AP Biology Final

salt

a compound formed by replacing hydrogen in an acid by a metal (or a radical that acts like a metal)

ionic compound

a compound that consists of positive and negative ions

modern synthesis

a comprehensive theory of evolution, integrates discoveries and ideas from paleontology, biogeography, taxonomy, and population genetics

polar covalent bond

a covalent bond in which electrons are not shared equally

huntington's disease

a degenerative disease of the nervous system caused by a lethal dominant allele that has no obvious phenotypic effect until the individual is 35-45 yrs old

basement membrane

a dense mat of extracellular matrix that cells at the base of an epithelial tissue are attached to

Barr body

a dense object lying along the inside of the nuclear envelope in cells of female mammals, representing a highly condensed, inactivated X chromosome; so that both males and females have just one copy of most x-linked genes

pedigree

a diagram of a family tree with conventional symbols, showing the occurrence of heritable characters in parents and offspring over multiple generations

punnett square

a diagrammatic device for predicting the allele composition of offspring from a cross between individuals of known genetic makeup

metaphase plate

a disk formed during metaphase in which all of a cell's chromosomes lie in a single plane at right angles to the spindle fibers.

karyotype

a display of the chromosome pairs of a cell arranged by size and shape

phylogenetic tree

a family tree that shows the evolutionary relationships thought to exist among groups of organisms

monocot

a group of angiosperms, has one cotyledon, veins are parallel, vascular bundles usually complexly arranged, fibrous root systems, and floral parts usually in multiples of three

dicots

a group of angiosperms, has two cotyledons, veins are usually netlike, vascular bundles are arranged in a ring, taproot, and floral patterns in 4 or 5

clade

a group of biological taxa or species that share features inherited from a common ancestor

population

a group of individuals of a single species that simultaneously occupy the same general area

population

a group of individuals of the same species living in a particular geographic area

species

a group of organisms so similar to one another that they can breed and produce fertile offspring

species

a group of populations whose individuals have the potential to interbreed and produce fertile offspring in nature

gibberellins

a growth hormone that causes a wide variety of effects. One role is to stimulate growth of stems by promoting cell division. Farmers use it to make fruit grow larger.

character

a heritable feature that varies among individuals ex/ flower color

solution

a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

down syndrome

a human genetic disease usually caused by the abnormality of an extra chromosome 21

hydrogen ion

a hydrogen atom that has left its electron behind

Pangaea

a hypothetical continent including all the landmass of the earth prior to the Triassic period when it split into Laurasia and Gondwanaland

spontaneous generation

a hypothetical organic phenomenon by which living organisms are created from nonliving matter

mycelium

a interwoven map of tiny filaments called hyphae that construct vegetative bodies of most fungi

synapse

a junction between 2 nerves or a nerve and muscle, various chemicals are used to transfer the impulse across the gap to the next cell

ediacaran period

a late Precambrian period of geological time, before the Cambrian Period to 635 million years ago. Simple, soft bodied fossils of multicellular organisms

sepal

a leaflike structure that encloses the bud of a flower

population

a localized group of individuals belonging to the same species

taxis

a locomotor response toward or away from an external stimulus

spectrometer

a machine that measures the ability of a pigment to absorb various wavelengths of light

gamete

a mature sexual reproductive cell having a single set of unpaired chromosomes

dalton

a measure of mass for atoms and subatomic particles; the same as the atomic mass unit, or amu

electronegativity

a measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons

resolving power

a measure of the clarity of the image; it is the minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two separate points.

heat

a measure of the total quantity of kinetic energy due to molecular motion in a body of water

mucous membrane

a membrane formed by glandular epithelia that line the lumen (cavity) of the digestive and respiratory tracts, these cells secrete a slimy solution, mucus, that lubricates the surface and keeps it moist

radiometric dating

a method that involves the measurement of certain radioactive isotopes in fossils or rocks

cytochromes

(cyt), in the chain of the ETC, carry electrons, An iron-containing protein that is a component of electron transport chains in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells and the plasma membranes of prokaryotic cells

foram

(foraminiferans), all marine, have multichambered porous shells consisting of organic materials hardened with calcium carbonate. live in sand or attach to rocks/algae. some are abundant in plankton.

ribosome

A cell organelle constructed in the nucleolus and functioning as the site of protein synthesis in the cytoplasm; Consists of rRNA and protein molecules, which make up two subunits.

prokaryotic cell

A cell where the DNA is concentrated in a region called the nucleoid, which is not separated by a membrane.

ultracentrifuge

A centrifuge that can spin as fast as 130,000 revolutions per minute, applying forces more than a million times the force of gravity.

cytoplasmic streaming

A circular flow of cytoplasm, involving myosin and actin filaments, that speeds the distribution of materials within cells.

cytokinins

A class of related plant hormones that retard aging and act in concert with auxin to stimulate cell division, influence the pathway of differentiation, and control apical dominance.

three domain system

A classification system developed using molecular observations that compares DNA sequences of organisms to determine relatedness, based on three basic groups: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya,

chromosome

A coiled up structure of chromatin which contains DNA, a threadlike body in the cell nucleus that carries the genes in a linear order.

spliceosome

A complex assembly that interacts with the ends of an RNA intron in splicing RNA, releasing the intron and joining the two adjacent exons.

checkpoint

A critical control point in the cell cycle where stop and go-ahead signals can regulate the cycle.

cell cycle control system

A cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle.

systemic acquired resistance

A defensive response in plants infected with a pathogenic microbe; helps protect healthy tissue from the microbe.

ecological species concept

A definition of species in terms of ecological niche, the sum of how members of the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of their environment.

morphological species concept

A definition of species in terms of measurable anatomical criteria.

intrasexual selection

A direct competition among individuals of one sex (usually the males in vertebrates) for mates of the opposite sex.

lagging strand

A discontinuously synthesized DNA strand that elongates in a direction away from the replication fork.

stramenopila

A diverse protistan clade that includes several heterotrophic groups and a variety of photosynthetic protists.

basal body

A eukaryotic cell organelle consisting of a 9 + 0 arrangement of microtubule triplets; may organize the microtubule assembly of a cilium or flagellum; structurally identical to a centriole.

F factor

A fertility factor in bacteria; a DNA segment that confers the ability to form pili for conjugation and associated functions required for the transfer of DNA from donor to recipient. It may exist as a plasmid or be integrated into the bacterial chromosome.

bisexual flower

A flower equipped with both stamens and carpels.

incomplete flower

A flower in which one or more of the four basic floral organs (sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels) are either absent or nonfunctional.

unisexual flower

A flower missing either stamens or carpels.

complete flower

A flower that has all four basic floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels.

body cavity

A fluid-containing space between the digestive tract and the body wall.

blastocyst

A fluid-filled sphere formed about 5 days after fertilization of an ovum that is made up of an outer ring of cells and inner cell mass. THis is the structure that implants in the endometrium of the uterus.

bacteroids

A form of rhizobium contained within the vesicles formed by the root cells of a root nodule.

actin

A globular protein that links into chains, two of which twist helically about each other, forming microfilaments in muscle and other contractile elements in cells.

proteoglycan

A glycoprotein consisting of a small core protein with many carbohydrate chains attached, found in the extracellular matrix of animal cells. A proteoglycan may consist of up to 95% carbohydrate.

collagen

A glycoprotein in the extracellular matrix of animal cells that forms strong fibers, found extensively in connective tissue and bone; the most abundant protein in the animal kingdom.

fibronectin

A glycoprotein that helps cells attach to the extracellular matrix.

frameshift mutation

A mutation occurring when the number of nucleotides inserted or deleted is not a multiple of three, resulting in the improper grouping of the following nucleotides into codons.

nonsense mutation

A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.

endosperm

A nutrient-rich tissue formed by the union of a sperm cell with two polar nuclei during double fertilization, which provides nourishment to the developing embryo in angiosperm seeds.

bacteriorhodopsin

A photosynthetic pigment found in halophiles. It is very similar to the visual pigments in the retinas of our eyes.

abscisic acid

A plant hormone that brings about dormancy in buds, mantains dormancy in seeds, and brings about stomatal closing, among other effects.

salicylic acid

A plant hormone that may be partially responsible for activating systemic acquired resistance to pathogens.

day-neutral plant

A plant with a flowering cycle that is not sensitive to periods of light and dark.

chemiosmosis

A process by which mitochondria and chloroplasts use the energy of an electron transport chain to create a hydrogen ion gradient that drives ATP formation. endergonic and is coupled to exergonic electron transport

cation exchange

A process in which positively charged minerals are made available to a plant when hydrogen ions in the soil displace mineral ions from the clay particles.

pseudocoelomates

An animal whose body cavity is lined by tissue derived from mesoderm and endoderm.

mitotic spindle

An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movements of chromosomes during mitosis.

radicle

An embryonic root of a plant.

gastrula

An embryonic stage in animal development encompassing the formation of three layers: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm.

phytoremediation

An emerging nondestructive technology that seeks to cheaply reclaim contaminated areas by taking advantage of the remarkable ability of some plant species to extract heavy metals and other pollutants from the soil and to concentrate them in easily harvested portions of the plant.

primase

An enzyme that joins RNA nucleotides to make the primer.

reverse transcriptase

An enzyme that polymerizes a strand of DNA by reading an RNA template (an RNA dependent DNa polymerase); used by retrovirus in order to integrate their genome with the host cell genome.

homeotic genes

Any of the master regulatory genes that control placement and spatial organization of body parts in animals, plants, and fungi by controlling the developmental fate of groups of cells

nucleoid

Area in prokaryotic cells in which DNA is concentrated, though not bounded by a membrane

zero population growth

B=D

phytoplankton

Base of most marine and freshwater food webs, include planktonic eukaryotic algae and prokaryotic cyanobacteria.

600 million years ago

Cambrian Explosion, oldest animal fossils

abortifacients

Chemical substances or mechanical devices that inhibit a fertilized egg's ability to attach itself to the lining of the uterus, thereby destroying the human zygote.

ciliate

Ciliophora, a diverse protist group that uses cilia. Most are unicellular and live in freshwater.

plankton

Communities of organisms, mostly microscopic, that drift passively or swim weakly near the water surface.

heterochrony

Evolutionary change in the timing or rate of an organism's development.

Miller-Urey Experiment

Experiment that modeled Earth's primordial atmosphere in the lab and produced amino acids. (i.e. organic matter from Earth's primordial conditions)

sympatrick speciation

Formation of species in same location.

ionic bond

Formed when one or more electrons are transferred from one atom to another

Pasteur

French chemist and biologist who disproved spontaneous generation

reduced hybrid viability

Genes of the different parent species may interact and impair the hybrid's development

episome

Genetic element that can replicate either as a part of the bacterial chromosome or independently of it

genus

Group of closely related species, and the first part of the scientific name in binomial nomenclature

secondary growth

Growth produced by lateral meristems, which thickens the roots and shoots of woody plants.

gametophyte

Haploid, the gamete(n)-producing (by mitosis) individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations

kinetoplastid

Have a single large mitochondrion associated with a unique organelle, the kinetoplast, that houses extranuclear DNA. These are symbiotic and some are pathogenic to their hosts, may cause African Sleeping Sickness.

HCG

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin, a hormone secreted by the trophoblast cells of a blasocyst (i.e. developing embryo) that prolongs the life of the corpus luteum, and thus increases the duration and amount of secreted progesterone. This helps to maintain the uterine lining so that menstruation does not occur. The presence of hCG in the blood or urine of a woman is used as a positive indicator of pregnancy.

ingroup

In a cladistic study of evolutionary relationships among taxa of organisms, the group of taxa that is actually being analyzed.

heteromorphic

Referring to a condition in the life cycle of plants and certain algae in which the sporophyte and gametophyte generations differ in morphology.

smooth ER

Ribosomes are not found on its surface. It contains collections of enzymes that perform specialized tasks including the synthesis of membrane lipids and the detoxification of drugs.

rubisco

Ribulose biphosphate carboxylase, an enzyme that fixes CO₂ together with RuBP.

stigma

STICKY, pollen lands here

intersexual selection

Selection whereby individuals of one sex (usually females) are choosy in selecting their mates from individuals of the other sex; also called mate choice.

pili

Short, hairlike protein structures on the surface of some bacteria that allow it to stick to something

parazoa

"beside the animals", includes the Porifera, lacks true tissues

cell division

"every cell from a cell", the process through which cells divide into two daughter cells

snRNP

"snurps", recognize 5' and 3' splice sites and branch site and act as spliceosomes to remove introns, small nuclear ribonuclear proteins

glycolysis

"splitting of sugar", occurs in the cytosol, begins degradation by breaking glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2Pyruvate + 2NADH + 2(net)ATP

heliozoan

"sun animals", freshwater, skeletons have unfused siliceous (glassy) chitinous plates

Linnaeus

(1701-1778), a Swedish physician and botanist, sought to discover order in the diversity of life for the greater glory of God. Specialized in taxonomy, the naming of life, developed a system for naming organisms. Kingdom>phylum>class>order>family>genus>species

Lyell

(1797-1875), developed uniformitarianism, the rates at which stratas change is always the same

diatom

(Bacillariophyta), have unique glasslike walls composed of hydrated silica embedded in an organic matrix. Mostly reproduce asexually, abundant in freshwater and marine.

origin of replication

Site where the replication of a DNA molecule begins.

origins of replication

Sites where the replication of a DNA molecule begins.

allopatrick speciation

Speciation by geographic isolation

gametic isolation

Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species

golden algae

(Chrysophyta), biflagellated. some are mixotrophic and live among freshwater/marine plankton. most are unicellular, some are colonial. at high densities they can form resistant cysts that remain viable for decades.

pollen grain

Structure consisting of a few haploid cells surrounded by a thick protective wall that contains a male gametophyte of a seed plant

ovules

Structure that develops within ovary of seed plant and contains female gametophyte.

rough ER

Studded with ribosomes, makes secretory proteins,

ecdysozoa

Supergroup of protostomes; characterized by periodic molting of their exoskeleton. Include the roundworms and arthropods.

Darwinian fitness

The contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation, relative to the contributions of other individuals.

relative fitness

The contribution of one genotype to the next generation compared to that of alternative genotypes for the same locus.

cotransport

The coupling of the "downhill" diffusion of one substance to the "uphill" transport of another against its own concentration gradient.

coleorhiza

The covering of the young root of the embryo of a grass seed.

coleoptile

The covering of the young shoot of the embryo of a grass seed.

pituitary gland

The endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands

cytoplasma

The entire region between the nucleus and the plasma membrane. Within the cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell, suspended in cytosol, are a variety of membrane-bounded organelles of specialized form and function. These are absent in prokaryotic cells.

guttation

The exudation of water droplets, caused by root pressure in certain plants.

embryo sac

The female gametophyte of angiosperms, formed from the growth and division of the megaspore into a multicellular structure with eight haploid nuclei.

carpels

The female reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of the stigma, style, and ovary.

cleavage furrow

The first sign of cleavage in an animal cell; a shallow groove in the cell surface near the old metaphase plate.

hybrid breakdown

The first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate the offspring are feeble and sterile

protoplast fusion

The fusing of two protoplasts from different plant species that would otherwise be reproductively incompatible.

plasmogamy

The fusion of the cytoplasm of cells from two individuals, occurs as one stage of syngamy.

mesophyll

The ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and specialized for photosynthesis.

one gene-one polypeptide hypothesis

The hypothesis that every gene directs the synthesis of a particular polypeptide chain; originally called the one geneone enzyme hypothesis.

pluralistic species concept

The idea that there is no universal explanation for the cohesion of individuals that make up species.

procambium

The inner most primary meristem, which gives rise to the vascular tissue

endodermis

The innermost layer of the cortex in plant roots; a cylinder one cell thick that forms the boundary between the cortex and the vascular cylinder.

polyploidy

a chromosomal alteration in which the organism possesses more than two complete chromosome sets; the result of an accident of cell division (ex. triploidy, tetraploidy)

plasmid

a circular DNA molecule that is usually found in bacteria and that can replicate independent of the main chromosome

deuterostomia

a clade of bilaterally symmetrical animals in which the first opening of the blastula becomes the anus (echinoderms, chordates)

protostomia

a clade of bilaterally symmetrical animals in which the first opening of the blastula becomes the mouth (mollusks, annelids, arthropods)

methanogen

archaebacteria found in anaerobic environments such as animal intestinal tracts or sediments or sewage and capable of producing methane

physiographic area

around a geographic area, an area with rivers

bundle-sheath cell

arranged into tightly packed sheaths around the veins of the leaf. CO₂ is released and enters the calvin cycle

germ layer

as a result from gastrulation, a specific layer of cells in an embryo from which specific organ systems are derived

adipose tissue

aspecialized loose connective tissue, stores large fat droplets as fuel, pads and insulates the body

cephalization

associated with bilateria, an evolutionary trend toward the concentration of sensory equipment on the anterior end, the end of a traveling animal that is usually first to encounter food, danger, and other stimuli

clitoris

at the anterior end of the labia, under the pubic bone, female equivalent of penis. contains erectile tissue and many nerve endings in a sensitive glans with a prepuce

ovary

at the base of a carpel, the organ that bears the ovules of a flower

terminal bud

at the tip of a young shoot where growth is concentrated, with developing leaves and a compact series of nodes and internodes

ion

atom that has a positive or negative charge

anion

atom with a negative charge

cation

atom with a positive charge

skeletal muscle

attached to bones by tendons, voluntary movement of the body, aka striated muscle, overlapped

nitrogen-fixing bacteria

bacteria that convert nitrogen in the air into forms that can be used by plants and animals

prezygotic barriers

barriers that impede mating between species or hinder the fertilization of ova if members of different species attempt to mate

eumetazoa

basic feature of nearly all animal phyla besides Porifera, have true sponges

osteon

basic unit of compact bone

semelparity

big bang reproduction, large numbers of offspring are produced in each reproduction, after which the individual often dies

hormone receptors

binding sites on target cells

connective tissue

binds and supports other tissues, sparsely spaced cells

endothermic

bodies are warmed by heat generated by metabolism and temperature maintainedat a certain level

thallus

body of seaweed, consists of root holdfast and stem stipe, supports leaf-like photosynthetic blades

estrous cycle

body temperature raises, but endometrium is reabsorbed if not fertilized

mutualism

both symbiosis organisms benefit

meiosis I

cell division in meiosis that separates homologous chromosomes; after this, cells are haploid; reductional division

meiosis II

cell division in meiosis that separates sister chromatids; the chromosome number remains the same; equational division

mitosis

cell division in which the nucleus divides into nuclei containing the same number of chromosomes

host

the larger species in symbiosis

biotic factors

the living components

oxidation

the loss of one or more electrons

leaves system

the main photosynthetic organs of most plants, consist of a flattened blade and a stalk

metamorphosis

the marked and rapid transformation of a larva into an adult that occurs in some animals

hybridization

the mating/crossing of two true-breeding varieties

basal metabolic rate

the metabolic rate of a nongrowing endotherm at rest, with an empty stomach, and experiencing no stress

standard metabolic rate

the metabolic rate of a resting, fasting, nonstressed ectotherm

mole

the molecular weight of a substance expressed in grams

missense mutation

the most common type of mutation, a base-pair substitution in which the new codon makes sense in that it still codes for an amino acid.

leading strand

the new continuous complementary DNA strand synthesized along the template strand in the mandatory 5' --> 3' direction

triplet code

the normal version of the genetic code in which a sequence of three nucleotides codes for the synthesis of a specific amino acid

valence

the number of electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom

atomic number

the order of an element in Mendeleyev's table of the elements

target organs

the organs where a hormone secreted by a endocrine gland is heading

hypocotyl

the part of a plant embryo directly below the cotyledons, forming a connection with the radicle.

mitotic phase

the part of the cell cycle when mitosis divides the nucleus and distributes its chromosomes to the daughter nuclei and cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm, producing two daughter cells.

dispersion

the pattern of spacing among individuals within the geographic boundaries

distance

the percentage of recombination depends on the ______ between genes on a chromosome; the farther apart the two genes are, the higher the recombination frequency (the more points there are where crossing over can occur)

interphase

the period of the cell cycle during which the nucleus is not undergoing division, typically occurring between mitotic or meiotic divisions

F₁ plasmid

cells that contain this function as DNA donors during conjugation; F+ cells transfer DNA to F- recipients; chromosomal genes can be transferred during conjugation when donor cell's F factor is integrated into chromosome

pseudopodium

cellular extensions to move and often to feed. most species that posess these are heterotrophs that actively hunt bacteria, other protists, and detritus

Acrasiomycota

cellular slime molds, when theres food, they eat alone, but when food is scarce, they clump together

plasmodesmata

channels through cell walls that connect the cytoplasms of adjacent cells

signature sequence

characteristic sequences in the ribosomal RNA genes, or their products, that can be used to classify or identify certain organisms, discovered by Woese

endotoxins

components of the outer membranes of certain gram negative bacteria

muscle tissue

composed of long cells, muscle fibers, that are capable of contracting when stimulated by nerve impulses

canavanine

compound produced by certain plants; if ingested replaces arginine when herbivore manufacturing proteins. Herbivore becomes ill or dies.

anchorage dependence

the requirement that to divide, a cell must be attached to a solid surface.

evolutionary adaptation

the result of natural selection, a prevalence of inherited characteristics that enhance organisms' survival and reproduction in specific environments

addition rule

the rule stating that the probability of any one of two or more mutually exclusive events can be determined by adding their individual probabilities

tendons

connect bones to muscles

companion cell

connected to the sieve-tube member by numerous channels (plasmodesmata), organelles serve to sieve-tube member

mesenteries

connective tissue in vertebrates that suspend the organs, moistened and filled with fluid

ligaments

connects bones to bones

coenocytic

consist of a continuous cytoplasmic mass with hundreds or thousands of nuclei

electron transport chain

consists of a number of molecules, mostly proteins (ATP synthase), built into the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Electrons removed from food are shuttled by NADH top the "top" end of the chain. At the "bottom" end, oxygen captures these electrons along with hydrogen nuclei (H⁺), forming water.

community

consists of all organisms of all the species that inhabit a particular area

ecosystem

consists of all the abiotic factors in addition to the entire community of species that exist in a certain area

paraphyletic

consists of an ancestor and some of its descendants

green algae

consists of chlorophytes (freshwater) and charophyceans (land), green plant-like chloroplasts common ancestor had chloroplasts derived from cyanobacteria.

Fermentation

consists of glycolysis plus reactions that regenerate NAD⁺ by transferring electrons from NADH to pyruvate or derivatives of pyruvate. The NAD⁺ can then be reused to oxidize sugar by glycolysis, which nets 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation. 2 types of fermentation are alcohol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation.

landscape/seascape

consists of several different ecosystems linked by exchanges of energy, materials, and organisms.

shoot system

consists of stems and leaves, can be vegetative (leaf bearing) or reproductive (flower bearing)

profundal zone

consists of the deep aphasic regions

carnivorous plants

consume living organisms for nitrogen due to poor soil

nucleus

contains most of the genes in the eukaryotic cell (some genes are located in mitochondria and chloroplasts). It is generally the most conspicuous organelle in a eukaryotic cell, averaging about 5 µm in diameter. The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating its contents from the cytoplasm.

ovary

contains the ovule, is the main female organ, when ripened it is fruit

penis

contains three cylinders of spongy, erectile tissue

vascular tissue

continuous throughout the plant, involved in stransport of materials between roots and shoots, has two types: xylem and phloem

acetyl CoA

converted from pyruvate, acetyl coenzyme A, Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.

C₄ plants

corn, sugarcane, grass. forms a four carbon sugar, contains bundle sheath and mesophyll cells. spacial separation of steps

nonpolar covalent bond

covalent bond where electrons are shared equally

ectoderm

covering the surface of the embryo, gives rise to the outer covering of the animal and, in some phyla, to the central nervous system

fertilization

creation by the physical union of male and female gametes; of sperm and ova in an animal or pollen and ovule in a plant

septa

cross walls that divide multicellular fungi into different cells

cluster

crowded around a single area in a physiographic area, a river

locality

crowded around a small spot on a larger physiographic element, a shore of a river

lytic cycle

culminates in death of the host cell, last stage of infection, the cell lyses and releases the phages produced in the cell.

detritus

dead organic matter, rains down to the benthic zone

evolutionary time

decades, centuries, millenia, and longer

saprobe

decomposers that absorb their nutrients from dead organic matter

parasympathetic NS

decreases energy expenditure, gains stored energy

oligotrophic lakes

deep, nutrient-poor lakes that do not contain much life, may turn into mesotrophic lakes if runoff brings nutrients

genealogical species concept

defines a species as the smallest group of reproductively compatible organisms containing all of the known descendants of a single common ancestor

absolute dating

determines actual age. fossil's near by rock contains radioactive elements that break down (decay) into different elements over time. half life of these elements means the time it takes for half of the atoms to decay they compare how much of the radioactive element is in the sample and the amount of the new element, then calculate the age.

imperfect fungi

deuteromycetes, reproduce asexually by producing haploid spores

Lamarck

developed several lines of descent of fossils to a modern species. inheritance of acquired characteristics, use and disuse

organogenesis

development of body organs, first trimester

variation

differences between members of the same species

geographic variation

differences in gene pools between populations or subgroups of populations

osmosis

diffusion of molecules through a semipermeable membrane from a place of higher concentration to a place of lower concentration until the concentration on both sides is equal

sporophyte

diploid, the spore(n)-producing (by meiosis) individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations

trochophore larva

distinctive larval stage observed in some lophotrochozoan animals, including some annelids and molluscs

ectothermic

do not produce enough metabolic heat to have much effect on body temperature

nuclear envelope

double membrane enclosing the nucleus; perforated by pores.

analogy

drawing a comparison in order to show a similarity in some respect

pancreas

ductless/ducted gland-secretes digestive enzymes into small intestine

vas deferens

during ejaculation, sperm is forced up this tube. goes up, around the front of, over the top of, and behind the bladder

ingestion

eating other organisms or organic material that is decomposing

symbiosis

ecological relationships between organisms of different species that are in direct contact

rhizomes

edible base of ginger plant, horizontal stems that grow under ground

telomere

either (free) end of a eukaryotic chromosome

valence electron

electrons on the outermost energy level of an atom

trace element

elements or minerals needed in very small amounts

macronutrients

elements required by plants in relatively large amounts, includes carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus

micronutrient

elements that plants need in very small amounts, iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum, boron, and nickel. function as cofactors of enzymatic reactions

radicle

embryonic root

population genetics

emphasizes the extensive genetic variation within populations and recognizes the importance of quantitative characteristics

sieve plates

end walls between sieve-tube members, have pores that presumably facilitate the flow of fluid from cell to cell along the sieve-tube

ejaculatory ducts

ends of the vas deferens, behind and slightly under the bladder, seminal vesicles empty into here

kinetic energy

energy of motion

receptacle

enlarged tip of a stem that bears the floral parts

FSH

follicle-stimulating hormone, stimulates the development of a follicle in an ovary, stimulates testes to produce sperm

prepuce

foreskin that covers the glans penis

cell body

form gray matter when side-by-side

stabilizing selection

form of natural selection by which the center of the curve remains in its current position; occurs when individuals near the center of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end

directional selection

form of natural selection in which the entire curve moves; occurs when individuals at one end of a distribution curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the other end of the curve

behavioral isolation

form of reproductive isolation in which two populations have differences in courtship rituals or other types of behavior that prevent them from interbreeding

temporal isolation

form of reproductive isolation in which two populations reproduce at different times

conjugation

form of sexual reproduction in which paramecia and some prokaryotes exchange genetic information

covalent bond

form when electrons are shared between atoms

sedimentary rocks

formed from the sand and mud that settle to the bottom of seas, lakes, and marshes. most fossils are found here

substrate-level phosphorylation

forming ATP in glycolysis and Kreb's cycle, occurs when an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from a substrate molecule to ADP.

cervical plug

forms in cervix, protects growing baby from foreign invaders

cardiac muscle

forms the contractile wall of the heart, cells are branched and rely on signals from other cells

microsporocyte

found in microsporangium; divides by meiosis, producing 4 haploid microspores; a microspore develops into a pollen grain (a male gametophyte enclosed within the pollen wall)

axillary bud

found in the angle formed between the leaf and stem, a structure that has the potential to form a vegetative branch. most of a young shoot are dormant

absorptive protists

fungus-like protists, resemble fungi

karyogamy

fusion of haploid nuclei contributed by twoparents

nuclease

general term for enzymes that catalyze the hydrolysis of nucleic acid by cleaving chains of nucleotides into smaller units

linked genes

genes located near each other on the same chromosome and tend to be inherited together (but not always)

homeotic

genes that control early development in animals

bottleneck effect

genetic drift due to drastic population reduction, the resulting gene pool only contains alleles from the reduced population

gene flow

genetic exchange due to the migration of fertile individuals or gametes between populations

neutral variation

genetic variation that does not appear to provide a selective advantage or disadvantage

uniformitarianism

geological processes have not changed throughout earth's history

G3P

glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate, the threecarbon sugar formed in the Calvin cycle

GnRH

gonadotropin releasing hormone, produced by hypothalamus, controlled by FSH and LH via negative feedback

primary electron acceptor

grabs the e⁻ when it gets excited and dumps it into ETC

brain

gray matter on outside, white in center

multiplication rule

the rule stating that the probability of two or more independent events occurring together can be determined by multiplying their individual probabilities

genetics

the scientific study of heredity and hereditary variation

ecology

the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environment

F2

the second generation after the true-breeding parents

XO

the sex chromosomes of Turner syndrome

XXX

the sex chromosomes of a super female

XYY

the sex chromosomes of a super male

XXY

the sex chromosomes of klinefelter syndrome

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

the sexual processes of meiosis and random fertilization maintain the same allele and genotype frequencies that existed in previous generations

stomata

the small openings on the undersides of most leaves through which oxygen and carbon dioxide can move

atom

the smallest unit of mattrer that still retains the properties of an element

internode

the space on the stem between where leaves are attached

tissues

groups of cells with a common structure and function. Different types have different structures, held together by a sticky extracellular matrix that coats the cells of weaves them together in a fabric of fibers.

chromosomes

haplo-diploid system of sex determination for bees and ants that involves the number of ________; females are from diploid cells, males are from haploid cells (no fathers)

gametophyte

haploid individual, produces gametes by mitosis that fuse to form a diploid zygote

photosystems

has a light-gathering antenna complex consisting of a cluster of a fer hundred chlorophyll a, a chlorophyll b, and carotenoid molecules

mesotrophic lakes

have a moderate amount of nutrients and phytoplankton productivity

marine biomes

have a salt concentration of approximately 3% and cover approximately 75% of the earth's surface

freshwater biomes

have a salt concentration of less than 1% and are closely linked to the soils and biotic components of the terrestrial biomes through which they pass

euglenoid

have an anterior pocket, or chamber, from which one or two flagella emerge. many of these are mixotrophic or heterotrophic, absorbing organic molecules from their surroundings or engulfing prey by phagocytosis

parenchyma

have primary walls that are thin and flexible, "typical plant cells, perform metabolic functions, do not divide, but can differentiate into other types of cells

homozygous

having a pair of identical alleles for a character

dioecious

having male and female reproductive organs in separate plants or animals

monoecious

having male and female reproductive organs in the same plant or animal

heterozygous

having two different alleles for a character; ex/ Pp

dikaryotic

having two haploid nuclei per cell, one from each parent, in a fungal mycelium

Zooflagellates

heterotrophic protists known for their flagella, include trypanosoma (African sleeping sickness)

Myxomycota

heterotrophic, brightly colored, plasmid slime molds, not photosynthetic. eat and grow as a single clumped unicellular mass (plasmodium), uses phagocytosis

fungi

heterotrophs that acquire their nutrients by absorption

vestigial organs

historic remnants of structures that had important functions in ancestors

blastula

hollow ball of cells formed when a zygote undergoes a series of divisions

thyroid

hormones regulate metabolism (temp and weight), needs iodine. feedback: not enough iodine--> swells up to make more

primary transcript

in eukaryotes, the initial RNA product containing introns and exons produced by transcription of DNA; must be processed to form proteins

heterokaryotic

in mycelium, the nuclei may remain in separate parts of the same mycelium of mingle and even exchange chromosomes and genes

fibrous connective tissue

in parallel bundles to maximize nonelastic strength, found in tendons and ligaments

symplast

in plants, the continuum of cytoplasm connected by plasmodesmata between cells.

runners

in strawberries, grow on the surface of the ground, allow a plant to colonize a large area and reproduce asexually if the single parent plant fragments into many smaller offpring

hypothalmus

in the middle of the brain, controls all other hormones

parabasalids

lack mitochondria, include protists called trichomonads

polyphyletic

lacks the common ancestor that would unite the species as a monophyletic group

pseudopodium

large, rounded cytoplasmic extensions that function both in movement and feeding

third trimester

last week estrogen levels increase, triggers oxytocin receptors in uterus, fetal cells produce oxytocin and so does the pituitary

cork cambium

lateral meristematic tissue that produces the outer covering of stems

vascular cambium

lateral meristematic tissue that produces vascular tissues and increases the thickness of the stem over time

LH

leutinizing hormone, causes bursting of follicle (ovulation), stimulates production of androgens

tropics

lie between 23.5* north and 23.5* south, experience the greatest input and least seasonal variation in solar radiation of any region on earth

pineal gland

light sensitive, produces melatonin, tied to circadian rhythm

smooth muscle

line internal organs, slower but can contract longer, controlled by nerves, INVOLUNTARY

Na-K pump

lines the membrane of a neuron's dendrite and axon. normally negatively charged inside, positive outside, when an impulse reaches the threshold it flips

endometrium

lining of the uterus, stimulated by progesterone and thickens in preparation for possible implantation

interstitial fluid

liquid found between the cells of the body that provides much of the liquid environment of the body

baculum

literally a boner bone in some animals

flagella

locomotion organelle present in some animal cells, composed of microtubules.

elastic fibers

long threads made of elastin, rubbery, so snaps tissues back to original shape when changed

fibers

long, slender, tapered, occur in groups, sclerenchyma

tracheids

long, thin cells with tapered ends, have pits (where secondary wall is gone, only primary) through which water flows from cell to cell, secondary walls hardened with lignin, function as support

secretory phase

luteal phase, endometrium builds up and prepares for pregnancy

messenger RNA

mRNA, carries a genetic message from the DNA to the protein synthesizing machinery of the cell, has a 5' cap, leader, start codon, coding segment, stop codon, trailer with termination signal, then Poly(A) tail

sporophyte

the spore-producing diploid individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations

sporophyte

the spore-producing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations (2n)

anaphase

the stage of meiosis or mitosis when chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the nuclear spindle

petiole

the stalk of a leaf, which joins it to the node of the stem. grasses and many monocots lack these

transformation

the transfer of genetic material in the form of DNA fragments from one cell to another or from one organism to another

heredity

the transmission of traits from one generation to the next; inheritance

binomial

the two-part latinized name given to each species, "Genus species"

homologous structures

the variations of a common structural theme within organisms sharing a common ancestor, anatomical signs of evolution

prophage

the viral genes incorporated into the host cell genome as a sequence of DNA. Prophage DNA usually contain 1 gene that represses all the others. When it exits, the cell begins the lytic cycle.

HIV

the virus that causes acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS); is a retrovirus

photic zone

the zone through which light penetrates and photosynthesis can occur

aphotic zone

the zone where little light can penetrate

biogenesis

theory that living things come only from other living things

interneurons

transfer and interpret impulses

bulbs

vertical, underground shoots consisting mostly of the swollen bases of leaves that store food

colony

very dense and small group crowded around a central element, a group on a tree stump

reticular fibers

very thin and branched, composed of collagen and continuous with collagenous fibers, they form a tightly woven fabric that joins connective tissue to adjacent tissues

provirus

viral DNA that has attached to a host cell's chromosome and that is replicated with the chromosome

bacteriophages

viruses that infect bacteria

bacteriophages

viruses that infect bacteria, have the most complex capsids

phages

viruses that infect bacteria, have the most complex capsids

autonomic NS

visceral/smooth and cardiac muscle

somatic NS

voluntary muscles and reflexes

hydrophobic

water fearing, avoids water molecules

hydrophillic

water loving, molecules that are able to dissolve in water

calcium

macronutrient, Ca²⁺, important in formation and stability of cell walls and in maintenance of membrane structure and permeability; activates some enzymes; regulates many responses of cells to stimuli

phosphorus

macronutrient, H₂PO₄²⁻ and HPO₄²⁻, component of nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP, and several coenzymes

potassium

macronutrient, K⁺, cofactor that functions in protein synthesis; a major solute functioning in water balance; operation of stomata

magnesium

macronutrient, Mg²⁺, component of chlorophyll; activates many enzymes

sulfur

macronutrient, SO₄²⁻, component of proteins, coenzymes

nitrogen

macronutrient, available as NO₃⁻ or NH₄, component of nucleic acids, proteins, hormones, and coenzymes

hydrogen

macronutrient, available in H₂O, major component of plant's organic compounds

carbon

macronutrient, the C in CO₂, major component of plant's organic compounds

oxygen

macronutrient, the O in CO₂, major component of plant's organic compounds

collagenous fibers

made of collagen (the most abundant protein), nonelastic and do not tear easily when pulled lengthwise.

myelin sheath

made up of Schwann cells, form white matter

monophyletic

made up of an ancestral species and all of its descendant species

life history

made up of the traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and survival

androgens

male hormones, testosterone, control GnRH, LH, FSH via neg feedback

protoandrous

male->female

Foraminifera

marine protists, attach themselves to rocks and algae, calcium carbonate shells full of holes

mechanical isolation

mating does not occur due to reproductive parts not fitting together

density

measured as the number of individuals per unit area

gene diversity

measures the average percentage of gene loci that are heterozygous

temperature

measures the intensity of heat due to the average kinetic energy of molecules

tonoplast

membrane enclosing the central vacuole

hymen

membrane that partially covers the vagina, torn during first intercourse or injury or vigorous activity

vegetative reproduction

method of asexual reproduction in plants, which enables a single plant to produce offspring that are genetically identical to itself

relative dating

method of determining the age of a fossil by comparing its placement with that of fossils in other layers of rock

intermediate filament

microfilaments anchoring microvilli

chlorine

micronutrient, Cl⁻, required for water-splitting step of photosynthesis; functions in water balance

copper

micronutrient, Cu⁺ and Cu²⁺, component of many redox and lignin-biosynthetic enzymes

iron

micronutrient, Fe³⁺ and Fe²⁺, component of cytochromes; activates some enzymes

boron

micronutrient, H₂BO₃⁻, cofactor in chlorophyll synthesis; may be involved in carbohydrate transport and nucleic acid synthesis

manganese

micronutrient, Mn²⁺, active in formation of amino acids; activates some enzymes; required for water-splitting step of photosynthesis

molybdenum

micronutrient, MoO₄²⁻, essential for nitrogen fixation; cofactor that functions in nitrate reduction

nickel

micronutrient, Ni²⁺, cofactor for an enzyme functioning in nitrogen metabolism

zinc

micronutrient, Zn²⁺, active in formation of chlorophyll; activates some enzymes

stomata

microscopic pores, help CO₂ enter the cell and O₂ exit.

ground meristem

middle layer, the part of an apical meristem that gives rise to the ground tissue in the primary root

ecological time

minutes, months, years

M phase

mitosis and cytokinesis

transformation

modification of a cell or bacterium by the uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA

petals

modified leaves which are usually bright in color to attract pollinators.

mesophyll cell

more loosely arranged between bundle-sheath and leaf surface. takes in CO₂, fixed by PEP carboxylase

loams

most fertile soils, made up of equal amounts of sand, silt, and clay

proton pump

most important active transporter in the plasma membrane of cells, hydrolyzes ATP and uses the released energy to pump H+ out of the cell

domain

most inclusive taxonomic group, larger than kingdom; three exist - bacteria, archaea, eukaryota

protists

most use aerobic metabolism, have mitochondria, cilia/flagella, live in aquatic environments, and are a MAJOR COMPONENT OF PLANKTON, unicellular or colonial, all are capable of asexual reproduction

loose connective tissue

most widespread vertebrate tissue, binds epithelia to underlying tissues and functions as packing material, holding organs in place.

Actinopoda

move by pseudopodia and make up part of plankton, the organisms that drift near the surface of bodies of water, include heliozoans and radiozoans

isotope

one of two or more atoms with the same atomic number but with different numbers of neutrons

homeobox

one of various similar homeotic genes that are involved in bodily segmentation during embryonic development

parasitism

one organism benefits at the expense of the host

commensalism

one organism benefits while neither harming nor helping the other in any way

hermaphroditism

one organism is both sexes. ex: earthworms are, they fertilize each other

limnetic zone

open surface water

endorphins

opiates, deaden our pain receptors, chemically related to morphine

phylogenetic fuse

perhaps the modern mammalian orders originated about 100 million years ago, but did not proliferate enough to be noticeble in fossil records until after the extinction of the dinosaurs

stock

persistent thickened stem of a herbaceous perennial plant

Brown Algae

phaeophyta, multicellular, marine, ex: kelp, seaweed

temperate phages

phages capable of using both the lytic and lysogenic cycles

algae

photosynthetic (plant-like) protist, live in water

chloroplast

photosynthetic organelle; converts energy of sunlight to chemical energy stored in sugar molecules. Site of photosynthesis,

autotroph

plant capable of synthesizing its own food from simple organic substances

thigmotropism

plant growth in response to touch

algae

plant-like photosynthetic protists

400 million years ago

plants and symbiotic fungi colonize land

anther

pollen sacs, creates pollen grain, NOT SPERM

exoenzymes

powerful hydrolytic enzymes secreted by the fungus, break down food outside its body into simpler compounds that the fungus can absorb and use

taxonomy

practice of classifying plants and animals according to their presumed natural relationships. Acronym: Do Kings Play Chess On Fat Girls' Stomachs?

follicle

precursor egg cell surrounded by special cells to nourish and protect it, 400,000 possible follicles

taproot

present in dicots, consists of one large vertical root that produces many smaller lateral or branch roots, can be very long

fibrous root

present in monocots, consist of a mat of thin roots that spread out below the surface. extends the plant's exposure to soil, water, and minerals, but are concentrated only a short distance into the ground

metastasis

process by which cancer cells are spread by blood or lymph circulation to a distant organ

homeostasis

process by which organisms maintain a relatively stable internal environment

Hardy-Weinberg Equation

p² + 2pq + q² = 1 (frequency of each allele)

mold

rapidly growing, asexually reproducing fungus

redox reactions

reactions where there is a transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another.

sensory neurons

receive information from the sensory receptors

dendrite

receives the impulse

monosomic

referring to a diploid cell that has only one copy of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two

trisomic

referring to a diploid cell that has three copies of a particular chromosome instead of the normal two

true-breeding

referring to organisms that produce offspring of the same variety over many generations of self-pollination

promoter

region of DNA that indicates to an enzyme where to bind to make RNA

centrosome

region where the cell's microtubules are initiated, in animal cell, contains a pair of centrioles

CAMP receptor protein

regulatory protein that's an activator of transcription (cAMP)

cytoskeleton

reinforces cell's shape, functions in cell movement; components are made of protein, a microscopic network of actin filaments and microtubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells that gives the cell shape and coherence

corpus luteum

remains of the follicle

circumcision

removal of the prepuce

intron

removed before the RNA exits the nucleus, noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding regions, intervening seqences

Went experiments

removed tip, placed in on an agar block, placed block back on plant. result- normal behavior. concluded chemical in block from tip was responsible. auxin causes cell elongation.

iteroparity

repeated reproductive episodes, when organisms produce only a few eggs

lysogenic cycle

replicates the phage genome without destroying the host, incorporated by genetic recombination

gametes

reproductive cells that transmit genes from one generation to the next; sperm and eggs; haploid

essential nutrient

required for a plant to grow from a seed and complete the life cycle, producing another generation of seeds

aerobic respiration

respiration requiring oxygen, NAD⁺ is made by being recycled productively from NADH by the transfer of electrons to the electron transport chain

G₀ phase

resting cell maintains specialized characteristics but does not divide examples neurons and muscle cells

goiter

result of not enough iodine, thyroid swells up

Red Algae

rhodophyta, get pigment from phycobilin, ocean, produce gametes that do not have flagella, live in deep waters and absorb non-visible light via accessory pigments

RuBP

ribulose biphosphate

adventitious roots

roots that arise above ground from stems or even from leaves, help support long stems

contractile vacuole

saclike organelles that expand to collect excess water and contract to squeeze the water out of the cell

kingdom

second largest taxonomic group; there are six - animalia, plantae, protista, eubacteria, archaebacteria, fungi

metaphase

second phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes line up across the center of the cell

megapascals

water potential is measured in what, 1 MPa is equal to about 10 atmospheres of pressure

Oomycota

water-mold protists, parasites or saprobes, have filaments (hyphae) which release digestive enzymes, multicellular, cell wall is cellulose NOT CHITIN

buffers

weak acids or bases that can react with strong acids or bases to prevent sharp, sudden changes in pH

Van der Waals interactions

weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together

hydrogen bond

weak chemical bond formed by the attraction of positively charged hydrogen atoms to other negatively charged atoms

chromosome

what DNA is packaged into for replication

similar

what is _____ between mitosis and meiosis: one duplication of chromosomes

unique

what is _____ to meiosis: 1. crossing over/ genetic material exchange 2. pairing of homologous chromosomes (as tetrads in metaphase I) 3. two chromosome divisions (homologous pairs, then sister chromatids)

seminal vesicles

secrete 60% of total volume of semen. contains mucus, amino acids, and fructose as the main energy source for the sperm, also prostaglandins to stimulate female uterine contractions and move semen up

islets of Langerhans

secrete insulin and glucagon to reg. blood sugar

fibroblasts

secrete the protein ingredients of the extracellular fibers

insulin-glucagon

secreted by pancreas, control liver's control of blood sugar level. insulin lowers, glucagon increases. pos/neg feedback

posterior pituitary gland

secretes ADH

cortex

secretes corticosteroids as cortisone, antiinflammatry

adrenal medulla

secretes epinephrine/adrenaline and similar hormones related to fight/flight

motor neurons

send appropriate impulses to the muscles and glands

nervous tissue

senses stimuli and transmits signals from one part of the animal to another

peripheral NS

sensory and motor neurons

statolith

sensory organs that contain mechanoreceptors and function in the sense of equilibrium.

cell cycle

series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide. G₁, S, G₂, M, cytokinesis

littoral zone

shallow and close to shore

eutrophic lakes

shallow likes that have increased nutrients

endocrine gland

specialized cells that secrete hormones, ductless, secrete into bloodstream

vascular bundles

strands of vascular tissue in the stem, where the shoot meets the root, they converge into a vascular cylinder

polyribosome

string of ribosomes simultaneously translating regions of the same mRNA strand during protein synthesis

cartilage

strong connective tissue that supports the body and is softer and more flexible than bone

kinetichore

structure surrounding centromere comprised of proteins where spindle fibers attach

seed coat

structure that surrounds and protects a plant embryo and keeps it from drying out

vaccine

substance prepared from killed or weakened pathogens and introduced into a body to produce immunity

antibiotics

substances produced by the natural metabolic processes of some microorganisms that can inhibit or destroy other microorganisms

mass number

sum of the protons and the neutrons

Schwann cells

support cells around the axon, collectively make myelin sheath

sclerenchyma

support, lignified secondary walls, dead at functional maturity, cannot elongate, have fibers and sclereids

prostate gland

surrounds the initial segment of the urethra, secretes alkaline to buffer any residual urine (acidic) and to buffer acidity of the woman's vagina. needs zinc,

lichen

symbiotic association of millions of photosynthetic microorganisms held in a mesh of fungal hyphae

mycorrhizae

symbiotic relationship, network of hyphae and plant roots that helps plants absorb water and minerals from soil

mychorrhizae

symbiotic structures consisting of the plant's roots united with the hyphae of the fungi

transfer RNA

tRNA, short-chain RNA molecules present in the cell (in at least 20 varieties, each variety capable of combining with a specific amino acid) that attach the correct amino acid to the protein chain that is being synthesized at the ribosome of the cell (according

photosystem I

takes e⁻ from ETC and excites them (uses light), gives them to primary acceptor in noncyclic, go down ETC again

photolysis

takes the H₂O, splits, releasing 2 H⁺ and 1/2 O₂, sending 2 e⁻ to photosystem

exponential population growth

when a population grows rapidly. we may assume the maximum growth rate for the population Rmax to give us dN/dT=(Rmax)N

logistic population growth

when the growth of a population changes when it reaches a carrying capacity. dN/dt=(Rmax)(N)((K-N)/K)

saltatory conduction

when the impulses jump from node to node

chiasmata

where nonsister chromosomes join and crossover

reaction center

where the first light-driven chemical reaction of photosynthesis occurs, e⁻ goes in, gets excited and jumps up, grabbed by PEA

node

where the leaf attaches to the stem

spine

white matter on outside, gray in center

tubers

white potatoes, swollen ends of rhizomes specialized for storing food

vessel elements

wide, short, thin walled and less tapered, aligned end to end, forming long micropipes, the xylem vessels, end walls are perforated

family

taxonomic group containing one or more genera

species

taxonomic group whose members can interbreed

order

taxonomic grouping of similar families

insulin

tell the liver to take excess glucose out of circulation to lower blood sugar

glucagon

tells the liver to take carbohydrate out of storage to raise a low blood sugar level

environment

the ______ also impacts the phenotype, which leads to a norm of reaction ex/ seasons; hydragea flowers - the color depends on the pH

self-incompatibility

the ability of a seed plant to reject its own pollen and sometimes the pollen of closely related individuals.

pleiotropy

the ability of a single gene having multiple effects (one gene influencing many characteristics) ex/ the sickle cell allele makes you susceptible to malaria, it's better to be heterozygous sickle

balanced polymorphism

the ability of natural selection to maintain stable frequencies of two or more phenotypic forms in a population

energy

the ability to do work

anagenesis

the accumulation of heritable changes in a population, transforming that population into a new species

bioremediation

the act of treating waste or pollutants by the use of microorganisms (as bacteria) that can break down the undesirable substances

translation

the actual synthesis of a polypeptide, which occurs under the direction of mRNA. results in a change in lagnuage,

dominant (allele)

the allele that determines the organism's appearance; denoted by a capital letter

recessive (allele)

the allele that has no noticeable effect on the organism's appearance (unless it is homozygous); denoted by a lower case letter

Hardy-Weinberg theorem

the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a populations's gene pool remain constant in a nonevolving population.

neuron

the functional part of the nervous tissue

reduction

the gain of one or more electrons

gametophyte

the gamete-producing individual or phase in the life cycle of a plant having alternation of generations (n)

plastid

the general term for the class of eukaryotic organelles that includes chloroplasts, as well as other types of plastids, both photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic

asexual reproduction

the generation of offspring from a single parent without the fusion of gametes; DNA is copied and the offspring are exact copies of the parents; creates clones

sexual reproduction

the generation of offspring from two parents that have unique combos of genes inherited from the two parents;

P

the generation of the true-breeding parents; each parent will always be homozygous

evolution

the genetic composition of a population changes over time

biogeography

the geographic distribution of species. species tend to be more closely related to other species from the same area than to other species with the same way of life but living in different areas

chlorophyll

the green pigment located within chloroplasts. It absorbs light energy to drive the synthesis of food molecules in the chloroplast

specific heat

the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance one degree centigrade

crista

the inner foldings of the membrane of the mitochondria

anaerobic respiration

without oxygen, anaerobic catabolism of organic nutrients can occur by fermentation. To make NAD⁺, NADH gives electrons to pyruvate

chlorophyll a

works best with blue and red light, blue-green

hemophilia

x-linked recessive disorder defined by the absence of one or more of the proteins required for blood clotting

zeaxanthin

yellow carotenoid (isomeric with lutein and occurs widely with it) that is the main pigment in yellow indian corn

Diatoms

yellow/brown, bacillariophyta, major component of plankton, asexual reproduction, rarely enter life cycle, have silica walls

osteoplasts

young cells that produce the bone matrix

electron microscope

a microscope that is similar in purpose to a light microscope but achieves much greater resolving power by using a parallel beam of electrons to illuminate the object instead of a beam of light.

bone

a mineralized connective tissue

fragmentation

a mode of vegetative reproduction, the separation of a parent plant into parts that re-form whole plants

5' cap

a modified guanosine and triphosphate cap is added to the 5' end, helps protect the mRNA from degradation by hydrolytic enzymes, and functions as an "attach here" sign for ribosomes

pigment

a molecule that absorbs certain wavelengths of light

elicitors

a molecule that induces a broad type of host defense response

jasmonic acid

a molecule used for plant defense that make leaves taste bad or poisonous. protects against herbivores.

thermocline

a narrow stratum of rapid temperature change, separates a more uniformly warm upper layer from more uniformly cold deep waters

endoplasmic reticulum

a network of membranous sacs and tubes; active in membrane synthesis and other synthetic and metabolic processes; has rough (ribosome studded) and smooth regions.

homologous chromosomes

a pair of chromosomes that have the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern; control the same inherited characters; one chromosome from father and one from mother

centriole

a pair of microtubules found in centrosomes

double helix

a pair of parallel helices intertwined about a common axis

virulent phage

a phage that reproduces only by a lytic cycle

surface tension

a phenomenon at the surface of a liquid caused by intermolecular forces

genomic imprinting

a phenomenon in which expression of an allele in offspring depends on whether the allele is inherited from the male or female parent

natural theology

a philosophy dedicated to discovering the Creator's plan by studying nature

hypersensitive response

a plant's localized defense response to a pathogen, involving the death of cells around the site of infection

central vacuole

a prominent organelle in older plant cells; functions include storage, breakdown of waste products; enlargement of vacuole is a major mechanism of plant growth

repressor

a protein that binds to an operator and physically blocks RNA polymerase from binding to a promoter site

growth factor

a protein that is involved in cell differentiation and growth

sickle-cell disease

a recessively inherited human blood disorder where hemoglobin aggregates into long rods, changing red blood cell shape and causing other symptoms; having one copy of the allele reduces the frequency/severity of malaria attacks

orbital

a region in an atom where there is a high probability of finding electrons

fossil

a relic or impression of organisms from the past, preserved in rock

humus

a residue of partially decayed organic material

transposon

a segment of DNA that can become integrated at many different sites along a chromosome (especially a segment of bacterial DNA that can be translocated as a whole)

operator

a short sequence of viral or bacterial DNA to which a repressor binds to prevent transcription (mRNA synthesis) of the adjacent gene in an operon

simple epithelium

a single layer of cells

epidermis

a single layer of tightly packed cells that covers and protects all young parts of the plant, also includes root hairs

plasmid

a small cellular inclusion consisting of a ring of DNA that is not in a chromosome but is capable of autonomous replication

corepressor

a small molecule that binds to a bacterial repressor protein and changes its shape, allowing it to switch an operon off

aqueous solution

a solution where water is the solvent

centromere

a specialized condensed region of each chromosome that appears during mitosis where the chromatids are held together to form an X shape

biological species concept

a species concept defining a species as a population or group thereof whose members potentially interbreed and produce fertile offspring

codon

a specific sequence of three adjacent bases on a strand of DNA or RNA that provides genetic code information for a particular amino acid

proton

a stable particle with positive charge equal to the negative charge of an electron

filament

a stem that ends in an anther

capsule

a sticky, gelatinous substance around the cell wall; allows cells to stick together or to the host cell

organelle

a subcellular structure, they are too small to be resolved by light microscopes. Each organelle in a cell has a different job to do.

compound

a substance consisting of two or more elements in a fixed ratio

peptidoglycan

a substance in bacterial (NOT ARCHAEA) cell walls, consists of polymers of modified sugars cross linked by short polypeptides that vary from species to species

element

a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions

acid

a substance that increases the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution

base

a substance that reduces the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution

cleavage

a succession of mitotic cell divisions which leads to the formation of a multicellular stage

nodule

a swelling on a plant root that contains nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Rhizobium), symbiotic relationship

cladistics

a system of biological taxonomy based on the quantitative analysis of comparative data and used to reconstruct cladograms summarizing the (assumed) phylogenetic relations and evolutionary history of groups of organisms

celsius scale

a temperature scale that defines the freezing point of water as 0 degrees and the boiling point of water as 100 degrees

punctuated equilibrium

a theory of evolution holding that evolutionary change in the fossil record came in fits and starts rather than in a steady process of slow change

catastrophism

a theory that stated that each layer of strata was caused by a catastrophe

endoderm

the innermost germ later, lines the developing digestive tube, or archenteron, and gives rise to the lining of the digestive tract and organs derived from it, such as the liver and lungs of vertebrates

chlorophyll b

almost identical to chlorophyll a, but slightly different absorption spectra, yellow-green

isomorphic

alternating generations look alike

stem

alternating system of nodes, the points at which leaves are attached, and internodes, the stem segment between nodes

ovule

always contained in the ovary, contains the ovum, develops into a seed containing an embryo and a supply of nutrients

macrophages

ameboid cells that roam the maze of fibers, engulfing bacteria and the debris of dead cells by phagocytosis

tumor

an abnormal new mass of tissue that serves no purpose

polygenic inheritance

an additive effect of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character (many genes influence one trait) ex/ skin color, height

inversion

an alteration of chromosome structure where a chromosomal fragment reattaches to the original chromosome but in the reverse position

translocation

an alteration of chromosome structure where a fragment joins a nonhomologous chromosome

allele

an alternative version of a gene; variation of the DNA sequence at the same locus on a different chromosome

phytoalexins

an antibiotic, produced by plants, that destroys microorganisms or inhibits their growth

adhesion

an attraction between molecules of different substances

epiphytes

an autotrophic plant that nourishes itself but grows on the surface of another plant

aneuploidy

an chromosomal condition in which one or more chromosomes are present in an abnormal number

neutron

an elementary particle with 0 charge and mass about equal to a proton

electron

an elementary particle with negative charge

telomerase

an enzyme in eukaryotic cells that can add telomeres to the ends of chromosomes after they divide

nitrogenase

an enzyme of nitrogen-fixing microorganisms that catalyzes the conversion of nitrogen to ammonia

DNA ligase

an enzyme that eventually joins the sugar-phosphate backbones of the Okazaki fragments

helicase

an enzyme that untwists the double helix at the replication forks, separating the two parental strands and making them available as template strands

ribozymes

an enzyme-like RNA molecule that catalyzes reactions during RNA splicing

nondisjunction

an error in mitosis or meiosis in which members of a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate properly from each other

shared derived character

an evolutionary novelty unique to a particular clade

structural formula

an expanded molecular formula showing the arrangement of atoms within the molecule

carrier

an individual that is heterozygote for a recessively inherited disorder; phenotypically normal but may transmit the recessive allele to their offspring

tropism

an involuntary orienting response

recombinant (type)

an offpspring with a nonparental phenotype (differing from the phenotypes of the P generation); also refers to the phenotype itself

parental type

an offspring with a phenotype that matches one of the true-breeding parental (P generation) phenotypes; also refers to the phenotype itself

genetic map

an ordered list of the genetic loci along a particular chromosome, using cross-over data; arranges genes into linkage groups representing individual chromosomes

lysosome

an organelle found in the cytoplasm of most cells (especially in leukocytes and liver and kidney cells). made of hydrolytic enzymes that the cell uses to digest macromolecules.

peroxisome

an organelle with various specialized metabolic functions; produces hydrogen peroxide., A microbody containing enzymes that transfer hydrogen from various substrates to oxygen, producing and then degrading hydrogen peroxide.

sequential hermaphroditism

an organism changes sexes during its life

heterotroph

an organism that depends on complex organic substances for nutrition

phenotype

an organism's appearance/observable traits/physiological traits

genotype

an organism's genetic makeup

phototropism

an orienting response to light

root system

anchor the plant in the soil, absorb minerals and water, and store foot

protozoa

animal-like heterotrophic protists

mutagen

any agent (physical or environmental) that can induce a genetic mutation or can increase the rate of mutation

diploid cell

any cell with two chromosome sets (2n) for humans, diploid number is 46

mutation

any event that changes genetic structure

apomixis

any of several kinds of reproduction without fertilization

somatic cell

any of the cells of a plant or animal except the reproductive cells

plastid

any of various small particles in the cytoplasm of the cells of plants and some animals containing pigments or starch or oil or protein

matter

anything that takes up space and has mass

reactant

a chemical substance that is present at the start of a chemical reaction

light microscope

(LM) Visible light is passed through the specimen and then through the glass lenses. The lenses refract the light in such a way that the image of the specimen is magnified as it is projected into the eye, onto photograph film, or onto a video screen. LMs can magnify things as small as a tiny bacterium.

CAM plants

(crassulacean acid metabolism) temporal adaptation, open stomata during the night, closed during day. store organic acids made during night in vacuoles

plasmodial slime mold

(Myxogastrida) brightly pigmented, heterotrophic organisms. feeding stage is plasmodium, unicellular, mass of cytoplasm with multi nuclei

amoebas

(Rhizopoda) unicellular and asexual organisms, move by means of pseudopods (extensions from their cells), eat using phagocytosis

callus

(botany) an isolated thickening of tissue, especially a stiff protuberance on the lip of an orchid

cyclin-dependent kinase

(cdk), enzyme to which cyclin binds during interphase and mitosis, triggering and controlling activities during the cell cycle

short-day plant

(long night), Plant that generally requires long nights-- 12 or more hours of darkness to begin the flowering process.

long-day plant

(short night), Plant that generally requires short nights-- less that 10-12 hours of darkness to begin the flowering process.

R plasmid

A bacterial plasmid that carries genes for enzymes that destroy particular antibiotics, thus making the bacterium resistant to the antibiotics

Koch's postulates

1) Pathogen must be present in all disease cases 2) Isolate pathogen, cultivate in pure culture 3) Inoculate into susceptible animal, initiate disease symptoms 4) Re-isolate pathogen, confirm it's the same pathogen

Four-Stage Hypothesis for the Origin of Life

1. Abiotic Synthesis of small organic molecules --> Miller-Urey Experiment 2. Joining of these small molecules into polymers --> droplets of organic monomers on hot sand, rock & clay 3. Origin of self-replicating molecules that made inheritance possible ---> Short ribonucleotides produced abiotically added to solution with RNA monomers, seq. 5-10 nucleotides long are copied, add zinc and copies 40 nucleotides. Also, RNA acts as a catalyst: Ribozymes 4. Packaging of all the molecules into protobionts which allow maintenance of internal environ --> liposomes droplets form a bilayer of lipids in combination with other organic ingredients.

signal recognition particle

A RNA protein complex that binds to the ER signal sequence in polypeptide as it emerges from a ribosome and transports the ribosome-polypeptide complex to the ER membrane where synthesis of the polypeptide is completed. The ribosome + signal sequence + SRP complex then attaches to an SRP receptor in the ER membrane itself

nonevolving population

1. Very large population size 2. No migration 3. No net mutations 4. Random mating 5. No natural selection

Mendel's first law (law of segregation)

1. alleles account for variations in inherited characters 2. organisms inherit two copies of a gene, one from each parent 3. dominant allele determines appearance 4. each gamete only gets one allele (because they separate in meiosis)

Permian Mass Extinction

250mya, defines the boundary between the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, 90% of marine animal species died, 8 out of 27 insects survived, occurred over 5my.

visible light

380-750nm

poly(A) tail

50 to 250 adenine nucleotides added to the 3' end created by cleavage downstream of the termination signal, The modified end of the 3' end of an mRNA molecule consisting of the addition of some 50 to 250 adenine nucleotides. inhibits degradation of the RNA, and facilitates the export of RNA from the nucleus

Cretaceous Mass Extinction

65mya, between Mesozoic and Cenozoic, caused by a 10km asteroid impact, killed half of marine, killed many terrestrial plants, animals, and dinosaurs.

generalized transduction

A 'packaging' event. Lytic phage infects bacterium, leading to cleavage of bacterial DNA and synthesis of viral proteins. Parts of bacterial chromosomal DNA may become packaged in viral capsid. Phage infects another bacterium, transferring these genes.

replication fork

A Y-shaped region on a replicating DNA molecule where new strands are growing.

phototropin

A blue-light photoreceptor that mediates phototropism

lignin

A hard material embedded in the cellulose matrix of vascular plant cell walls that functions as an important adaptation for support in terrestrial species.

microtubule

A hollow rod of tubulin protein in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells and in cilia, flagella, and the cytoskeleton.

lophophore

A horseshoe-shaped or circular fold of the body wall bearing ciliated tentacles that surround the mouth.

pericycle

A layer of cells just inside the endodermis of a root that may become meristematic and begin dividing again.

blades

A leaflike structure of a seaweed that provides most of the surface area for photosynthesis.

alternation of generations

A life cycle in which there is both a multicellular diploid form, the sporophyte, and a multicellular haploid form, the gametophyte; characteristic of plants.

sieve-tube members

A living cell that conducts sugars and other organic nutrients in the phloem of angiosperms. They form chains called sieve tubes, lack nucleus, ribosomes, and a distinct vacoule, the sieve plates on the end facilitate the flow of fliud, have a companion cell

benign tumor

A mass of abnormal cells that remains at the site of origin

double fertilization

A mechanism of fertilization in angiosperms, in which two sperm cells unite with two cells in the embryo sac to form the zygote and endosperm.

vesicle

A membrane bound sac that contains materials involved in transport of the cell.

food vacuole

A membranous sac formed by phagocytosis of microorganisms or particles to be used as food by the cell.

photorespiration

A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide.

petal

A modified leaf of a flowering plant. Petals are the often colorful parts of a flower that advertise it to insects and other pollinators.

brown algae

A multicellular, photosynthetic protist. Most brown algae are marine, and some have a plantlike body (thallus), some others have floats to raise the blades toward the surface.

insertion

A mutation involving the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs to a gene.

myosin

A protein present in muscle fibers that aids in contraction and makes up the majority of muscle fiber

heat-shock protein

A protein that helps protect other proteins during heat stress. Heat-shock proteins are found in plants, animals, and microorganisms.

Alveolata

A protistan clade that includes dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, and the ciliates. Alveolates have small membrane-bounded cavities called alveoli under their cell surfaces. The function of alveoli is unknown.

integrin

A receptor protein built into the plasma membrane that interconnects the extracellular matrix and the cytoskeleton.

quiescent center

A region located within the zone of cell division in plant roots, containing meristematic cells that divide very slowly.

transcription factor

A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes.

cyclin

A regulatory protein whose concentration fluctuates cyclically.

primary cell wall

A relatively thin and flexable cell wall furthest outside that is first secreted by a plant cell

thigmomorphogenesis

A response in plants to chronic mechanical stimulation, resulting from increased ethylene production. An example is thickening stems in response to strong winds.

lateral roots

A root that arises from the outermost layer of the pericycle of an established root.

noncyclic electron flow

A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+.

cytosol

A semifluid substance in which organelles are found.

second messengers

A small, nonprotein, water-soluble molecule or ion, such as calcium ion or cyclic AMP, that relays a signal to a cell's interior in response to a signal received by a signal receptor protein.

acoelomates

A solid-bodied animal lacking a cavity between the gut and outer body wall. Includes Platyhelminthes

sexual dimorphism

A special case of polymorphism based on the distinction between the secondary sex characteristics of males and females.

terminator

A special sequence of nucleotides in DNA that marks the end of a gene. It signals RNA polymerase to release the newly made RNA molecule, which then departs from the gene

scutellum

A specialized type of cotyledon found in the grass family, thin with a large surface area pressed against the endosperm

outgroup

A species or group of species that is closely related to the group of species being studied, but clearly not as closely related as any study-group members are to each other.

inducer

A specific small molecule that binds to a bacterial repressor protein and changes the repressor's shape so that it cannot bind to an operator, thus switching an operon on.

megaspore

A spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a female gametophyte.

microspore

A spore from a heterosporous plant species that develops into a male gametophyte.

megaspores

A spore from a heterosporous plant that develops into a female gametophyte bearing archegonia.

microspores

A spore from a heterosporous plant that develops into a male gametophyte with antheridia.

coelomates

An animal that possesses a true coelom (a body cavity lined by tissue completely derived from mesoderm).

Gram Stain

A staining method that distinguishes between two different kinds of bacterial cell walls.

secondary cell wall

A strong and durable matrix often deposited in several laminated layers for plant cell protection and support.

avirulent

A term describing a pathogen that can only mildly harm, but not kill, the host plant.

species selection

A theory maintaining that species living the longest and generating the greatest number of species determine the direction of major evolutionary trends.

geological time scale

A time scale established by geologists that reflects a consistent sequence of historical periods, grouped into four eras: Precambrian, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

transport vehicle

A tiny membranous sac in a cell's cytoplasm carrying molecules produced by the cell. Sent to the Golgi apparatus

radial cleavage

A type of embryonic development in deuterostomes in that the planes of cell division that transform the zygote into a ball of cells are either parallel or perpendicular to the polar axis, thereby aligning tiers of cells one above the other.

indeterminate cleavage

A type of embryonic development in deuterostomes, in which each cell produced by early cleavage divisions retains the capacity to develop into a complete embryo.

determinate cleavage

A type of embryonic development in protostomes that rigidly casts the developmental fate of each embryonic cell very early.

spiral cleavage

A type of embryonic development in protostomes, in which the planes of cell division that transform the zygote into a ball of cells occur obliquely to the polar axis, resulting in cells of each tier sitting in the grooves between cells of adjacent tiers.

alternative RNA splicing

A type of eukaryotic gene regulation at the RNA-processing level in which different mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns

gap junction

A type of intercellular junction in animal cells that allows the passage of material or current between cells.

desmosome

A type of intercellular junction in animal cells that functions as a rivet.

endomycorrhizae

A type of mycorrhiza that does not have a dense mantle ensheathing the root. Instead, microscopic fungal hyphae extend from the root into the soil.

ectomycorrhizae

A type of mycorrhizae in which the mycelium forms a dense sheath, or mantle, over the surface of the root. Hyphae extend from the mantle into the soil, greatly increasing the surface area for water and mineral absorption.

operon

A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.

casparian strip

A water-impermeable ring of wax in the endodermal cells of plants that blocks the passive flow of water and solutes into the stele by way of cell walls.

gene-for-gene recognition

A widespread form of plant disease resistance involving recognition of pathogen-derived molecules by the protein products of specific plant disease resistance genes.

noncyclic photophosphorylation

ATP synthesis during noncyclic electron flow

cyclic photophosphorylation

ATP synthesis in cyclic electron flow

oxidative phosphorylation

ATP synthesis powered by redox reactions of the transfer of electrons from food to oxygen, happens through electron transport chain

dinoflagellate

Abundant components of the vast aquatic pastures of phytoplankton that are suspended near the water surface and provide the foundation of most marine and many freshwater food webs. There are also heterotrophic species of these.

apicomplexan

All are parasites of animals. Some cause serious human diseases. The parasites disseminate as tiny infectious cells called sporozoites. Have an intricate life cycle with both sexual and asexual stages, and these cycles often require two or more different host species for completion.

tight junction

Also called occluding junctions, tight junctions form a seal between cells that prevents the movement of substances across the cell layer, except by diffusion through the cell membranes themselves. Tight junctions are found between the epithelial cells lining the intestines and between the cells forming the capillaries in the brain (the blood-brain barrier).

specialized transduction

An 'excision' event. Lysogenic phage infects bacterium, viral DNA incorporated. When phage DNA is excised, flanking bacterial genes may be excised with it.

retrovirus

An RNA virus that reproduces by transcribing its RNA into DNA and then inserting the DNA into a cellular chromosome; an important class of cancer-causing viruses.

primer

An already existing RNA chain bound to template DNA to which DNA nucleotides are added during DNA synthesis.

extreme halophile

An organism that lives in a highly saline environment, such as the Great Salt Lake or the Dead Sea.

obligate anaerobe

An organism that only carries out fermentation or anaerobic respiration. Such organisms cannot use oxygen and in fact may be poisoned by it.

extremophile

An organism that requires an extreme environment in which to flourish; some exist in environments with extremely high temperatures or in extremely salty environments.

obligate aerobe

An organism that requires oxygen for cellular respiration and cannot live without it

extreme thermophile

An organism that thrives in hot environments (often 60-80°C or hotter).

facultative anaerobe

An organism that will use oxygen if is present but can switch to fermentation if it is not

photoperiodism

An organism's response to the length of day and night within a 24-hour period (photoperiod); in many plants, this phenomenon determines when flowering occurs.

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone, helps prevent excess water excretion by the kidneys. Ethanol inhibits the release. can be interfered with by Diuretics, cause more excretion.

postzygotic barriers

Any of several species-isolating mechanisms that prevent hybrids produced by two different species from developing into viable, fertile adults.

cyclic AMP

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a ring-shaped molecule made from ATP that is a common intracellular signaling molecule (second messenger) in eukaryotic cells (for example, in vertebrate endocrine cells). It is also a regulator of some bacterial operons.

lateral meristems

Cylinder-shaped corers of plant tissue that remain embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth. replace the epidermis with bark, the second adds vascular tissue

Gram Positive

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally less complex and contains more peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-negative bacteria. Gram-positive bacteria are usually less toxic than gram-negative bacteria.

Gram Negative

Describing the group of bacteria that have a cell wall that is structurally more complex and contains less peptidoglycan than the cell wall of gram-positive bacteria. Gram-negative bacteria are often more toxic than gram-positive bacteria.

cellular slime mold

Dictyostelida, straddle the line between individuality and multicellularity. Feeding stage consists of solitary cells, when food is scarce the cells form an aggregate ("slug") that functions as a unit. Dominant stage is the haploid stage.

single-strand binding protein

During DNA replication, molecules that line up along the unpaired DNA strands, holding them apart while the DNA strands serve as templates for the synthesis of complementary strands of DNA.

photomorphogenesis

Effects of light on plant morphology

apical meristems

Embryonic plant tissue in the tips of roots and in the buds of shoots that supplies cells for the plant to grow in length.

plasma membrane

In all cells, it's what encloses the cell. Made up of 2 layers phospholipids with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails, with proteins letting larger molecules through.

gastrulation

In animal development, a series of cell and tissue movements in which the blastula-stage embryo folds inward, producing a three-layered embryo, the gastrula.

dynein

In cilia and flagella, a large contractile protein extending from one microtubule doublet to the adjacent doublet. ATP hydrolysis drives changes in dynein shape that lead to bending of cilia and flagella.

apoplast

In plants, the continuum of cell walls plus the extracellular spaces.

self-fertilization

In plants, the fusion of two gametes from the same individual to form a diploid offspring.

prions

Infectious protein particles that do not have a genomee2

carrying capacity

K, the maximum stable population size a particular environment can support

stromatolite

Layered rock that results from the activities of prokaryotes that bind thin films of sediment together.

sepals

Leaflike parts that cover and protect the flower bud

phytochrome

Light receptor pigment in photoperiodism. Pr (red-light absorbing) vs Pfr (infrared light absorbing) In short-day plants, it stops flowering but in long-day plants it induces flowering

nuclear lamina

Line the nuclear envelope, except at it's pores. It is a netlike array of protein filaments (intermediate filaments) that maintains the shape of the nucleus. There is also much evidence for a nuclear matrix, a framework of fibers extending throughout the nuclear interior.

five kingdom system

Made by Whittaker, the system of taxonomic classification based on five basic groups: Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia

MPF

Maturation-promoting factor (M-phase-promoting factor); a protein complex required for a cell to progress from late interphase to mitosis. The active form consists of cyclin and a protein kinase.

white rusts

Members of the group Oomycota, they are heterotrophic stramenopiles that lack chloroplasts, typically have cell walls made of cellulose, and generally live on land as parasites of plants.

cyanobacteria

Microscopic, photosynthetic prokaryotes that formed stromatolites and changed early Earth's atmosphere by generating oxygen.

topsoil

Mixture of humus, clay, and other minerals that forms the crumbly, topmost layer of soil.

molecular clock

Model that uses DNA comparisons to estimate the length of time that two species have been evolving independently

RNA processing

Modification of RNA before it leaves the nucleus, a process unique to eukaryotes. Involves removing the INTRONS, adding a 5' cap and a poly(A) tail

abiotic factors

Non-living chemical and physical factors such as temperature, light, water, and nutrients

parsimony

Occam's Razor, if two explanations appear equally plausible, choose the simpler one.

A site

One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site in the ribosome holds the tRNA carrying the next amino acid to be added to the polypeptide chain.

E site

One of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. This site is the place where discharged tRNAs leave the ribosome.

phylum

One of about 35 major groups into which biologists classify members of the animal kingdom.

euryarchaeota

One of the two major divisions of Archaea, containing methanogens, halophiles, and extreme acidophiles.

crenarchaeota

One of the two major divisions of Archaea, containing sulfur thermophiles and marine mesophiles.

water molds

Oomycota, small heterotrophic single-celled stramenopiles, lack chloroplasts. live in water, moist soil, or other organisms

schizocoelous

Pattern of formation of the body cavity common in protostome development, in which initially solid masses of mesoderm split, forming the body cavity

cryptochromes

Pigment used to detect blue light that regulate germination, elongation and photoperiodism

meristems

Plant tissue that remains embryonic as long as the plant lives, allowing for indeterminate growth.

RNA polymerase

Pries the two strands of DNA apart, hooks together the RNA nucleotides, elongates in the 5'→3' direction

alcohol fermentation

Pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps. 1. releases CO₂ from pyruvate, which converts to a 2C Acetaldehyde. 2. Acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol by NADH. 2 net ATP

lactic acid fermentation

Pyruvate is reduced by NADH to form lactate as a waste product. No CO₂ released. 2 net ATP

acid precipitation

Rain, snow, or fog that is more acidic than pH 5.6.

phylocode

System of classification of organisms based on evolutionary relationships: Only groups that include a common ancestor and all of its descendents are named.

DNA methylation

The addition of methyl groups (—CH3) to bases of DNA after DNA synthesis; may serve as a long-term control of gene expression.

nucleoid

The area in a prokaryotic cell where DNA is stored, not separated by a membrane.

mismatch repair

The cellular process that uses special enzymes to fix incorrectly paired nucleotides.

endomembrane system

The collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.

lichen

The combination of a fungus and either an alga or an autotrophic bacterium that live together in a mutualistic relationship

transcription initiation complex

The completed assembly of transcription factors and RNA polymerase bound to the promoter

stamen

The male pollen-producing reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and a filament. (staMEN) has a filament and anther

ribosomal RNA

The most abundant type of RNA, which together with proteins, forms the structure of ribosomes. Ribosomes coordinate the sequential coupling of tRNA molecules to mRNA codons.

bulk flow

The movement of water due to a difference in pressure between two locations.

ethylene

The only gaseous plant hormone. Among its many effects are response to mechanical stress, programmed cell death, leaf abscission, and fruit ripening.

blastopore

The opening of the archenteron in the gastrula that develops into the mouth in protostomes and the anus in deuterostomes

protoderm

The outermost primary meristem, which gives rise to the epidermis of roots and shoots.

density-dependent inhibition

The phenomenon observed in normal animal cells that causes them to stop dividing when they come into contact with one another.

stamens

The pollen-producing male reproductive organ of a flower, consisting of an anther and filament.

cellular differentiation

The process by which a cell becomes specialized in order to perform a specific function, as in the case of a liver cell, a blood cell, or a neuron.

transduction

The process in which infection by a virus results in DNA being transferred from one bacterium to another

cleavage

The process of cytokinesis in animal cells, characterized by pinching of the plasma membrane; specifically, the succession of rapid cell divisions without growth during early embryonic development that converts the zygote into a ball of cells.

photophosphorylation

The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.

nucleotide excision repair

The process of removing and then correctly replacing a damaged segment of DNA using the undamaged strand as a guide.

cell fractionation

The process of taking cells apart, separating the major organelles so that their function can be studied. The instrument used to fractionate cells is a centrifuge, a merry-go-round for test tubes that can spin at various speeds. It begins with homogenization, the disruption of cells. The objective is to break the cells apart without damaging their organelles. Spinning separates the mixture into two, a pellet and the supernatant.

nucleoid region

The region in a prokaryotic cell consisting of a concentrated mass of DNA.

paedomorphosis

The retention in an adult organism of the juvenile features of its evolutionary ancestors.

specific epithet

The second part of a binomial, it refers to one species within a genus.

prometaphase

The second stage of mitosis, in which discrete chromosomes consisting of identical sister chromatids appear, the nuclear envelope fragments, and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

insertion sequence

The simplest kind of transposable element, consisting of inverted repeats of DNA flanking a gene for transposase, the enzyme that catalyzes transposition.

hydration shell

The sphere of water molecules around each dissolved ion

pollen grains

The structures that contain the immature male gametophytes.

extracellular matrix

The substance in which animal tissue cells are embedded consisting of protein and polysaccharides.

S phase

The synthesis phase of the cell cycle; the portion of interphase during which DNA is replicated.

anther

The terminal pollen sac of a stamen, inside which pollen grains with male gametes form in the flower of an angiosperm.

primary plant body

The tissues produced by apical meristems, which lengthen stems and roots.

secondary plant body

The tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork cambium, which thicken the stems and roots of woody plants.

guard cells

The two cells that flank the stomatal pore and regulate the opening and closing of the pore.

enterocoelous

The type of development found in deuterostomes. The coelomic cavities form when mesoderm buds from the wall of the archenteron and hollows out.

root pressure

The upward push of xylem sap in the vascular tissue of roots.

anaerobic respiration

The use of inorganic molecules other than oxygen to accept electrons at the "downhill" end of electron transport chains.

allometric growth

The variation in the relative rates of growth of various parts of the body, which helps shape the organism.

zone of maturation

The zone of primary growth in roots where cells complete their differentiation and become functionally mature.

zone of elongation

The zone of primary growth in roots where new cells elongate, sometimes up to ten times their original length.

snowball earth

Theory that Cambrian Explosion was a rebound effect from an ice age 750 to 570mya, when glaciers covered the Earth's surface pole to pole.

sporozoites

Tiny infectious plasmodium cells that enter the bloodstream and infect the liver

habitat isolation

Two species encounter each other rarely, or not at all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers

Beadle & Tatum

Used bread mold, Identified mutants that couldn't survive on minimal medium because they couldn't synthesize certain essential molecules from minimal ingrediants, showed that each gene encodes a particular substance ("one gene, one enzyme" concept).

scanning electron microscope

Used for detailed study of the surface of the specimen. The electron beam scans the surface of the sample, which is usually coated with a thin film of gold. The beam excites electrons on the sample's surface, and these secondary electrons are collected and focused onto a screen.

transmission electron microscope

Used to study the internal ultrastructure of cells. The TEM aims an electron beam through a thin section of the specimen similar to the way a light microscope transmits light through a slide. However, instead of using glass lenses, the TEM uses electromagnets as lenses to focus and magnify the image by bending the paths of electrons. The image is ultimately focused onto a screen for viewing or onto photographic film.

homozygous dominant

What would you call PP? (there is no such thing as heterozygous dominant/recessive)

homozygous recessive

What would you call pp?

thylakoid

a "poker chip" within the chloroplast, , A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy into chemical energy.

double covalent bond

a bond in which two atoms share two pairs of electrons

haploid cell

a cell with one set of chromosomes for humans, n=23 (22 autosomes and 1 sex chromosome)

genome

a cells endowment of DNA. prokaryotes have a single ring, eukaryotes have a number of different DNA molecules

mutation

a change in an organism's DNA

duplication

a change in chromosome structure due to fusion with a fragment from a homologous chromosome, such that a portion of a chromosome is repeated

deletion

a change in chromosome structure when a chromosomal fragment is lost, leading to the chromosome missing certain genes

chemical equilibrium

a chemical reaction and its reverse proceed at equal rates

product

a chemical substance formed as a result of a chemical reaction

founder effect

a few individuals from a larger population colonize an isolated habitate, the resulting gene pool only contains these alleles

chromatin

a fibrous material consisting of DNA and proteins; visible as individual chromosomes in a dividing cell.

incomplete flowers

a flower in which one or more of the four basic floral organs are either absent or nonfunctional

complete flowers

a flower that has all four basic floral organs: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpals

binary fission

a form of asexual reproduction in single-celled organisms by which one cell divides into two cells of the same size

mycosis

a fungal infection

sex-linked gene

a gene that is located on either sex chromosome; most are on the x chromosome and show distinctive patterns of inheritance (few on y)

regulatory gene

a gene that produces a repressor substance that inhibits an operator gene

locus

a gene's specific location along the length of a chromosome (different versions of a gene may be found on maternal and paternal chromosomes)

cystic fibrosis

a genetic disorder caused by a recessive allele for a chloride channel protein; characterized by an excessive secretion to mucus and consequent vulnerability to infection; fatal if untreated

linkage map

a genetic map based on recombination frequencies, assumes a map unit is the distance between genes that is equivalent to 1% recombination frequency; portrays order of genes but not exact locations

cytogenetic map

a genetic map that locates genes with respect to chromosomal features, such as stained bands, that can be seen in the microscope

cline

a graded change in some trait along a geographic axis

absorption spectrum

a graph plotting a pigments light absorption versus wavelength. (a) shows the absorption of each chlorophyll

chromosome theory of inheritance

a theory that states that Mendelian genes have specific loci (positions) along chromosomes and the chromosomes undergo segregation and independent assortment during meiosis, accounting for inheritance patterns

endospore

a thick-walled protective spore that forms inside a bacterial cell and resists harsh conditions

middle lamella

a thin layer between the primary walls of adjacent cells, rich in sticky polysaccharides called pectins

shared primitive character

a trait which predates the branching of the current clade, inherited from ancestor

aquaporins

a transport protein in the plasma membrane of a plant or animal cell that specifically facilitates the diffusion of water across the membrane

cladogram

a tree diagram used to illustrate phylogenetic relationships

malignant tumor

a tumor that is malignant and tends to spread to other parts of the body

semiconservative model

a type of DNA replication in which the replicated double helix consists of one old strand, derived from the old molecule, and one newly made strand

meiosis

a type of cell division in sexually reproducing organisms consisting of two rounds of cell division but only one round of DNA replication; results in cells with half the number of chromosome sets as the original cell (haploid cells), counterbalancing the doubling that happens at fertilization

oligosaccharins

a type of elicitor (molecule that induces a broad defense response in plants) that is derived from cellulose fragments released by cell wall damage.

diversifying selection

a type of evolution that simultaneously favors at both extremes of the distribution

epistasis

a type of gene interaction in which the phenotypic expression of a gene alters that of another gene ex/ a gene for depositing pigment affects whether or not you'll see the color of hair, no matter what the hair color allele is

deletion

a type of point mutation, causes a frame shift

base-pair substitution

a type of point mutation; the replacement of one nucleotide and its partner in the complementary DNA strand by another pair of nucleotides.

joule

a unit of electrical energy equal to the work done when a current of one ampere passes through a resistance of one ohm for one second

kilocalorie

a unit of heat equal to the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree at one atmosphere pressure

trait

a variant for a character ex/ purple for flower color

clump

a very small and very concentrated group on a very small scale, bacteria?

phage

a virus that is parasitic in bacteria

hydroxide ion

a water molecule that has lost a proton

cuticle

a waxy coating secreted by the epidermis to help aerial parts of the plant retain water

parasite

absorb their nutrients from the body fluids of living hosts

viral envelopes

accessory structures that help viruses infect their hosts, membranes cloaking capsids.

PEP carboxylase

adds CO₂ to PEP, higher affinity to CO₂ than rubisco

ovulation

after FSH, egg matures and LH causes it to be released, follicle turns into corpus luteum and secretes progesterone to prepare uterus

carpel

aka Pistil, contains the female organs, has an ovary at base and a style

amoeba

aka Rhizopods, all are unicellular and use pseudopodia to move and to feed

flagellated protist

all animals can be traced back to a common ancestor, a colonial flagellated protist, that lived over 700 million years ago in the Precambrian era. this is closely related to choanoflagellates

mesoderm

all bilateral eumetazoans have this third layer, which forms muscles and most other organs between the digestive tube and outer covering of the animal

somatic cells

all cells of the body except the gametes; have homologous chromosomes

molecular homologies

all species of life use DNA and RNA

genetic drift

allele frequencies in a small population shift, causing larger and larger shifts towards one side

cervix

bottom end of uterus, secretes mucus

style

branches out from ovary, holds up stigma

cladogenesis

branching evolution, in which a new species arises from a population that buds from a parent species

beta oxidation

breaks down fatty acids to 2C fragments, which enter Krebs cycle as acetyl CoA

testcross

breeding an organism of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive; if the offspring has an observable recessive trait, then the organism must be heterozygous

scion

bud used for grafting

chitin

build cell walls, strong but flexible nitrogen-containing polysaccharide

fetus

by the end of the 8th week

Calvin cycle

carbon fixation using energy from ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to produce a three carbon sugar, happens in stroma

axon

carries the impulse away from the cell, wrapped in Schwann cells

chondrocytes

cartilage cells that secrete chondroitin sulfate and collagen

oxytocin

causes uterine contractions

thoracic cavity

cavity housing the lungs and heart, separate from abdominal cavity

hormone

chemical signals that coordinate the parts of the organism

hormones

chemicals secreted by a group of specialized cells to communicate

neurotransmitters

chemicals used to transfer an impulse across the synapse

Green Algae

chlorophyta, have chlorophyll a and b, live in freshwater and can be found among the algae that are part of the lichen, a/sexual, ANCESTORS OF PLANTS

Z-W

chromosomal system of sex determination for birds, butterflies, some fishes

X-0

chromosomal system of sex determination for grasshoppers, roaches, other insects, etc

X-Y

chromosomal system of sex determination for mammals, fruit flies

sex chromosomes

chromosomes determining the sex of an individual; 1 pair; X & Y differ in size and genetic composition (X has more)

autosomes

chromosomes not involved in determining sex; 22 pairs

Golden Algae

chrysophyta, use flagella, swim with plankton

microclimate

climate in a very small scale, can be referred to as a forest floor or under a rock

epididymis

coiled tubules also found within the scrotum, stores sperm and is site of final maturation

probiont

collection of molecules in a membrane, internal environment different from surroundings

x chromosome

color blindness is caused by a recessive sex-linked gene on the _______

pheromones

communication chemicals used to send signals to other members of the same species

nucleotide diversity

comparing the nucleotide sequences of DNA samples from two individuals then pooling the data from many such comparisons of two individuals

DNA polymerase

enzyme involved in DNA replication that joins individual nucleotides to produce a DNA molecule

glandular epithelia

epithelia protecting organs that also absorb or secrete chemical solutions

mineral nutrients

essential chemical elements absorbed from the soil in the form of inorganic ions

endosymbiotic theory

eukaryotic cells originated from a symbiotic partnership with prokaryotic cells

reduced hybrid fertility

even if hybrids are vigorous they may be sterile; meiosis in hybrids may fail to produce normal gametes

2.7 billion years ago

evidence of eukaryotes, atmospheric oxygen

macroevolution

evolution on a large scale extending over geologic era and resulting in the formation of new taxonomic groups

microevolution

evolution on the smallest scale, change in a gene pool

amino acid derivatives

ex: epinephrine, derived from amino acids

peptide hormones

ex: insulin, most diverse group of hormones

steroid hormones

ex: prostaglandins. sex hormones, all are lipids made from cholesterol

community ecology

examines the interactions between populations, and how factors such as predation, competition, and disease affect community structure and organization

cortex

external to the vascular tissue, consists of both fleshy storage cells and thick-walled support cells

density-independent

factors that are unrelated to population density, and there is no feedback to slow population growth

density-dependent

factors that increase their affect on a population as population density increases, negative feedback

sustainable agriculture

farming methods that preserve long-term productivity of land and minimize pollution, typically by rotating soil- restoring crops with cash crops and reducing in-puts of fertilizer and pesticides.

Mendel

father of genetics; was a monk, mathematician, botanist; came up with theory of genetics/inheritance w/ garden pea experiment;

protogynous

female->male

zygote

fertilized egg that is diploid

hyphae

filaments that release digestive enzymes to help protists eat

prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, during which the chromosomes become visible and the centrioles separate and take up positions on the opposite sides of the nucleus

photosystem II

first photosystem, center is p680, takes in H₂O, splits and leaves out 1/2 O₂ and takes 2 e⁻, excites electrons and sends to primary acceptor

3.8 billion years ago

first prokaryote fossil evidence

wobble

flexibility in the base-pairing rules in which the nucleotide at the 5' end of a tRNA anticodon can form hydrogen bonds with more than one kind of base in the third position (3' end) of a codon

angiosperm

flowering plant; bears its seeds within a layer of tissue that protects the seed

monohybrid cross

hybridization using a single trait with two alleles (explains why one trait disappears in F1 and its reappearance in F2)

dihybrid cross

hybridization using two traits with two alleles each (explains nonparental combos and 9:3:3:1 ratio in F2) ex/ peas with yellow-round/green-wrinkled seeds

carotenoids

hydrocarbons that are various shades of yellow and orange, may broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis

sister chromatids

identical copies of a chromosome; full sets of these are created during the S(DNA replication) subphase of interphase

polymorphism

if two or more distinct morphs are each represented in high enough frequencies to be readily noticeable

same, homo, hetero

in a pair of homologous chromosomes, alleles of the same gene reside at the ____ locus; ____-zygous individuals have the same allele on each chromosome, _____-zygous individuals have a different allele on each chromosome

exponential model of a population

in an unlimited environment, the change in population sizes is based on the following equation: Change in population size = Births - Deaths. If 𝑁 represents population size and 𝑡 time, then Δ𝑁 is the change in population size and Δ𝑡 represents the change in time, then Δ𝑁/Δ𝑡=B-D, or where r represents the difference in per capita birth and death rates Δ𝑁/Δ𝑡=r𝑁.

chemiosmosis

in chloroplasts and mitochondria, a process in which the movement of protons down their concentration gradient across a membrane is coupled to the synthesis of ATP

oomycotes

include water molds, white rusts, and downy mildews. some are unicellular, others have branching filaments. diploid stage dominates, have biflagellated cells which absorbe nutrients. relatively large egg fertilized by a smaller sperm nucleus, forming a resistant zygote.

zone of cell division

includes apical meristem, and primary meristems

carbon fixation

incorporating CO₂ from the atmosphere into organic molecules from the chloroplast

root hairs

increase surface area in roots, extensions of individual epidermal cells on the root surface

sympathetic NS

increases energy expenditure, prepares for action

heterozygote advantage

individuals that are heterozygous for a gene and have a greater survivorship

meningitis

inflammation of the meninges

fossil record

information about past life, including the structure of organisms, what they ate, what ate them, in what environment they lived, and the order in which they lived

protozoa

ingestive (animal-like) protists

archaea

inhabit extreme environments, hot springs and salt ponds. more closely related to eukaryotes than bacteria

mitochondrial matrix

inside the crista, contains enzymes as well as mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes. Some of the metabolic steps of cellular respiration are catalyzed by enzymes in the matrix.

photons

intangible objects, have a fixed quantity of energy related to wavelength

species transplants

intentional or accidental transplants of a species to areas where it was previously absent; often disruptive to ecosystems

pith

internal to the vascular tissue

central NS

interneurons: brain and spine. covered with three membranes, meninges.

radioactive isotope

isotope in which the nucleus decays (breaks down) over time, giving off radiation in the form of matter and energy

parthenogenesis

jesus, unfertilized egg develops and hatches, occurs in insects

stratified epithelium

multiple tiers of cells

point mutation

mutation that affects a single nucleotide, usually by substituting one nucleotide for another

mycorrhizae

mutualistic fungi that help the roots of plants absorb minerals and water from the soil

ground tissue

neither dermal nor vascular, in dicot, divided into pith and cortex. conducts photosynthesis, storage, and support

neurons

nerve cells

NADP⁺

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, temporarily stores the energized electrons

NAD⁺

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, a coenzyme present in all cells that helps enzymes transfer electrons during the redox reactions of metabolism.

vegetative

non reproductive, leaf bearing

nucleolus

nonmembranous organelle involved in production of ribosomes; a nucleus has one or more nucleoli.

ribosome

nonmembranous organelles that carry out protein synthesis according to instructions from the genes; free in cytoplasm or bound to rough ER or nuclear envelope.

opportunistic pathogens

normal residents of a host but can cause illness when the host's defenses are weakened

TATA box

nucleotide sequence containing TATA, about 25 nucleotides upstream from the transcriptional start point

Kreb's Cycle

occurs in mitochondrial matrix, has 8 steps, each catalyzed by a different enzyme, decomposes a derivative of pyruvate to form carbon dioxide. For each molecule of Acetyl CoA (2 of them): Acetyl CoA → 2CO₂ + 1ATP + 3NADH + 1FADH₂

2.1 billion years ago

oldest eukaryotic fossils

P site

one of a ribosome's three binding sites for tRNA during translation. It holds the tRNA carrying the growing polypeptide chain.

lophotrochoza

one of the main protosome clades, includes annelids, molluscs.

G₁ phase

stage of interphase in which cell grows and performs its normal functions

Golgi apparatus

organelle active in synthesis, sorting, and secretion of cell products. Center of manufacturing. Products of the ER are modified, stored, and sent to other destinations. An organelle in eukaryotic cells consisting of stacks of flat membranous sacs that modify, store, and route products of the endoplasmic reticulum.

mitochondrion

organelle where cellular respiration occurs and most ATP is generated. Sites of cellular respiration, the catabolic process that generates ATP by extracting energy from sugars, fats, and other fuels with the help of oxygen

cytokinesis

organic process consisting of the division of the cytoplasm of a cell following karyokinesis bringing about the separation into two daughter cells

photoheterotroph

organism that is photosynthetic but needs organic compounds as a carbon source

chemoautotroph

organism that makes organic carbon molecules from carbon dioxide using energy from chemical reactions

chemoheterotroph

organism that must take in organic molecules for both energy and carbon

photoautotroph

organism that uses energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbon compounds

r-selection

organisms exhibit high rates of reproduction and occur in variable environments in which population densities fluctuate well below K

K-selection

organisms live and reproduce around K, and are sensitive to population density

decomposers

organisms that break down wastes and dead organisms and return raw materials to the environment

radiata

organisms that have radial symmetry, diploblastic (have 2 germ layers), includes Cnidaria and Ctenophora

3.9 billion years ago

origin of life

1.4 billion years ago

origin of multicellular eukaryotes

cell wall

outer layer that maintains cell's shape and protects cell from mechanical damage; made of cellulose, other polysaccharides, and protein

valence shell

outermost electron shell

chorion

outermost membranous sac enclosing the embryo in higher vertebrates (reptiles, birds and mammals)

fallopian tube

oviduct, has cilia that propel egg downwards toward uterus, takes 1 week

cellular respiration

oxygen is consumed. happens in mitochondria in eukaryotes. C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + Energy (ATP + Heat) exergonic, free energy goes down.

Apicomplexa

parasites, formerly known as sporozoans, spread by means of sporozoite, have both asexual and sexual stages, which require two hosts for completion.

downy mildews

part of heterotrophic stramenopiles (oomycotes), parasites of terrestrial plants, windblown spores

stipe

part of thallus, stemlike, support leaf-like photosynthetic blades

holdfast

part of the thallus, rootlike

fermentation

partial degradation of sugars that occurs without the help of oxygen

PR proteins

pathogenesis-related proteins; protein involved in plant responses to pathogens

photosynthesis

process by which plants and some other organisms use light energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into oxygen and high-energy carbohydrates such as sugars and starches 6CO₂ + 12H₂O + Light Energy → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ + 6H₂O

RNA splicing

process by which the introns are removed from RNA transcripts and the remaining exons are joined together

convergent evolution

process by which unrelated organisms independently evolve similarities when adapting to similar environments

phagocytosis

process in which extensions of cytoplasm surround and engulf large particles and take them into the cell

chemical reaction

process that changes one set of chemicals into another set of chemicals

C₃ plants

produce less food when their stomata close on hot/dry days.

auxins

produced in the apical meristem and are transported downward into the rest of the plant, they stimulate elongation

action spectrum

profiles the relative performance of different wavelengths

gradualism

profound change is the cumulative product of slow but continuous processes

microvilli

projections that increase the cell's surface area, Tiny hair-like projections of the cytoplasmic membrane located only in the small intestine to facilitate absorption by increasing surface area.

follicular phase

proliferative phase, first half, endometrium thickens. pituitary secretes fsh, supresses fsh and stimulates gnrh, then stimulates a burst of lh, causing ovulation

domain

proteins have modular architecture consisting of discrete structural and functional regions

exotoxins

proteins secreted by prokaryotes

glycoprotein

proteins that are covalently bonded to carbohydrates. the carbohydrate is attached to the protein in the ER by specialized molecules built into the ER membrane

epithelial tissue

sheets of tightly packed cells, covers the outside of the body and lines organs and cavities within the body. Cells are close together with little material between them, joined by tight junctions. Cells at the base are attached to a basement membrane.

cilia

short, hair-like structures made of microtubules that enable movement of cells or movement of materials outside a cell

sclereids

shorter than fibers, irregular in shape, cause hardness of nut shells and seed coats

embryological homologies

similarities between vertebrate species noted during embryonic development

homology

similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestry

prostaglandins

simulate contractions, pos feedback loop

pseudostratified epithelium

single-layered, but appears to be stratified because the cells vary in length

viroids

single-stranded RNA molecules that have no surrounding capsids

adrenal glands

sit on top of kidneys, have outer cortex and inner medulla

bulbourethral glands/Cowper's glands

small pair of glands along urethra below prostate. secrete fluid just before emission of semen, serves as lubricant for penetration, volume is very small

centrosome

small region of cytoplasm adjacent to the nucleus

microfilament

solid rod of protein, thinner than a microtubule, that enables a cell to move or change shape

nodes of Ranvier

spaces/junctions between the Schwann cells

regional

spans a region, the north east

continental

spans the continent, north america

worldwide

spans the entire world

facultative anaerobes

species which can make enough ATP to survive using either fermentation or respiration

host range

spectrum of host cells the virus can infect, MOST viruses can only infect specific types of cells of only one host species. determined by virus requirements for attachment and abilities of host to provide metabolic functions. surface of virus must chemically interact with surface of host cell.

erectile tissue

spongy, fill with blood during arousal

alternation of generations

sporophyte (2n) and gametophyte (n)

granum

stacks of "poker chips", (plural, grana) A stacked portion of the thylakoid membrane in the chloroplast. Grana function in the light reactions of photosynthesis.

anaphase II

stage in meiosis; cell elongates, sister chromosomes separate and move towards opposite poles as individual chromosomes

telophase I

stage in meiosis; cell splits (cytokinesis) and is now haploid; chromosomes disappear, nuclear envelope forms

metaphase II

stage in meiosis; chromosomes align at equatorial plate (the two sister chromatids of a chromosome are not genetically identical)

prophase II

stage in meiosis; chromosomes condense, centrosomes move to opposite poles, spindle forms, nuclear envelope breaks down; no crossing over is done

prophase I

stage in meiosis; chromosomes condense, homologous chromosomes come together as pairs (tetrads), crossing over, centrosomes move to opposite poles, spindle formation, nuclear envelope breaks down

telophase II

stage in meiosis; chromosomes disappear, nuclear envelope forms; cytokinesis; produces four daughter cells, each haploid

anaphase I

stage in meiosis; homologous pairs separate and move towards opposite poles of the cell

metaphase I

stage in meiosis; tetrads are arranged at the equatorial plate

G₂ phase

stage of interphase in which cell duplicates its cytosol and organelles

alternation of generations

the alternation of two or more different forms in the life cycle of a plant or animal

heat of vaporization

the amount of energy required for the liquid at its boiling point to become a gas

landscape ecology

the array of ecosystems and their arrangement in a geographic region

nitrogen fixation

the assimilation of atmospheric nitrogen by soil bacteria and its release for plant use on the death of the bacteria

histone acetylation

the attachment of acetyl groups (-COCH3) to certain amino acids of histone proteins, the chromatin becomes less compact, and the DNA is accessible for transcription

chemical bond

the attractive forces that hold atoms together

Mendel's second law (law of independent assortment)

the basis that each pair of alleles segregates independently of each other pair of alleles during gamete formation (ex/ whatever is in chromosome 1 won't affect the crossing over in chromosome 5)

organismal ecology

the behavioral, physiological, and morphological ways individuals interact with the environment

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

benthic zone

the bottom of any aquatic biome and contains detritus

artificial selection

the breeding of domesticated plants and animals

protoplast

the cell contents, exclusive of the cell wall

systematics

the classification of living organisms in terms of their natural relationships; it includes describing, naming, and classifying the organisms

exon

the coding sequences, expressed, translated into amino acids, left in the sequence and spliced together

anticodon

the complementary sequence to a codon, carried by tRNA, which also carries an amino acid

molarity

the concentration of a material in a solution

oogenesis

the creation of eggs, makes 1 egg and 3 polar bodies

adaptive radiation

the development of many different forms from an originally homogeneous group of organisms as they fill different ecological niches

solvent

the dissolving agent

wavelength

the distance between the crests of electromagnetic waves, range from less than a nanometer to more than a kilometer

action spectrum

the efficiency with which electromagnetic radiation produces a photochemical reaction plotted as a function of the wavelength of the radiation

greening

the elongation rate of the stems slows, the leaves expand, the roots start to elongate, and the entire shoot begins to produce chlorophyll (triggered by extremely low levels of light)

ecosystem ecology

the energy flow and cycling of chemicals among the various abiotic and biotic components

potential energy

the energy that matter stores because of its position or location

electromagnetic spectrum

the entire range of radiation

ATP synthase

the enzyme that actually makes ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate, uses transporting ions against a gradient to make ATP.

phylogeny

the evolutionary history of a species or group of related species, the sequence of events involved in the evolutionary development of a species or taxonomic group of organisms

crossing over

the exchange of genetic material between homologous chromosomes's nonsister chromatids;

embryo sacs

the female gametophyes are egg-producing structures that form within the ovules in ovaries

telophase

the final stage of meiosis when the chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the nuclear spindle

F1

the first generation after the true-breeding parents

blade

the flat area of a leaf

stroma

the fluid inside the membrane of the chloroplast, contains chloroplast DNA, ribosomes, and many enzymes

cohesion

the force that holds molecules of a single material together, hydrogen bonds

speciation

the formation of new species as a result of evolution

codominance

the phenomenon where both alleles are dominant/exhibited in the heterozygote because both alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways ex/ ABO blood = 4 phenotypes: A, B, AB, O (A & B are dominant over O)

incomplete dominance

the phenomenon where neither allele is dominant over the other, creating an intermediate phenotype ex/ red & white (flower color): not dominant, so you get pink. can get red/white back when cross pink with each other again

wild type

the phenotype for a character most commonly observed in natural populations; as opposed to 'mutant phenotype'

descent with modification

the phrase Darwin used instead of evolution

water potential

the physical property predicting the direction in which water will flow, governed by solute concentration and applied pressure.

epicotyl

the portion of the stem of a plant embryo that is between the cotyledons and the first true leaves

cell plate

the precursor of a new plant cell wall that forms during cell division and divides a cell into two

apical dominance

the presence of the terminal bud inhibits the growth of axillary buds. evolutionary advantage to increase light exposure. if removed, axillary bud breaks dominance and grows a vegetative branch with a new terminal bud

turgor pressure

the pressure that water molecules exert against the cell wall

climate

the prevailing weather conditions in an area. temperature, water, light, and wind are major components. determines the makeup of biomes

double fertilization

the process by which one of the two sperm nuclei fuses with the egg nucleus to produce a diploid zygote and the other fuses with the polar nuclei to produce a triploid endosperm

conjugation

the process in which a unicellular organism transfers some of its genetic material to another unicellular organism

transduction

the process of transfering genetic material from one cell to another by a plasmid or bacteriophage

genetic recombination

the production of offspring with combinations of traits that differ from those found in either parent

evaporative cooling

the property of a liquid whereby the surface becomes cooler during evaporation, owing to a loss of highly kinetic molecules to the gaseous state.

capsid

the protein shell that encloses the viral genome, may be rod shaped, polyhedral, or more complex. built from capsomeres, but few different KINDS of proteins

norm of reaction

the range of phenotypes produced by a single genotype, due to environmental influences (because sometimes, phenotypes are not rigidly defined by the genotype)

chromatin

the readily stainable substance of a cell nucleus consisting of DNA and RNA and various proteins

crossing over

the reciprocal exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids during prophase I of meiosis; accounts for the recombination of linked genes

light reactions

the steps of photosynthesis that convert solar energy to chemical energy. Light absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of electrons and hydrogen from water to an acceptor, called NADP⁺. give off O₂. Happen in thylakoid or in chloroplast in eukaryotic cells.

template strand

the strand of DNA that is copied off of, i.e. a complementary strand is made for it

population ecology

the study of factors that affect population size and composition

paleontology

the study of fossils, largely developed by Georges Cuvier

biogeography

the study of past and present distributions of individual species

physiology

the study of the functions an organism performs

anatomy

the study of the structure of an organism

reducing agent

the substance that donates the electron X⁻ + Y⁺ → X + Y In this example, X is the reducing agent

solute

the substance that is dissolved

oxidizing agent

the substance that receives the electron X⁻ + Y⁺ → X + Y In this example, Y is the oxidizing agent

metabolic rate

the sum of all the energy-requiring biochemical reactions occurring over a given time interval, energy measured in calories, can be determined by measuring heat loss or oxygen use

molecular weight

the sum of the weights of all the atoms in a molecule

frequency-dependent selection

the survival and reproduction of any one morph declines if that phenotypic form becomes too common in the population

transcription

the synthesis of RNA under the direction of DNA, copying the nucleotides

natural selection

the theory that states if individuals having certain heritable traits leave more offspring than other individuals a population of organisms can change over the generations

meninges

the three membranes that cover the brain and spine

refractory period

the time during which the charges on either side of the membrane and sodium and potassium return to their places

half-life

the time required for one half of the atoms of a radioisotope to emit radiation and decay products

mesophyll

the tissue in the interior of the leaf, contains 30-40 chloroplasts

horizons

the topsoil and other distinct soil layers, visible in vertical profile

gene pool

the total aggregate of genes in a population at any one time. consists of the alleles at all gene loci in all individuals of the population

uterus

thick muscular, very small, only 7x5cm in nulliparous (not given birth) woman

pericarp

thickened wall of the fruit

collenchyma

thicker cell walls, flexible support cells, young stems and petioles have these below their surface, lack secondary walls and lignin

labia majora

thicker outer folds that cover urethra and vagina

root cap

thimble-shaped mass of cells covering and protecting the growing tip of a root

vagina

thin walled, repository for sperm, also birth canal

labia minora

thinner inner folds that cover urethra and vagina, contains erectile tissue

domain

three: bacteria, archaea, eukarya. two major prokaryotic groups diverged early and archaea are more closely related to eukarya than to bacteria.

hyphae

tiny filaments that form the mycelium

glans penis

tip of penis, very sensitive to stimulation, covered by foreskin

phloem

transports sucrose and other organic compounds made in mature leaves to the roots and to nonphotosynthetic parts of the shoot system

xylem

transports water and minerals from roots to shoots, has tracheids and vessel elements

urethra

tube from kidney through to the end of the penis where both urine and semen travels through

Dinoflagellata

two flagella, funky swimming motion, unicellular, producers in many aquatic food chains

molecule

two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds

bilateria

two sided, triploblastic, has a dorsal (top) and ventral (bottom) side, and an anterior (head) and posterior (tail)

primary growth

type of plant growth that occurs at the tips of roots and shoots

yeast

unicellular fungi that inhabit liquid or moist habitats, including plant sap and animal tissues

fertilization

union of gametes (sperm and egg)

calorie

unit of heat defined as the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1 degree centigrade at atmospheric pressure

gene

unit of hereditary information consisting of a specific nucleotide sequence in DNA

menstrual cycle

unused endometrium is shed and voided from the body as the menses or period

Ciliophora

use cilia to travel, live in water, have macronucleus and micronucleus, include paramecium

cyclic electron flow

uses photosystem I but not photosystem II, no production of NADPH and no release of oxygen, but does generate ATP

genomic imprinting

variation in phenotype depending on whether an allele is inherited from the male or female parent