted using horns that radiate from his cap as well as the rays of light that come from his shoulders. Also, he seated on a throne, representing his authority. His feet rest on mountains indicating his grandness and divinity. A comparison can be seen between Hammurabi and Shamash as Hammurabi stands with Shamash in an almost equal height, signifying Hammurabi's importance and the common belief that pharaohs were reincarnations of the Sun God. Hammurabi is depicted receiving the law codes from Shamash, indicating their importance. Function: The stele stood as a physical representation of Hammurabi's authority as well as a physical copy of the law codes. Context: Hammurabi himself was king of Babylonia, commonly known for establishing the first written law codes in history. These law codes were etched onto the stele. Meaning: Not only was this the first written law codes in history, the stele was also a representation of authority in Babylonia and gave historians a glimpse at Babylonian life, rules, and punishments.

King Menkaure and Queen Artist: Unknown Date: 2490 - 2472 BCE Medium: Black stone Location: Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Originally retrieved from Giza, Egypt.

Form: Black stone statue of King Menkaure and Queen, which has the dimensions: 142.2 x 57.1 x 55.2 cm. Content: Both figures (Menkaure and his wife) stand united on a simple square base of black stone. The Queen's arms hold onto Menkaure and she seems to be positioned behind him. Menkaure's fists are balled and his left foot is forward. They both were represented in smooth carvings, and their stances symbolize great power and authority. Function: This was one of the many statues that was made for Menkaure for his tomb inside his pyramid in Giza to have for the afterlife. Context: Menkaure and his wife, or simply, the Queen ruled over Egypt during the Old Kingdom. After Menkaure's death, the pyramid was built as a way to hold his tomb and his prized possessions. Meaning: The Queen's figure exemplifies idealistic femininity in ancient Egyptian culture. Menkaure's stance represents his leadership and dominance, as can be seen by the left foot stepping forward, a gesture seen in many depictions of Egyptian pharaohs. The statue was never finished, however was placed inside the tomb anyway, probably indicating personal significance to Menkaure himself.

Lamassu from the citadel of Sargon II, Dur Sharrukin (modern Iraq) Artist: Unknown (Assyrians) Date: 720 - 705 BCE Medium: Limestone (Alabaster) Location: Dur Sharrukin, Assyria (modern day Iraq)

Form: Carved from limestone in the shape of imposing beasts that reached 14 feet in height. Content: The lamassu were five-legged bulls with human heads. Function: They were meant to be a show of power as well as to protect palaces. Context: Known for their ruthlessness, the Assyrians conquered many regions and civilizations, including Mesopotamia. The origin of these great beasts came from one ruler who wanted to boast his might and power, it is said that he ordered the sculptors to carve "beasts of the mountains fashioned out of limestone and fittingly imposing". Meaning: The Lamassu were seen as "divine warriors" which protected the Assyrians from human enemies as well as from evil spirits.

Palette of King Narmer Artist: Unknown Date: 3000 - 2920 BCE Medium: Greywacke Location: Egypt (Ancient Mediterranean)

Form: Carved palette, smooth greyish green siltstone, and decorated both faces. Content: The king is represented as a symbol of power, seems as hes crushing his opponents. The crowns believed to have divine power. Function: Grinding and mixing cosmetics Context: Early Egyptian art Meaning: Ritual object

Anthropomorphic stele Artist: Unknown Date: Fourth Millennium BCE Medium: Sandstone Location: Arabian Peninsul

Form: Carved sandstone with a distinctive belted robe and double-bladed sword Content: Stylised representation of a human face with a general human shape Function: Unknown, but historians believe it was used religiously: for burial purposes Context: It is believed that the clothing may have been specific to the region and the figures were used as headstones to mark graves or to honour a specific warrior. Meaning: The use of these stele was the first time an individual was recognised, rather than the entire society

Statues of votive figures, from the Square Temple at Eshnunna Artist: Unknown; thought to be skill workers of a local tribe Date: c. 2700 BCE Medium: Gypsum inlaid with shell and black limestone Location: Eshnunna (Modern Tell Asmar, Iraq)

Form: Limestone, alabaster, gypsum 30" represents people in sumerian art, organic Content: The piece depicts both men and women where men are shown without hair and women are shown with different hairstyles or headdresses. Most of the facial features are the same. Function: They were meant to be focused on the gods in special temples constructed in their honor. Context: The size is symbolical of hierarchy. Meaning: The meaning was to have a figure to pray to represent the gods they pray to.

Seated Scribe Artist: Unknown Date: 2620 - 2500 BCE Medium: Painted limestone Location: Saqqara, Egypt ( Old Kingdom)

Form: Limestone, rock crystals, magnesite and copper/arsenic. Content: The scribe is seated with his legs crossed facing straight forward as if waiting for instructions on what he was being told to write down. He is portrayed realistically, with a sagging chest and a protruding belly. Function: Signifies the high social status of scribes. Context: Realism generally increased as a human subject's importance decreased. Since the scribe is less important than a King (who is shown with idealized proportions) he is shown realistically. Meaning: Shows how the scribes were held to high standards and were regarded highly

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon Artist: Unknown Date: c.175 BCE Medium: Marble Location: Pergamon, Asia

Form: Made of marble and using colonnades as well as portrait sculptures. These deeply carved figures overlap one another in masterful handling of spatial illusion. Motion is emphasised with dramatic intensity and the power of the Gods is evident in the muscular physique. Content: In the work, Athena grabs Alkyoneos by the hair and drags him up the stair to to worship Zeus. On the right, Nike is shown crowning Athena, Gaia looks on and pleads for the fate of her sons (the giants) Function: The altar was meant to showcase the power of the Greeks and their victories. Context: Gigantomachy is the name for battle between the Gods and the giants. Here is depicted on an altar, illustrating the "effortless" victory. This is a parallel for the Greek victory over the Persians under Alexander the Great. Meaning:

House of the Vettii Artist: Unknown Date: circa 100 CE. Excavated: September 1894 to January 1896 Medium: Cut stone and fresco Location: Pompeii, Italy

Form: Made of stone and decorated with frescoes, the House covers around 1,000 square metres and was constructed during the final period of life in Pompeii. Content: Built upon the remains of a previous house, the Vettii house is decorated with frescoes which were painted in the style which is now called Pompeian Fourth Style. The House had a large reception hall flanked by wings and bounded by bedrooms, it is made up of a private part and a public part. The private part includes an open courtyard which is surrounded by columns and is the centre of family life. Function: Intended to be a domus (roman town house) for the Vettii brothers: Aulus Vettius Conviva and Aulus Vettius Restitutus Context: Pompeii is a Roman town located near the volcano Vesuvius which erupted in 79 CE, destroying the town and its citizens, and preserving them under a thick layer of pumice and ash. The House of Vettii was found when the site was excavated in 1894. Meaning: The House is one of the few works which were not destroyed by the eruption of mount Vesuvius, it gives insight into the daily life in Pompeii.

Stonehenge Artist: Unknown Date: 2,500 - 1,600 BCE Medium: Sarsen Stones Location: Wiltshire, UK

Form: Made of stone, the henge has an outer diameter of about 100 feet Content: Each of the stones weigh around 50 tons and are placed in rings. Function: Consists of circles of stones arranged in patterns that suggest astrological significance. Thought to be used as a sundial or solar calendar to tell time and seasons and possibly as temple or burial site. Context: The society that created this was agricultural, the sundial could have been used to tell apart the seasons and facilitate farming. Meaning: Unknown, religious rituals, was used as a sacred place where the dead bodies were buried.

Acropolis b. Victory adjusting her sandal, Temple of Athena Nike Artist: Iktinos and Kallikrates Date: c. 410 BCE Medium: Marble Location: Temple of Athena, Athens, Greece

Form: Modeled in high relief, the figure is very graceful and is draped in cloth. Content: Function: Meant to honour the Goddess Athena (wisdom and battle) Context: This work was created during the height of Athenian power Meaning:

Great Pyramids of Giza b. Pyramid of Khafre and the Great Sphinx Artist: Khafre (Khufu's second son) (He issued the structure to be built, however he did not physically build it, and the actual artist is unknown.) Date: c. 2520 - 2494 BCE Medium: Pyramid: stone structure - Great Sphinx: bedrock from the Giza plateau Location: Giza, Egypt

Form: Pyramid: 10 meters tall (33 feet) constructed on high plateau. Great Sphinx: carved bedrock of the Giza plateau, standing at 73 meters (240 feet). Content: The inside of the pyramid is much simpler than that of Khufu's, with only one burial chamber, one small subsidiary chamber, and two passageways. Function: The pyramid was built to hold Khafre's remains. Context: Throughout ancient Egyptian history, pharaohs' tombs would be kept inside skillfully built tombs to preserve the king's most prized possessions as well as other objects to take into the afterlife. Meaning: Pyramids of all forms meant importance and wealth. Pyramids were exclusively granted to Pharoahs in ancient Egypt, built both as a way to honor their reign, and to ultimately hold their remains (both objects and their bodies) to lead their way into the afterlife. The Great Sphinx: lion body fused with a human head/neck. The lion was a symbol of royalty.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus Artist: unknown Date:250-260 AD Medium: marble Location: near Porta Tiburtina

Form: Sarcophagus for burying the dead, relief of images Content: shows the images of the battle in the form of reliefs, intricately detailed, shows the transition from cremation to burial practices. Function: to bury a dead person as well as being a memorial to the victory of the Romans Context: The Romans were proud of their military might and would show it in anyway they could Meaning: a memorial of the battle between the Romans and the Barbarians

Last judgment of Hunefer Artist: unknown Date: c. 1275 BCE Medium: Painted papyrus scroll Location: New Kingdom of Egypt, 19th Dynasty

Form: Scene of the last judgement of Hunefer, God's are depicted amongst the Egyptians showing that those in the painting are of royal status and at the same level as the Gods. Content: There are Egyptian Gods such as Anubis, Maat, Ammit and Thoth all present in the judgement process for the Egyptians. Function: To show the final judgement of the deceased. Context: Since this was taken from the Book of the Dead, it shows a collection of funerary spells and prayers and portrayals or Anubis the God of the Dead. Meaning: Anubis, the God of Death, is leading Hunefer to the Judgement in the underworld; shows the importance of the judgement in the decision of what happens to

Seated Boxer Artist: Unknown Date: c. 100 BCE Medium: Bronze Location: Now in National Roman Museum, Rome

Form: Sculpture of a nude older man created using rare Hellenistic bronze with copper highlights (used for the blood, lips, nipples, straps on leather gloves, and wounds on the head) Content: The man conveys great emotion, evident in the defeated look and stance as well as the smashed nose and sunken lips which suggest broken teeth as well as the blood and wounds which are highlighted with copper. Function: Because the man's toes are worn away from touching, it is believed that the work was a good luck charm for athletes. Context: Believed to have been a part of a group because the man's head is turned to face an unseen opponent, but it may just be a single sculpture. Meaning:

Acropolis a. Parthenon ii. Frieze, Plaque of the Ergastines Artist: Date: c. 438 - 432 BCE Medium: Marble Location: Now in Louvre, Paris

Form: The carved plaque uses relief which is more three dimensional near the top so that it can be better seen from below. Content: There are six women (believed to be Ergastines, in charge of weaving Athena's peplos (clothes)) are greeted by two priests. Function: Context: This plaque begins at the Dipylon Gate and passing through the agora, ending at the Parthenon. There are two main theories as to the event on the plaque. The first is that this is the Panathenaic Procession which is held every four years in honour of Athena. The newest theory is that the plaque tells the story of the famous Athenian king, Erechtheus as he sacrifices one of his daughters by order of the Oracle of Delphi. Meaning: First Greek work to depict a human event on a temple

Tutankhamun's tomb, innermost coffin Artist: Unknown Date: c. 1332 - 1323 BCE Medium: wood with a gold exterior and semi precious stones (lapis lazuli and turquoise) Location: Found in Egypt

Form: The coffin that holds King Tut, is made of wood. The wood is covered in a gold exterior, decorated sing semi precious stones including lapis lazuli and turquoise. Content: The coffin itself was initially made of wood that was crafted into the shape of the tomb. Then it was covered in gold and sculpted to create blurred details and indentations to create legs, arms, etc. The face mask is decorated in detail and depicts what historians predict to be an older representation of the boy king's features. Function: The coffin of King Tut was used to protect his corpse for the afterlife. Context: King Tut became king of Egypt in the 18th century at the mere age of 9. He died at 18 years old from a cause that is still unknown. doubescrubHis coffin and tomb both exemplify his importance throughout his short lifetime. Meaning: The coffin was a sort of protection for the young king's corpse as he went into the afterlife and displayed his wealth and importance.

Anavysos Kouros Artist: Unknown Date: 530 BCE Medium: Marble with paint remains Location: Greece

Form: The life size statue is made of marble and is free standing (unlike the Egyptian statues it was inspired by, which have a supporting back slab). The figure's hair is braided. Content: It portrays a nude young man standing rigidly with his arms at his sides, fists clenched, and his left foot slightly advanced. Function: Most likely stood on the tomb of a young man as a grave marker. Context: As the Greeks recovered from their Dark Ages, they expanded via sea trading and came into contact with new cultures, notably the ancient Egyptians. This contact resulted in a new archaic style of statuary: the kouros - a young, standing nude male. The nudity of the figure is important to note as the Greeks revered the human body and believed that it was beautiful. Meaning: The depiction of kouros in the nude was the beginning of the Greek's attempt to create the "ideal human form".

Peplos Kore from the Acropolis Artist: Unknown Date: 530 BCE Medium: Marble with paint remains Location: Acropolis, Athens, Greece

Form: The life size statue is made of marble with some painted remains. It is freestanding and frontal, the left arm is missing. The figures hair is braided and she is smiling. Content: It portrays a clothed young woman (unlike her counterpart, the nude kouros). The kore is conventionally clothed in the traditional peplos (a long, woolen dress), hence the statues name. Her right arm is placed rigidly at her side and her right arm, though missing, was clearly extended outward. Function: The kore is generally assumed to be a representation of Athena (goddess of wisdom) as an offering to this goddess. It is believed that the Kore had originally held a bow and arrow in the missing hand, which would contribute to this idea. Context: When the Greek expanded, they came into contact with the ancient Egyptians who influenced a new archaic style of statuary. Along with the kouros came the kore - a free standing, draped female figure. Meaning: The Peplos Kore includes two innovations which were intended to promote realism: an extended left arm (which is now missing) and an Archaic smile.

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) Artist: Polykleitos Date: 450 - 440 BCE Medium: Original was made of bronze, but the Roman replicas are made of marble Location: Herculaneum, Italy

Form: The sculpture portrays a nude man who is perfectly proportioned Content: Doryphoros is shown in the chiastic pose: the left arm counters the tension of the weight-bearing right leg, the relaxed but straight left arm balances the relaxed but bent left leg. The legs are in contrapposto stance which suggests motion, although the figure is still. Function: The Greek had an ongoing quest to sculpt the "perfect" human form. Doryphoros was the culmination of this quest. Context: Polykleitos was renowned for his ideals of harmony and proportion. He wrote a treatise, Canon, on all his theories on proportion and then created a larger than life sized sculpture (also named Canon) to demonstrate these theories. The Romans admired Greek sculpture and commissioned artists to make marble copies of the originals. Like many original Greek sculptures, the bronze Doryphoros was never found and is believed to have been destroyed. It lives on in history through its Roman replicas. Meaning: Through the use of contrapposto and chiastic pose, as well as harmonious numerical ratios, Polykleitos was able to sculpt the ideal male form.

Augustus of Prima Porta Artist: Unknown Date: 20 CE Medium: marble Location: Rome (Vatican Museum)

Form: The marble sculpture stands at a 2.03 meters height and is thought to be the copy of a bronze original. Content: *deep breath* The sculpture is said to be an idealized representation of the Roman emperor, Augustus. A blend between god and man is intentional, implying Augustus' god-like status and role as the Roman emperor, along with the sense of a divine rule. He stands barefoot, indicating he is standing on holy and sacred ground. On his breastplate, there are a number of gods participating in the return of Roman standards from the Parthians. His breastplate also indicates that the figure is a warrior. His robes were worn by judges in ancient Rome, indicating that he is not only a warrior, but also a civic ruler. The sculpture depicts the ideal male body and structure, but it is known to be Augustus by the parting of hair over the left eye and the two locks over the right, a known characteristic of Augustus. It is said he also carried a sword pointing down in his left hand. His right hand was in Roman orator pose, and perhaps held laurel branches. Finally, at his feet is Cupid on the back of a dolphin, a reference to what the Romans believed was Augustus' divine descent from Venus. Function: The figure's back was not carved, hinting the sculpture was to be placed against a wall for display. Context: The sculpture was made by commission, an artist hired to depict the emperor. This could explain the exaggeration of the human male figure. Meaning: Depicts the power and authority Augustus held over Rome, more specifically, his divine ruling.

Alexander Mosaic from the House of the Faun, Pompeii Artist: Unknown - Copy; Philoxenos of Eretria - Unconfirmed - Original Date: 100 B.C.E. - Copy; 315 BCE - Original Medium: Mosaic Location: Pompeii, Italy (Now situated in the National Museum of Archaeology in Naples, Italy)

Form: The mosaic ( standing at 5.82 x 3.13 m) heavily resembles a painting and manages to encompass many color varieties (like many different shades of brown, as well as beige, white, and black). The shapes depicted are organic. Content: The work itself seems to describe the turning point in what appears to be the Battle of Issus between Alexander the Great and King Darius III of Persia. Looking closely reveals that although Darius' troops are getting ready to attack with their spears, the almost fearful face of King Darius, as well as some of the troops apparently on their way around 180 degree suggests that King Darius and his troops are retreating, which is only emphasized by the confident look on Alexander the Great's face. Function: To portray what many believe to be the Battle of Issus Context: Made in the House of Faun which was the Largest house found in Pompeii. The house is thought to be built shortly after the Roman conquest of Pompeii and the mosaic proves the wealth and power of the most likely Roman ruling class inhabitant of the home. Meaning: The work seems to simply be a basic portrayal of a battle

Ambum Stone Artist: Unknown Date: 1,500 BCE Medium: Greywacke stone Location: Island of New Guinea

Form: The natural depiction of this animal mostly maintains the original shape of the stone Content: Sculpture of what resembles an ant eater made from a rounded stone Function:pestle for a mortar Context:found in the Polynesian Islands; used to grind herbs and medicine Meaning:unknown

Great Pyramids of Giza a. Pyramid of Khufu Artist: Khufu, Pharaoh of Egypt. (He issued the structure to be built, however he did not physically build it, and the actual artist is unknown.) Date: c. 2251 - 2258 BCE Medium: Stones with gypsum plaster Location: Giza, Egypt

Form: The pyramid stands as a 146 meter structure (481 feet) and is the largest of the three Pyramids of Giza. It contains over 2 million stones (casing stones, limestone) pasted together using gypsum plaster. The sides of the pyramids are remarkably symmetrical; only a mere 4.4 centimeter difference stands between one side to the other. Content: The pyramid contains "five stress-relieving chambers of massive granite blocks topped with immense cantilevered blocks forming a pent roof to distribute the weight of the mountain of masonry above it." The pharoah's red granite sarcophagus was placed at the center point of the pyramid, blocked by several granite blocks. Function: The pyramid was built to be as a secure burial place to hold the tomb of the Pharaoh Khufu. The pyramid also held many objects (i.e a brick-lined boat) that would aid Khufu in his journey in the afterlife, a widespread Egyptian belief. Context: Throughout ancient Egyptian history, pharaohs' tombs would be kept inside skillfully built tombs to preserve the king's most prized possessions as well as other objects to take into the afterlife. Meaning: Pyramids of all forms meant importance and wealth. Pyramids were exclusively granted to Pharoahs and those of similar importance in ancient Egypt, built both as a way to honor their reign, and to ultimately hold their remains (both objects and their bodies) to lead their way into the afterlife. The pyramids were said to also point up as a representation of a ray of sunlight, an association with the Sun god and the Egyptian belief of the Sun's divinity.

Great Pyramids of Giza c. Pyramid of Menkaure Artist: Unknown Date: c. 2510 BCE Medium: Stone structure Location: Giza, Egypt

Form: The pyramid stands at 65 meters (213 feet) with a base that is 102.2 x 104.6 meters. Content: The smallest of the three pyramids of Giza, Menkaure's pyramid contained decorative panels and a chamber. Function: The pyramid was meant to hold the remains of Menkaure, including the statue of himself and his wife. Context: Throughout ancient Egyptian history, pharaohs' tombs would be kept inside skillfully built tombs to preserve the king's most prized possessions as well as other objects to take into the afterlife. Also, after a flood, the pyramid was extremely damaged and rebuilt at the end of the 6th dynasty. Meaning: Pyramids of all forms meant importance and wealth. Pyramids were exclusively granted to Pharoahs in ancient Egypt, built both as a way to honor their reign, and to ultimately hold their remains (both objects and their bodies) to lead their way into the afterlife.

Winged Victory of Samothrace Artist: Unknown - Some sources say Pythokritos of Lindos (Yet to be determined) Date: 200-190 B.C.E. Medium: Parian Marble Location: The Louvre, Paris

Form: The sculpture portrays the headless and armless rendition of a winged woman wearing a gown that appears to billow (as it is indeed marble). Stands at 3.28m high Content: The sculpture depicts a rendition of the Greek goddess of Victory, Nike, in a style indicative of a ship figurehead (as she is in a sort of upward position with her wings spread open and with one of her legs in front of the other). Her gown appears to billow, most likely simulating wind blowing across the body of the piece, which further supports the "naval ship figurehead" idea Function: Statue of worship to the goddess of Victory, Nike, most likely victory over a naval battle Context: Outside of the work, the Greek Goddess Nike was known for being a harbinger of victory. Also of note, the Hellenistic period was "drowning" in naval battles, so the Greeks having a statue of Nike as representative of a figurehead could be a signal to the Goddess to bless the Greeks with victory in naval battles, such that they stay "afloat" Meaning: Statue worshiped by citizens of Samothrace in hope of bringing victory in battles to them, a good luck statue.

Grave Stele of Hegeso Artist: Kallimachos Date: c. 410 BCE Medium: Painted Marble Location: Found in Kerameikos, Athens

Form: The stele is made of pentelic marble which is damaged, broken off on the woman's head. It includes an inscription which identifies the woman, Hegeso, and her father Content: A woman is seen examining a piece of jewelry from a jewelry box handed to her by a standing servant Function: The Stele was used as a grave marker to commemorate the death of Hegeso Context: The jewelry box may represent her dowry, the inscription identifies her and her father Meaning:

Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut Artist: Senenmut Date: 1473 - 1458 BCE Medium: Is partially carved into a rock cliff but also uses sandstone and red granite Location: Deir el-Bahri, Luxor

Form: The temple rises from the valley floor in three colonnaded terraces connected by ramps. The colonnades use long horizontal and vertical lines similar to the pattern of the surrounding limestone cliffs. Content: Over 200 statues of Hatshepsut line the corridors. Many of the sculptors were unsure of how to portray the female ruler so the statues display a mix of male and female parts. (Some statues showed Hatshepsut with a ceremonial beard and breasts) The walls are also decorated with painted reliefs showing the pharaoh's accomplishments. Function: The temple was meant as a dedication to Hatshepsut's power and her funeral cult as well as those of Amon (Also known as Amon-Re, the egyptian sun god) and other gods. Context: Hatshepsut was the first great female monarch. When King at the time died, his son was still a child, so Hatshepsut (the child's stepmother, and the late King's consort) was made regent. Within a few years, she promoted herself to crowned king with full pharaonic powers. Meaning: This is the first tribute to a woman's achievements in the history of art.

Acropolis a. Parthenon i. Helios, horses, Dionysus (Heracles?), East Pediment Artist: Date: 438 - 432 BCE Medium: Marble Location: Now in British Museum, London

Form: This Classical artwork uses contrapposto to show several realistic figures. Content: Athena is shown being "born" from Zeus' head with other deities watching (Demeter and persephone). Function: Context: Located in the east pediment of the Parthenon, this work is also known as the Elgin Marbles Meaning:

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater) Artist: Numerous Date: 70 AD Medium: Limestone, Concrete, Tiles, Location: Rome, Italy

Form: large, imposing, used for battles Content: large corinthian, doric and ionic columns, oval stadium, people can see the stadium from all sides of the audience Function: used as a place for entertainment for people and a way to show the power of the Roman Empire. Context: It was made after the Roman Empire took over Jerusalem as a way to symbolize its victory and power. Meaning: Is a lasting image of the power and luxury of the Roman Empire.

San Vitale (including Justinian and Theodora panels) Artist: numerous Date: c. 500 (early 6th century) Medium: brick and stone Location: Rome, Italy

Form: lavish colors, full body image of the figures present Content: saints, lavish colors showing that it was meant to be for someone of high status, shows union of government (soldiers) and church (the saints) Function: to be erected in a house whose occupants were practicing Catholics Context: The church was erected on the site of the martyrdom of saint Vitalis Meaning: to pay homage to Catholic Saints

Akhenaton, Nefertiti, and three daughters Artist: Unknown Date: c. 1353 - 1335 BCE Medium: Limestone Location:New Kingdom (Amarna)

Form: small stele with sunken reliefs of a royal family, representative of the depiction of humans during this time (non-realistic) Content: depicting the private lives of the king and queen in a familial environment Function: To be a family portrait of the royal family and their relation to the Sun God Aten. Context: Akhenaten's family is shown under the Sun God's rays depicting the holiness of the royal bloodlines. Akhenaten attempted to separate himself from the usual polytheism of Egypt but was not accepted in his ways. Meaning: Shows the symbolism of life for Egyptians and how family for a royal is private but meaningful none the less.

White Temple and its ziggurat Artist: Unknown Date: 3500 - 3000 BCE Medium: Mud brick Location: Uruk(modern Warka, Iraq)

Form: two large temples, platforms, mud, and bricks Content: Ihanna "god of war and love" and Anu "god of sky" Function: platforms(channel) for these gods Context:each city is under a protection of these gods. Meaning: shows dedication to god Anu and the power standing of the city.