A.P. Bio Final Review --> Semester 1

What is membrane according to the fluid mosaic model?

According to this model, cell membranes are composed of a lipid bilayer with globular proteins embedded in the bilayer.

nuclear membrane

*Controls movement of materials in/out of nucleus

What happens if an atom gains or loses an electron?

An atom that gains or loses an electron becomes an ion. If it gains a negative electron, it becomes a negative ion. If it loses an electron it becomes a positive ion.

ATP Synthase

An enzyme that produces ATP as protons (H+) flow down a gradient through chemiosmosis or oxidative phosphorylation

Exergonic reaction

An exergonic reaction refers to a reaction where energy is released. Because the reactants lose energy (G decreases), Gibbs free energy (ΔG) is negative under constant temperature and pressure. These reactions usually do not require energy to proceed, and therefore occur spontaneously.

How do ocean currents work?

An ocean current is a continuous directed movement of seawater generated by forces acting upon this flow such as breaking waves, wind, the Coriolis Effect, changing in temperature, and salinity differences while tides are caused by the gravitational pull of the Sun and Moon.

What are heterotrophs? Examples...

An organism deriving its nutritional requirements from complex organic substances. Examples are humans, wolves, etc.

What are autotrophs? Examples...

An organism that is able to form nutritional organic substances from simple inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide. Examples are algae, lily pads, etc.

Eukaryotic

An organism whose cells contain a nucleus surrounded by a membrane and whose DNA is bound together by proteins (histones) into chromosomes. The cells of eukaryotes also contain an endoplasmic reticulum and numerous specialized organelles not present in prokaryotes, especially mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and lysosomes.

Glycolysis

Anaerobic phase of cellular respiration that breaks down glucose into 2 molecules of pyruvate - Occurs in cytoplasm - Makes 2 Net ATP molecules and 2 molecules of NADH

hydrophyllic

dissolves easily in water

Acetyl-coA

coenzyme combined with pyruvate created in middle step; raw material of Krebs cycle

Lysosome

*breaks down larger food molecules into smaller molecules *digests old cell parts

Mitochondrion

*breaks down sugar molecules into energy

E.R. (Endoplasmic reticulum)

*carries materials through cell

nucleus

*controls cell activities

Ribosomes

*produces proteins

Vacuole

*store food, water, waste (plants need to store large amounts of food)

cell membrane

*support *protection *controls movement of materials in/out of cell *barrier between cell and its environment *maintains homeostasis

cell wall

*support (grow tall) *protection *allows H2O, O2, CO2 to pass into and out of cell

cytoplasm

*supports /protects cell organelles

Chloroplast

*uses energy from sun to make food for the plant (photosynthesis)

What impact does acid rain have on aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems?

-Dead or dying trees are a common sight in areas effected by acid rain. Acid rain leaches aluminum from the soil. That aluminum may be harmful to plants as well as animals. Acid rain also removes minerals and nutrients from the soil that trees need to grow. -The ecological effects of acid rain are most clearly seen in aquatic environments, such as streams, lakes, and marshes where it can be harmful to fish and other wildlife. As it flows through the soil, acidic rain water can leach aluminum from soil clay particles and then flow into streams and lakes. The more acid that is introduced to the ecosystem, the more aluminum is released.

What is the sequence of chemical pathways in aerobic cellular respiration?

-Glycolysis- 4 ATP and 2 NADH -Formation of Acetyl co enzyme A -The citric acid cycle -Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis- 34 ATP

What is primary consumer?

-Herbivores--> consume primary producers only -Carnivores--> consume other consumers only -Omnivores--> consume both producers and consumers

How much energy is passed on to the next trophic level?

10%

Example of an active transport

A common example of active transport, or moving a substance against its gradient, is the maintaining of a balance of sodium and potassium inside and outside a cell.

Hydrogen Bond

A hydrogen bond is the electromagnetic attraction between polar molecules in which hydrogen is bound to a larger atom, such as oxygen or nitrogen. This is not a sharing of electrons, as in a covalent bond. Instead, this is an attraction between the positive and negative poles of charged atoms./attraction that forms between a covalently bonded hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom taking part in another covalent bond

Fermentation

A process that produces a small amount of energy in the absence of oxygen - Begins with glycolysis and produces 2 molecules of pyruvate and then alcohol or lactic acid - Converts NADH to NAD+ by transferring electrons to pyruvate

Prokaryotic

A prokaryote is a unicellular organism that lacks a membrane-bound nucleus (karyon), mitochondria, or any other membrane-bound organelle.

What is a rain shadow?

A rain shadow is a pattern of land that has been forced to become a desert because mountain ran

Interference

Access to a resource is controlled by individuals who may of may not let others use them (chipmunks excluding others from their habitat.)

How is acid rain formed?

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds (like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides) which are released into the air. These substances can rise very high into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form more acidic pollutants known as acid rain.

Prey

consumed by another organism

Example of a passive transport

Another big example of passive transport is osmosis. This is a water specific process. Usually, cells are in an environment where there is one concentration of ions outside and one inside. Because concentrations like to be the same, the cell can pump ions in an out to stay alive.

What changes are apparent as you move from an equatorial region to the top of the mountain?

As you move from an equatorial region to the top of a mountain, the altitude changes, along with the weather and the environment.

What factors decrease the rate of diffusion in a molecule?

At higher temperatures, particles move faster because more energy is available to diffuse them. The rate of diffusion increases as the concentration difference increases. A substance diffusing between two areas exhibits a concentration difference as the particles diffuse from one side of the wall to the other side.

What are the differences between plant and animal cells?

Beyond size, the main structural differences between plant and animal cells lie in a few additional structures found in plant cells. These structures include: chloroplasts, the cell wall, and vacuoles.

What are several factors that influence productivity of a biome? How do they impact that biome?

Biodiversity and availability of resources in order to perform photosynthesis. This effects the biome because biodiversity ensures efficient cycling of resources, and unsustainable use of resources feeds back on itself and the ecosystem loses productivity, and less can be taken from the ecosystem in the long term.

What is biological magnification? How does this affect the highest levels of the food chain?

Biological magnification often refers to the process whereby certain substances such as pesticides or heavy metals move up the food chain, work their way into rivers or lakes, and are eaten by aquatic organisms such as fish, which in turn are eaten by large birds, animals or humans. This affects the highest level of the food chain because if the bottom level dies off, the other levels will slowly start dying as well.

What are the functions of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates have six major functions within the body: -Providing energy and regulation of blood glucose -Sparing the use of proteins for energy -Breakdown of fatty acids and preventing ketosis -Biological recognition processes -Flavor and Sweeteners -Dietary fiber

What factors control enzyme function?

Several factors affect the rate at which enzymatic reactions proceed - temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the presence of any inhibitors or activators.

Why are cells so small?

Cells are so little, so they can maximize their ratio of surface area to volume. Smaller cells have a higher ratio which allow more molecules and ions move across the cell membrane per unit of cytoplasmic volume. Cells are so small because they need to be able to get the nutrients in and the waste out quickly.

What is chemiosmosis?

Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across a semipermeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient. More specifically, it relates to the generation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the movement of hydrogen ions across a membrane during cellular respiration or photosynthesis.

Why are leaves green?

Chlorophyll is a pigment found in the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplasts in the leaves. This is why plants are green. The simple answer is that plants are green because they have green Chloroplasts (organelles that carry out photosynthesis). ... Chlorophyll is a pigment that absorbs red and blue light.

Biome in which there is a well-defined, compacted mat or organic deposits that result from fungal activity, acidic humus, and because of this, most minerals leach out

Coniferous Forest

What are the functions of proteins?

Considered "the building blocks" of living organisms, proteins direct many of the most basic functions in organism from the transport of oxygen, to the building of tissues to the replication of DNA. These large molecules are found in all of the cells in the human body.

ATP

Consists of adenosine plus 3 phosphates; source of immediate energy

Predator

Consumers feeding on other organisms (typically causing the death of the prey)

Biome that is rich in organic matter, and accumulated minerals leach into a lower layer and accumlate

Deciduous Forest

What does denaturing do to the structure of protein?

Denaturing a protein causes that protein to lose its shape and therefore causing it to not be able to function correctly.

Biome with shallow poor soil, with water that leaches easily creating high salinity

Desert

Electron Transfer Chain

Energy-coupling reaction that creates H+ gradient in the membrane necessary for the production of ATP through chemiosmosis or oxidative phosphorylation - Energy released from the exergonic flow of electrons is used to pump protons across the membrane to create a proton gradient - Electrons flow down the chain from one carrier molecule to the next in a series of redox reactions - The final hydrogen (H+) acceptor in the chain is oxygen (H2+1/2O2 --> H2O) / Water is the waste product and is exhaled

How does an allosteric inhibitor affect an enzyme?

Enzyme inhibitors are substances which alter the catalytic action of the enzyme and consequently slow down, or in some cases, stop catalysis. There are three common types of enzyme inhibition - competitive, non-competitive and substrate inhibition.

How do enzymes work?

Enzymes are highly selective catalysts, meaning that each enzyme only speeds up a specific reaction. The molecules that an enzyme works with are called substrates. The substrates bind to a region on the enzyme called the active site. There are two theories explaining the enzyme-substrate interaction

What are the functions of nucleic acid?

Genetic Information. The main job of DNA is to carry the code for making proteins. A gene is a stretch of DNA that can be read by proteins called ribosomes, and copied into a type of nucleic acid called messenger RNA (mRNA).

Biome with deep rich humus, that contains percolating water that enriches it with calcium carbonates

Grasslands

What is the purpose of a membrane receptor? How is it utilized by hormones?

Hormones that cannot diffuse through the plasma membrane instead bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering intracellular events.

Endergonic reaction

In chemical thermodynamics, an endergonic reaction (also called a nonspontaneous reaction or an unfavorable reaction) is a chemical reaction in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed.

Light dependent reactions

In light-dependent reactions, the energy from sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll and converted into chemical energy in the form of electron carrier molecules like ATP and NADPH.

Light independent reactions

In light-independent reactions (the Calvin cycle), carbohydrate molecules are assembled from carbon dioxide using the chemical energy harvested during the light-dependent reactions.

What happens to volume if surface area decreases?

In the same way, if the cell size is decreased, its volume and surface area will also decrease, but at unequal rates. Again, the volume would decrease faster than the surface area, leading to an increase of the surface unit to volume ratio. Hence, as cell size decreases, the surface area to volume ratio increases.

What would occur if you removed lipids from an organism?

It could cause vitamin deficiencies, lack of healthy fats, may affect your energy, and may cause problems with your cell wall formation and function.

What are the functions of lipids?

Lipids play the important roles of storing energy and ensuring proper cell membrane development.

What are some results of deforestation?

Loss of habitat for species, decreases water quality, creates soil erosion, we would have more pollution, etc.

Protein

Monomer: amino acids

Carbohydrate

Monomer: monosccharide

Nucleic Acid

Monomer: nucleotide

Lipid

No specific monomer

Example of hydrophobic

Oil

commensalism

One organism benefits and the other is not harmed nor benefitted

Kinesis

Orientation behavior A simple change in activity or turning rate in response to a stimuli.

Taxis

Orientation behavior Automatic, oriented movement toward or away from some stimuli.

Parasitism

Parasites live in or on other living organisms, their hosts, and feed upon them for part of their life cycle (generally don't kill the host)

What factors increase the rate of diffusion in a molecule?

Particle size, temperature, concentration difference and diffusion distance affect the rate of diffusion. The particle size highly influences the rate of diffusion. Since the heat of the environment is the energy source for diffusion, a smaller particle at a given temperature moves faster than a larger particle.

Where does a plant get its oxygen from?

Plants take in carbon dioxide from the air and, together with water, convert it into oxygen and sugar. The process is called photosynthesis. There is however also a reaction where oxygen is used from the air in order to make sugar.

What are some factors included in an ecosystem?

Rain, Wind, Temperature, Altitude, Pollution, Soil, etc.

hydrophobic

Resists dissolving water

Example of hydrophyllic

Soap

What is activation energy, what's its impact on starting a reaction, and how do enzymes impact it?

Specifically, the higher the activation energy, the slower the chemical reaction will be. Many enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of reactions.

What are 2 things that all living things do due to cellular respiration?

Take in oxygen/ living

Why do temperate forests make great farmland?

Temperate forests make great farmland because it is rich in organic matter and accumulated minerals leach into a lower layer and accumulate

What would occur if you removed carbohydrates from an organism?

The organism would not gain enough energy

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells produce energy (ATP) C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6H2O + energy (oxidative process)

What are the reactants of photosynthesis?

The reactants of photosynthesis are water, light and carbon dioxide, while the products are oxygen and sugars

What is a niche?

The role or position of a species in the environment.

How does increasing size and complexity of an ecosystem impact the stability of that ecosystem?

There is mounting evidence that biodiversity increases the stability of ecosystem processes in changing environments, but the mechanisms that underlie this effect are still controversial and poorly understood. Three main mechanisms are likely to operate in the stabilizing effects of biodiversity on ecosystem properties: (1) asynchronous of species' intrinsic responses to environmental fluctuations, (2) differences in the speed at which species respond to perturbations, (3) reduction in the strength of competition.

Why does the concentration gradient not exist?

There will be no concentration gradient once an organism achieves equilibrium.

Why are some animals larger than others? (In terms of cells *size and amount*)

They are made with more cells (not bigger cells)

What would occur if you removed nucleic acid from an organism?

They would die because they would have no genetic information, this also means that they would have no genetic information to pass to their offspring.

What would occur if you removed proteins from an organism?

They would not be able to produce muscle, and the organs and bones may suffer.

Biome in which the soil is continually leached by rain (left over Iron and Aluminum lead to acidic pH and red color

Tropical Rainforest

Why do tropical rain forests make poor farmland?

Tropical forests make poor farmland because the soil is constantly leached of nutrients because of the rain

What are several types of legumes?

chickpeas, garbanzo beans, black-eyed bean, lentil, etc.

Krebs Cycle

Uses 2 acetyl co-A to produces 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP and CO2 as waste - Occurs in the mitochondrial inner matrix - Part of aerobic respiration - Turns twice for each molecule of glucose (also known as Citric Acid Cycle)

What is a primary producer?

Utilize energy from the sun to make their own energy

Aerobic

With oxygen

Anaerobic

Without oxygen

How does the oceans conveyor belt work?

Works by the motion caused by a combination of thermohaline currents (temperature and salinity) in the deep ocean and wind driven currents on the surface. Cold, salty water is dense and sinks to the bottom of the ocean while warm water is less dense and remains on the surface.

Covalent Bond

a chemical bond in which two atoms share a pair of electrons. Covalent bonding occurs when pairs of electrons are shared by atoms. Atoms will covalently bond with other atoms in order to gain more stability, which is gained by forming a full electron shell. By sharing their outer most (valence) electrons, atoms can fill up their outer electron shell and gain stability