AP Euro Cram

This was the nickname for the English privateers (such as Francis Drake) who raided Spanish gold and silver shipments from the New World during the reign of Elizabeth I

"The Sea Dogs"

This nickname for Louis XIV indicated what a central, indispensable role he believed he played in the governing of his kingdom and in the lives of his subjects

"The Sun King"

Critical Date! These were the years during which World War II was fought

1939-45

In the spring of this year, France was paralyzed for a number of weeks by joint strikes and demonstrations of French students and workers -- While the students sought a dramatic reordering of French society, the workers only sought higher wages and better working conditions -- Eventually the movement petered out

1968

Critical Date! This was the year in which the Berlin Wall fell

1989

Critical Date! This is the year in which the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in the 19th century

1861

This 1637 work by Rene Descartes advocated a mathematical approach to acquiring knowledge, in which one rejects all ideas and facts that can not be verified using one's own reason

Discourse on Method

These agreements between companies in the same industry, especially common in Germany during the 2nd Industrial Revolution, established fixed prices and set production quotas in order to limit competition and keep prices from declining

Cartel

This is 17th-century French thinker Rene Descartes's idea that the world is made up of thinking things (the mind) and things that occupy space (matter) -- The mind can use reason to understand matter

Cartesian Dualism

In The Book of the Courtier this Renaissance author described the characteristics of the ideal nobleman

Castiglione

As the Lutheran Reformation was beginning, this Holy Roman Emperor did not move quickly to suppress it because he was distracted by his campaign to secure election as emperor and by conflicts with France and the Ottoman Turks

Charles V

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Moses (1513) Michelangelo High Renaissance

This woman, the longest reigning British monarch, ruled from 1837 to 1901 -- Although she exercised little direct political power, she was an icon who presided over the expansion of the British Empire and became associated with high standards of personal morality

Queen Victoria

In this work published in 1528, Castiglione described the proper etiquette for a nobleman who aspired to public service -- He was to be talented in all things and carry himself with grace and dignity

The Book of the Courtier

This was the name for the official version of the Bible used by the Catholic Church at the time of the Protestant Reformation -- Erasmus believed that it contained errors and thus produced his own version

The Latin Vulgate Bible

This "law" identified by Isaac Newton during the 17th century explained WHY the planets remain in orbit around the sun -- It states that every object in the universe is attracted to every other object with a force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distances between them

The Law of Universal Gravitation

During the Commonwealth of Oliver Cromwell this movement called for freedom of religion and universal malehood suffrage; Cromwell suppressed it ruthlessly

The Levellers

This 19th-century English philosopher argued that societies evolve naturally in competition for resources and that "survival of the fittest" is morally justified; he is regarded as the first "Social Darwinist"

Herbert Spencer

In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella captured Granada in southern Spain, bringing to an end the long domination of the Iberian peninsula by this North African ethnic group

The Moors

In 1957 the members of the European Coal and Steel Community signed this treaty, creating the European Economic Community (of Common Market) and lifting almost ALL trade restrictions between the member states

The Treaty of Rome

When Napoleon abdicated as emperor of France in April 1814, this man, the brother of Louis XVI, became the king of France -- His unpopularity with Frenchmen encouraged Napoleon to escape from Elba and reclaim his throne in 1815

Louis XVIII

Name the three monarchs who ruled France between Napoleon I and Napoleon III

Louis XVIII Charles X Louis-Philippe

This Englishwoman, viewed by many as the founder of the feminist movement, argued in Vindication of the Rights of Women that women should be granted the same rights as men because all human beings were born with reason

Mary Wollstonecraft

This 1919 peace agreement ended the conflict between Germany and the Allied powers in WWI -- It required Germany to accept responsibility for the war, surrender significant amounts of territory, disarm, and pay heavy reparations

The Treaty of Versailles

These three political theorists of the 17th and 18th centuries had widely different ideas, but each used to the concept of the social contract to explain the origins of government

Thomas Hobbes John Locke Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This writer's 1798 Essay on the Principle of Population concluded that the poverty and suffering of the working classes was an inevitable aspect of industrialization as a result of the limited food supply

Thomas Malthus

This radical early Protestant leader broke from Martin Luther and became a leader of the German Peasants' Revolt, at the end of which he was executed

Thomas Müntzer

This was the name of the tax, theoretically 10% of one's income, that Frenchmen were expected to pay to the Catholic Church prior to the French Revolution

Tithe

Guilds

When the Industrial Revolution began, the production of goods in towns and cities was still largely controlled by these institutions that jealously guarded their membership and enjoyed the exclusive rights to manufacture and sell certain goods, hire workers, and open shops.

Clover & Turnips

These were the two most important nitrogen-restoring crops introduced during the Agricultural Revolution

This conflict was probably the most destructive event for the economy and society of central Europe prior to the 20th century. Perhaps 1/3 of city residents and 2/5 of the rural population died. Entire areas were depopulated by warfare, the flight of refugees, and disease. Because it was fought primarily on German soil in the first half of the 17th century, the Holy Roman Empire experienced untold losses in agricultural land, livestock, trade, and commerce.

Thirty Years' War

1850

This is the approximate date at which the percentage of British people living in towns and cities (as opposed to rural areas) reached 50%

Primogeniture

This practice among the nobility of England was discontinued starting in the 18th century; under it, eldest sons inherited all of the family land, ensuring that their large estates would remain intact over the generations because it was not subdivided amongst multiple children

The Factory Acts

This set of laws passed by Parliament beginning in the 1833 put limits on business for the first time by restricting the working hours of women and children

This 17th-century Englishman believed that the state of nature, prior to the formation of government, was essentially lawless -- Life was therefore "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short"

Thomas Hobbes

This Englishman argued in the late 18th century that while population is able to increase geometrically, the food supply only increases arithmetically -- He believed that the only way to avoid starvation and suffering was through later marriages, abstinence, or contraception

Thomas Malthus

According to the 19th-century Cult of Domesticity, this was the ideal role for women:

To be wives and mothers

In the 1570s this Danish nobleman was granted possession of an island near Copenhagen by King Frederick II. On it, he built Uraniborg castle, which he outfitted with a library, observatories, and instruments he had designed for more precise astronomical observations. For twenty years he patiently concentrated on compiling a detailed record of his observations of the positions and movements of the stars and planets

Tycho Brahe

This 16th-century Danish nobleman designed and built new astronomical instruments and over twenty years compiled accurate data on the movements of the heavenly bodies -- His discovery of a new star and comet called into question Aristotle's conception of the universe as unchanging, and his data was used by Kepler to develop his three laws of planetary motion

Tycho Brahe

At his 1529 meeting with Martin Luther known as the Marburg Colloquy, this reformer argued that the sacrament of communion was simply a symbolic commemoration of the sacrifice made by Jesus -- Christ was neither physically nor spiritually present in the bread and wine

Ulrich Zwingli

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Vitruvian Man (1490) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance

This Russian Marxist revolutionary and leader of the Bolshevik Party returned to Russia from exile following the abdication of Nicholas II -- He insisted that Russia could proceed directly into a proletariat dictatorship without passing through a full capitalist stage as Marx believed -- In November 1917 he seized power in a coup d'etat

Vladimir Lenin

In May 1814, following his first abdication, Napoleon began his exile on this island off the coast of Italy -- He assumed the title of emperor and introduced a number of government reforms before deciding, nine months later, to escape to France and attempt a resumption of power

Elba

This woman ruled England from 1558 to 1603 and was the last of the Tudor monarchs -- Her reign is remembered as a golden age in which English culture flourished, England began to emerge as one of Europe's great powers, and a compromise settlement was secured between England's Catholics and Protestants

Elizabeth I

During the French Revolution, this term was used to refer to those counterrevolutionary nobles, such as Louis XVI's brother, who had fled the country and were plotting to return with foreign assistance to restore the power of the monarchy

Emigres

This late-19th-century French novelist and journalist wrote novels in the realist style (such as Germinal) addressing the more unpleasant aspects of industrial life; he also assumed the leading role in publicly defending Alfred Dreyfus

Emile Zola

In the late 19th century this militant English suffragette advocated the use of violent tactics, such as breaking windows in public buildings, in the campaign to secure the vote for British women

Emmeline Pankhurst

Because this 16th-century Christian humanist sought to reform the Catholic Church from within he is said to have "laid the egg that Luther hatched"

Erasmus

This writer famously condemned the "warrior pope" Julius II for leading troops into battle and showing more concern for secular matters than spiritual ones

Erasmus

Ptolemy's world map, which became widely available for the first time in the late 1400s, only includes these three continents

Europe Asia Africa

This refers to the change over time of the inherited traits of a population of organisms due to genetic mutations or natural selection -- This process, most famously explained by Charles Darwin in the late 19th century, leads to greater diversity among organisms and, in the long term, the emergence of new species

Evolution

This philosophy, most closely associated with Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, gained prominence in the years after World War II -- It holds that the world is basically absurd and that each individual is responsible for giving his/her own life meaning through his/her actions

Existentialism

The growth of Europe's population in the late 19th century was fueled primarily by ...

Falling death rates

In the 15th and 16th centuries the great majority of Europeans (at least 80%) made a living doing this:

Farming

These were the most common characteristics of those people accused of witchcraft during the witch hunts of the 17th century:

Female (80%) Elderly (45-60 years old) Single Impoverished

Although this explorer died in the Philippines in 1521, he is credited with achieving the first circumnavigation of the earth

Ferdinand Magellan

This was the primary problem faced by the French monarchy on the eve of the French Revolution that prompted Louis XVI to summon a meeting of the Estates-General

Financial crisis (impending bankruptcy)

In 1799, after he participated in a coup d'etat against the Directory, Napoleon assumed this title and became the de facto ruler of France

First Consul

In the 1960s, despite remaining in NATO, this European country removed its troops from NATO's unified command and asked that all foreign NATO troops be removed from its soil

France

These two 17th-century thinkers both rejected the unquestioning reliance upon the teachings of the ancients and each offered (very different) new approaches to knowledge that provided the bases for the modern scientific method

Francis Bacon & René Descartes

Although this 18th-century Prussian ruler implemented many of the philosophes' recommendations for reform, he was unwilling to abolish serfdom because he was too dependent on the support of the Junkers

Frederick II ("the Great")

This man was the Great Elector of Brandenburg-Prussia in the mid-17th century -- He developed an army that became one of the most feared in Europe and an efficient bureaucracy that provided the foundation for Prussia's rise as a great power

Frederick William the Great Elector

This leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution, a master orator and supporter of the creation of the Republic, was executed in April 1794 by the Committee of Public Safety for turning against the violence of the Reign of Terror

Georges Danton

After 1870, due to its superiority in technologies such as chemicals and electrical equipment, this country overtook Great Britain as the industrial leader of Europe

Germany

In 1990 this country reunified after being divided into two states for over four decades, raising some concerns about a disruption of Europe's balance of power

Germany

This Italian painter of the late 12th and early 13th centuries is regarded by many as the first artist of the Renaissance, because he made a concerted effort to base his frescoes on nature, creating three-dimensional figures that seemed to have form and weight

Giotto

This man founded the Young Italy movement in 1831, which was dedicated to uniting the states of Italy into a single republic

Giuseppe Mazzini

In the Catholic religion these are those things one might do to earn salvation (e.g. obey ten commandments, receive sarcaments, have contact with relics) -- Most Protestants believe that these actions do not make one more deserving of salvation, which may only be obtained through faith alone

Good Works

The Catholic Church teaches that, in order to obtain salvation, one must perform certain acts known as these -- Luther and other Protestant reformers countered that only faith is necessary for salvation

Good Works

This was last piece of territory that the Moors controlled on the Iberian peninsula before they were finally conquered by Ferdinand and Isabella

Granada

In 1821 this country rose in rebellion against the Ottoman Empire -- Britain, France, and Russia, each eager to weaken the Ottomans, provided support to the revolt, which in helped to ensure its success and, in 1830, the proclamation of a new, independent kingdom

Greece

In 1856 this inventor developed the converter, the first efficient method for the mass production of steel

Henry Bessemer

At the end of the French Wars of Religion, this man converted to Catholicism in order to be accepted as the king of France

Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)

In 1419 this member of the Portuguese royal family gave his country a boost in the Age of Exploration by founding an institute for the collection of maritime knowledge on the country's southwest coast

Henry the Navigator

Between 1519 and 1521 this Spanish conquistador and his men conquered the Aztec Empire of central Mexico

Hernán Cortés

Henry VIII required a dispensation from the pope before he could marry Catherine of Aragon because she had been married to ...

His brother (Arthur)

Get Married

Historians' understanding of the social life of Western Europe has changed dramatically in recent years. Studies have shown that most people did not do this until well until their adult years; in 18th-century France the typical woman was around 25 and the typical man was about 27.

This Vietnamese Marxist led the independence movement that forced the French out of his country in 1954, after which he formed a communist state in the northern half of Vietnam

Ho Chi Minh

This term simply refers to French Calvinists

Huguenots

One of the obstructions to progress in European medicine prior to the Scientific Revolution was that since classical times it had been illegal for physicians and scholars to perform these:

Human Dissections

This term refers to the scholarly interest in the study of the classical cultures of Greece and Rome during the Renaissance

Humanism

This German philosopher famously claimed that the motto of the Enlightenment was "Dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence!"

Immanuel Kant

In the late 19th century this revolutionary school of art sought to depiction the immediate sensations of momentary scenes, breaking down light into its component colors and allowing the spectator's eye to fuse them when viewing a painting from a distance

Impressionism

Workhouses (or Poorhouses)

In 1834 the British government passed legislation authorizing the creation of these places where poor, jobless people were forced to live. They were designed to be as unpleasant and as restrictive as possible, separating family members and giving them dreadful food to eat.

The Nuclear Family

In recent years historians have demonstrated that, rather than large, extended, multigenerational families, this was the most common form of household in western and central Europe, in which just two generations (parents and children) lived together in the same home

Bubonic Plague or Black Death

In the early 18th century this mysteriously disappeared. It had been a part of the European experience since the 14th century, striking again and again with savage force, particularly in towns. In 1720 a ship from Syria brought it to Marseilles, where it killed up to 100,000 people in the city and the surrounding region, By 1722 it had passed, and this was the last time this deadly disease hit western or central Europe.

Robert Owen

In the early 19th century this utopian socialist operated a textile mill in New Lanark, Scotland that provided good housing for his workers and schools for their children -- It served as a model for reformers who sought to improve the treatment of the working classes by their employers

Smallpox

In the late 18th century, talented British doctor Edward Jenner spent 18 years studying the origins of this disease. Finally, in 1796 he performed his first vaccination against this disease on a young boy using matter taken from an infected milkmaid. His new method of treatment spread rapidly, and the disease would soon be eradicated in Europe and eventually throughout the world.

The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 both radically changed British politics by doing this

Increasing the number of eligible voters

During the English Civil War these more extreme Puritans favored executing Charles I and granting each church congregation complete control over their own doctrine and practices

Independents

In 1949 the Dutch were forced, after a costly war, to recognize the independence of their colony in the East Indies, which were thereafter known by this name:

Indonesia

This intellectual approach, advocated by Francis Bacon in the 17th century, involves moving from the specific to the general -- By observing and experimenting in the physical world (empiricism), one might identify general patterns in the way the world operates

Inductive Reasoning

During the Catholic Reformation it was ruled by the Council of Trent that while these could no longer be sold, they could still be issued

Indulgences

The "price revolution" of the 16th century refers to this economic problem that was caused in large part by Europe's growing population and increased demand for goods

Inflation

The Home Rule Act passed by Britain's Parliament in 1914 finally granted independence to this country

Ireland

In the 1400s this was the most urbanized, wealthy region of Europe

Italy

This French finance minister was the main proponent of mercantilist policies during the reign of Louis XIV

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

This Dominican friar was an infamous indulgence seller whose efforts in 1517 to sell indulgences in the Holy Roman Empire in order to raise funds for the reconstruction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome prompted Martin Luther to write the 95 Theses

Johann Tetzel

This devout Scottish Calvinist clergyman spent many years in exile before returning to become the leader of the Reformation in his country and the founder of the Presbyterian Church -- He was a staunch opponent of Mary, Queen of Scots

John Knox

In his 1690 work Essay on Human Understanding this Englishman argued that men are born unformed (tabula rasa - "blank slate") and are shaped primarily by their environments and societies

John Locke

This was a new investment opportunity during the Age of Exploration that made it easier to raise the money to fund voyages -- individuals would buy shares in a company and then receive a share of any profits made (dividends)

Joint-Stock Trading Company

Critical Date! This is the exact date of the storming of the Bastille

July 14, 1789

In 1928 the major powers signed this treaty renouncing aggressive wars and asserting that the use of military force was only acceptable as a means of self-defense

Kellogg-Briand Pact

These were the two parents of Elizabeth I

King Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn

This French phrase is best translated "let it be" or "leave it alone" -- It refers to the principle, embraced by the Physiocrats and Adam Smith in the 18th century, of minimal government interference in the economy

Laissez-faire

Textiles

Large factories first emerged during the Industrial Revolution to house the larger, more complex machinery developed during the mechanization of this industry:

In the early 19th century this political ideology focused on maximizing human freedoms and limiting the power of the government over the individual -- It supported written constitutions; freedom of speech, religion, and the press; and laissez-faire economics

Liberalism

This 19th-century ideology, based upon maximizing human freedoms, limited government power, and protection of civil rights, was an important force behind the Revolutions of 1848

Liberalism

This was the right of any member of the Polish Parliament (the Sejm) to end the current session and nullify any legislation that had been passed

Liberum Veto

John Locke argued in the late 17th century that all men, whether ruled by a government or living in the state of nature, have these three natural rights

Life, liberty, & property

In The Prince this writer argued that rulers should do whatever was necessary to maintain their power, regardless of moral considerations, for their subjects were essentially selfish and protective of their own interests

Machiavelli

This Florentine diplomat is considered the father of modern political science because of his efforts to explain how rulers should acquire and maintain their power

Machiavelli

In the Age of Exploration, much of what Europeans knew about Asia was drawn from the memoir of this 13th-century Italian explorer, who had traveled with his father and uncle to the court of the Mongol ruler Khubla Khan

Marco Polo

This Conservative prime minister dominated British politics during the 1980s, cutting government spending, reducing taxes, and undermining the power of the country's labor unions

Margaret Thatcher

This conservative prime minister of the United Kingdom from 1979-90 sought to slash government spending, dismantle the welfare state, privatize state-owned industries, and eliminate the power of unions -- She also led country into war against Argentina over the Falkland Islands

Margaret Thatcher

In 1502, ten years after the expulsion of the Jews from Spain and the conquest of Granada, Ferdinand and Isabella issued a decree ordering this group to depart from their kingdoms

Muslims

1763

Name the Year: End of the Seven Years' War

1555

Name the Year: The Peace of Augsburg Ends the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation

1848

Name the Year: The Revolutions of 1848 (Duh!)

In the 19th century this ideology was of great concern to European conservatives for it held that each of the ethnic groups of Europe had a right to unite and control its own affairs (and therefore deserved its own country)

Nationalism

This is the practice, common among Renaissance popes, of advancing one's relatives to high positions in the Catholic Church regardless of their suitability for the jobs (from the Greek word for "nephew")

Nepotism

This term refers to the practice common among Renaissance popes of elevating close family members to high positions within the Catholic Church, oftentimes regardless of their qualifications for the job

Nepotism

This term refers to newer French nobles whose rank had been acquired through service to the king as officials or administrators or had been purchased outright

Nobles of the Robe

This work, published by Charles Darwin in 1859, set forth his controversial theory that populations of organisms changed over time and new species were created through a process he dubbed natural selection,

On the Origin of Species

During the 19th century, European feminists were most focused on securing the rights for women to vote and to ...

Own property

Baron Haussmann is best remembered for redesigning this during the 2nd Empire of Napoleon III

Paris

Which 17th-18th century European leader was often depicted removing his nobles' beards with scissors?

Peter the Great

In 1554 Mary I of England married this son of Charles V and future king of Spain; they never succeeded in producing children

Philip

Mary I of England hoped to have a Catholic heir who would take her throne following her death; whom did she marry to make this dream possible?

Philip II of Spain

In his Oration on the Dignity of Man this Renaissance humanist argued that man, alone among the creatures of the world, had unlimited potential and could achieve any goals to which he set his mind

Pico della Mirandola

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Primavera (1477-80) Botticelli Early Renaissance

Domestic servants

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, children in Western Europe often left home in their early teens to begin employment as ...

This was a massive Russian peasant uprising during the reign of Catherine the Great -- Its leader was an adventurer who claimed to be the murdered husband of Catherine, and he promised land and freedom to his followers, who eventually numbered in the tens of thousands -- In 1775, after its leader had been captured and executed, the rebellion collapsed

Pugachev's Rebellion

During the 16th and 17th centuries, English Calvinists who sought to rid the Church of England of all lingering Catholic rituals and decor were known as ...

Puritans

During the Battle of Britain in 1940, the British were able to detect incoming German attacks from the air using this technology developed at Cambridge University

Radar

This theory of knowledge, most closely linked with 17th-century French thinker Rene Descartes, holds that the use of one's reason, rather than one's senses, is the only reliable way to ascertain truth

Rationalism

This thinker of the Scientific Revolution resolved to question and doubt everything he had learned and to rediscover truth USING ONLY HIS REASON (rationalism)

René Descartes

From 1721 to 1742 this Parliamentary leader was the most powerful figure in British politics, and he is regarded as England's first prime minister -- He used his control over patronage to promote the interests of the Whig Party (those who favored putting the House of Hanover on the throne in 1715) over those of the Tories (who had wanted to offer the throne to the Stuart son of James II)

Robert Walpole

This Eastern European country experienced the most violent end to communist domination in 1989, executing its longtime dictator Nicolae Ceaucescu and his wife on Christmas Day

Romania

This was the only Eastern European country to see the violent overthrow of communist rule

Romania

In the first half of the 19th century this school of art glorified the beauty of the natural world, often depicting people entranced by their natural surroundings

Romanticism

In the first half of the 19th century this school of art glorified the beauty of the natural world, often depicting people entranced by their natural surroundings

Romanticism (1780-1850)

During the Revolutions of 1848, this conservative country sent troops to help the Habsburg emperor of Austria suppress the uprisings against his authority

Russia

In 1848, troops from this country intervened to help Austrian Emperor Franz Joseph crush the Hungarian uprising

Russia

In 1861 the serfs in this country were finally emancipated by Alexander II

Russia

In the Catholic faith this is any of seven sacred rites necessary for salvation through which God dispenses his grace on the worshiper -- Most Protestants reduced the number from 7 to 2

Sacrament

This medieval method of learning held that all knowledge had already been acquired, and that it was only the duty of scholars to defend it and resolve apparent contradictions between different authorities -- This approach was rejected by both Bacon and Descartes, who argued that men should challenge the authorities and generate new knowledge

Scholasticism

The War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 when Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia seized this territory from Maria Theresa's Habsburg Empire (Austria), violating the Pragmatic Sanction

Silesia

This northern humanist's most famous work described an imaginary community in which there was no private property or competition and everyone worked 9 hours per day

Sir Thomas More

By the 1500s this country had developed the strongest infantry in Europe and was the most formidable military power on the continent

Spain

In 1450 this country had the largest Jewish population in Europe

Spain

In 1957 the USSR launched this, the first man-made objct to orbit the Earth -- This Soviet success came as a great shock to the US and provoked an increase in American spending on scientific research and education that culminated with the moon landing of July 1969

Sputnik

This phrase encapsulates Locke's belief that people are primarily products of their environment

Tabula Rasa ("Blank Slate")

Mercantilists liked to use this tax on imports to keep foreign goods from hurting domestic industries

Tariffs

These taxes on imported goods were a favorite tool of mercantilists like Jean-Baptiste Colbert of France because they discouraged people from buying foreign products

Tariffs

In 1519 Hernán Cortéz found the Aztec emperor Montezuma at this island city located in the middle of Lake Texcoco

Tenochtitlán

This refers to the American Cold War policy of using its military and economic resources to prevent the spread of communism

The "Containment" Policy

This term refers to the reversal of the longstanding alliances in Europe that occurred between the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years War -- France became allies with its traditional enemy Austria, and Britain became allies with Prussia

The "Diplomatic Revolution" of 1756

This January 1918 speech on Allied war aims by Woodrow Wilson sought to convince the American people that WWI was being waged for moral reasons and became the terms upon which Germany surrendered in November 1918 -- The stated aims included the reduction of armaments, open treaties, self-determination for Europe's ethnic groups, and the formation of an international peace-keeping organization.

The 14 Points

This century, during which the Dutch finally secured their freedom from Spain, witnessed the Golden Age of the Dutch Republic

The 17th Century (1600s)

Prior to the French Revolution, these two estates were largely exempt from paying taxes to the government

The 1st & 2nd Estates (the clergy and nobility)

Ironically, the great majority of the victims of the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution were members of this estate:

The 3rd Estate

Both Henry VIII and Elizabeth I had Parliament pass laws called this to make themselves heads of the Church of England

The Act of Supremacy

This 1559 legislation, part of Elizabeth I's efforts to bring an end to religious conflict in England, reinforced the use of the Book of Common Prayer in every English church and required all Englishman to attend Church of England services every week or pay a fine

The Act of Uniformity

In the 1520s this civilization centered in central Mexico was conquered by the Spanish under Hernán Cortés

The Aztecs

This catastrophe hit Europe in 1347, ultimately killing between 1/3 and 1/2 of the population -- Its last major European outbreak occurred in France 1720

The Black Death (Bubonic Plague)

This war fought in South Africa from 1899-1902 was started in part by the British desire to acquire control over the country's gold and diamond supplies

The Boer War

Marx & Engels used this term in their works to refer to those businessmen and factory owners who controlled the means of production (e.g. tools, raw materials, land, factories, capital) and exploited the working classes

The Bourgeoisie

This term refers to the wealthiest, most influential members of the Third Estate who provided much of the leadership during the French Revolution

The Bourgeoisie

This was the wealthiest, most educated portion of the Third Estate, roughly corresponding with today's upper middle class -- They resented the privileges of the 1st and 2nd Estates and provided much support and many leaders for the French Revolution

The Bourgeoisie

This was the militia of the Nazi Party that played a key role in Hitler's rise to power by protecting Nazi gatherings from being disrupted by their enemies and engaging in bloody street brawls -- After he secured power they became less necessary and Hitler would have their leadership purged in 1934

The Brown Shirts or The SA or The Stormtroopers

This name of this group means "chimney sweepers." It was a secret society organized during the time of Napoleon I and was committed to establishing a unified Italian republic. This society fomented uprisings in 1820, 1821, and 1831, but these revolts were crushed by Austria

The Carbonari

During the French Revolution the new government sought to solve the country's financial problems by seizing and selling all of the land within France belonging to this institution

The Catholic Church

This 1790 legislation introduced in France during the French Revolution made Catholic priests employees of the French state elected by the people

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

This controversial 1790 legislation passed during the French Revolution made all clergymen employees of the French government -- It tested devout Catholics' loyalty to the revolution by undermining the authority of the pope

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

A primary reason that Napoleon felt compelled to invade Russia in 1812 was that in December 1810 the Russians had decided to no longer participate in this embargo against British goods

The Continental System

This 1916 uprising of Irish republicans against British rule in Dublin during World War I was suppressed after a week of fighting -- Despite its failure, this revolt boosted support for independence among Irishmen and contributed to the eventual establishment of an independent Ireland in 1921.

The Easter Rebellion

This refers to those French military units in WWII which, under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle, continued to fight against the Axis forces even after France had surrendered to Germany and created the collaborationist Vichy government

The Free French Forces

The 1682 uprising of the Streltsy against the 10-year-old Peter the Great was reminiscent of this French rebellion against a young Louis XIV

The Fronde

This was a 1650-53 uprising against the French monarchy, fueled by resentment against high taxes and the encroachments of the monarchy on the powers of the local nobility and parlements (local courts of appeal) -- It occurred during the boyhood of Louis XIV and would encourage his later efforts to reduce the power of the nobility

The Fronde

Thomas Müntzer was the leader of this failed uprising in the 1520s that sought to win better treatment for the lower classes in the Holy Roman Empire

The German Peasants' Revolt

In this war, fought from 1700-1721, Russia & its allies sought to acquire land on the Baltic and end Swedish domination of the region

The Great Northern War

This refers to Stalin's 1936-38 systematic prosecution and execution of thousands of perceived enemies of the Soviet state -- Many of the victims were the "Old Bolsheviks" who had participated in the 1917 Revolution, military officers, and intellectuals -- Confessions were often obtained through torture, and the final death toll might have exceeded 1 million

The Great Purge

This Native American empire was located primarily in modern Peru, but extended as far as Ecuador in the north and central Chile in the south

The Incan Empire

By the time the Europeans arrived in the New World, this once great civilization centered in the Yucatan peninsula of Mexico had already collapsed for unknown reasons

The Mayans

In the early 17th century this European country was the first to establish settlements in the Hudson River Valley and on the current site of New York City

The Netherlands (the Dutch)

These were the two primary countries against which Peter the Great waged war during his reign

The Ottoman Empire and Sweden

In 1453 Christian Europe was alarmed when Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire finally fell to these Muslim invaders

The Ottoman Turks

Following the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, the residents of Paris were so opposed to the possible reestablishment of the monarchy that they created their own short-lived separate government called this:

The Paris Commune

The period after which Charles II became king of England following the death of Oliver Cromwell is referred to as this:

The Restoration

This Raphael fresco is found in the papal apartments at the Vatican; it depicts an imaginary gathering of ancient philosophers, scientists, and mathematicians, but also includes the likenesses of a number of Renaissance artists, including Raphael himself

The School of Athens

In this 1748 work on political theory, Montesquieu argued that a country's political institutions should be determined by its unique geographic and social characteristics -- He also argues for the separation of government power among separate branches

The Spirit of the Laws

Following France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1871 it established this new government in place of the discredited 2nd Empire

The Third Republic

This was the government established in France following the collapse of Napoleon III's 2nd Empire during France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War -- It would last until France was overrun by Nazi Germany in 1940

The Third Republic

The credibility of this German government was greatly undermined in the late 1920s because of the terrible inflation it suffered from as a result of its policy of printing more paper currency in order to better meet its reparations payments. This period of hyperflation shattered the German middle class, which saw its savings largely disappear overnight.

The Weimar Republic

This customs union was established amongst the German-speaking states in 1834 to promote trade

The Zollverein

This was established in 1834 under the leadership of Prussia. All of the German states except Austria would join this economic union which promoted free trade among the member states and maintained high tariffs against non-union members

The Zollverein

This famous Latin phrase represented 17th-century philosopher Rene Descartes's resolution to reject everything he been taught to be true and to reconstruct all of his knowledge using only his REASON

"Cogito Ergo Sum" ("I think, therefore I am")

This French phrase, which refers to the strictly limited government role in the economy favored by most philosophes, is loosely translated "let it be" or "leave it alone"

"Laissez-faire"

The name of this political faction derives from the fact that its members used to sit on the highest seats in the Convention -- It was led by Robespierre, enjoyed the support of the Parisian mobs, and supported the most radical policies of the Revolution, such as the execution of the king

"The Mountain"

These were the two most common demands contained in the cahiers de doléances (lists of grievances) prepared by representatives of each estate prior to the meeting of the Estates-General in May 1789

- A constitution (limits on king's power) - An end to 1st and 2nd Estate privileges (esp. tax exemptions)

These were the two primary Dutch grievances that provoked their revolt against Spanish rule in the late 16th century:

- High taxes - Spain's suppression of Protestantism

These are three examples of the many "good works" that Catholics might perform to receive God's grace and salvation

- Obey 10 Commandments - Pray - Confess one's sins - Charity work - Pilgrimages to holy sites - Have contact w/ relics

These were the three basic functions which Scottish philosophe Adam Smith believed it was appropriate for a government to perform -- Government had no other roles to play in people's lives

1. National Defense 2. Justice System 3. Infrastructure

The Versailles peace settlement established this as the maximum size of the German army

100,000 men

Critical Date! This is the year in which Martin Luther composed (and possibly posted) his 95 Theses against the sale of indulgences

1517

Critical Date! This is the year in which Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

1543

Critical Date! This was the year of the Spanish Armada

1588

Critical Date! This is the year in which Henry IV of France (Henry of Navarre) issued the Edict of Nantes

1598

Critical Date! These were the years of the Thirty Years' War

1618-48

Critical Dates! These were the years during which Louis XIV ruled France

1643-1715

Critical Date! This is the year in which Charles I was executed

1649

Critical Date! This is the year in which Isaac Newton published Principia Mathematica

1687

Critical Date! This is the approximate span of years for the Enlightenment

1690-1790

Critical Date! This is the year in which the French Revolution began

1789

Critical Date! This was the year in which the Bastille was stormed and the French Revolution began

1789

Critical Date! This is the year in which the Congress of Vienna completed its work

1815

Critical Date! This was the year in which Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels published the Communist Manifesto

1848

Bartholomeu Dias was the first European to lead an expedition to the southern tip of this continent

Africa

In the early months of World War I, these were initially used only for observation purposes. As their numbers increased, fights using pistols and rifles took place, until the Germans developed a synchronized propeller and machine gun on a Fokker model in May 1915.

Airplanes

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Alba Madonna (1509) Raphael High Renaissance

Although reknowned for his contributions to modern science, 17th-century scientist Isaac Newton spent much of his youth engaged in this pseudoscience dedicated, in part, to discovering how to turn base metals into gold

Alchemy

In the 1890s the fate of this French army captain unjustly accused of espionage demonstrated that anti-Semitism was alive and well in Europe

Alfred Dreyfus

France almost erupted in civil war in 1958 over the fate of this colony, which was fighting for independence but also was the home of over 1 million native Frenchmen -- In response, De Gaulle returned to power in the 5th Republic and granted it independence in 1962

Algeria

This term, most closely associated with British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain in the late 1930s, refers to the pre-WWII policy of making concessions to Hitler's Germany in order to avoid war

Appeasement

Infant/child Mortality Rate

As this began to decline in the latter half of the 18th century, Europeans devoted more resources to their children, and age-appropriate clothing, games, toys, and books became more common

Columbus continued to insist until he died that he had discovered a westward route to this continent:

Asia

This was the paper currency issued by France's revolutionary government in 1790 to help solve the country's fiscal problems -- Their worth was based on the church lands seized by the government, but because too many were printed they soon lost most of their value

Assignats

Between 1945 and 1949, the first years of the Cold War, the United States enjoyed this tremendous technological advantage over the Soviet Union

Atomic Weapons

Martin Luther and John Calvin both believed that these were the only two valid Christian sacraments

Baptism & Communion

The Luddites

Beginning in England in 1812, this mysterious group of handicraft workers began destroying machines and factories that they believed were putting them out of work

At the outbreak of World War I, the British justified their declaration of war against Germany by arguing that Germany had violated this country's neutrality:

Belgium

In the early years of the Cold War this city was a critical hotspot, leading to several crises in which the Soviets tried unsuccessfully to compel the Western Allies to remove their forces from their zones of occupation

Berlin

Food

Between 1700 and 1800, the population of Europe doubled, primarily as a result of a dramatic increase in the availability of ...

The Enclosure Acts

Between 1760 and 1830, the English Parliament passed a series of laws called these in which they took over and fenced off land formerly shared by peasant farmers

Prior to the Scientific Revolution, this was the most common medical treatment prescribed by European physicians:

Bloodletting (Bleeding)

Serbia was outraged in 1908 when Austria-Hungary formally annexed this territory, formerly part of the Ottoman Empire, for many ethnic Serbs lived there and they had hoped to incorporate it into a larger Serbian kingdom.

Bosnia

One of this Italian painter's most famous works is Primavera, notable for its exclusive focus on figures from Greek mythology, such as Cupid, Mercury, and Venus

Botticelli

This artist and resident of Florence, a member of the court of Lorenzo de Medici, had a deep interest in Greek and Roman mythology, reflected in one of his most famous works, set in the garden of Venus and entitled Primavera

Botticelli

This was the term for the hereditary Russian nobles who possessed great landed estates

Boyars

Although the Spanish colonized most of South America, the Treaty of Tordesillas gave the Portuguese control of what became this modern South American country

Brazil

The line of demarcation established by the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas between Spain and Portugal gave the Portuguese a claim to this part of South America

Brazil

The Rocket

British inventor George Stephenson was the first to develop an economically successful locomotive. In 1830, his famous locomotive known by this name demonstrated its speed on the new Liverpool to Manchester railway, running 12 miles in 53 minutes

Mercantilists were concerned above all to maximize their country's supply of this substance

Bullion (Gold & Silver)

These 19th-century student groups were such vocal advocates of German unification that Metternich eventually had them suppressed

Burschenschaften

Nuclear family

By the 16th and 17th centuries this was the typical type of household in Western Europe -- It consisted of two generations, two parents and their children, as opposed to the extended families of three or more generations more common in Eastern Europe

This was an organization established in 1949 by the USSR and its satellite states in Eastern Europe to promote economic cooperation and development; it was established in part as a response to the Marshall Plan aid that the US was providing to Western Europe

COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance)

This first minister of France sent troops to help the Protestants in the Thirty Years' War despite the fact that he was a Catholic cardinal

Cardinal Richelieu

This 18th-century German-born ruler of Russia was attracted to the ideas of the Enlightenment, counted several of the philosophes among her friends, and pursued a number of reforms, such as a new code of laws and limits on the use of torture -- Few significant changes were enacted, however, and Russian serfdom became even more oppressive during her reign

Catherine II ("the Great")

These were the three enlightened monarchs of the 18th century:

Catherine II ("the Great") of Russia Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia Joseph II of Austria

During the Lutheran Reformation, this Holy Roman Emperor unsuccessfully sought to suppress the new faith

Charles V

This Habsburg emperor spent much of his reign negotiating the Pragmatic Sanction (1713) to ensure that his daughter would inherit all of the family lands

Charles VI

This conservative French king ruled from 1824-1830, alienating French liberals by attempting to compensate French nobles for land lost during the Revolution and to increase the power of the Catholic Church; he was eventually overthrown

Charles X

During the 1960s this French leader sought to increase his country's political and military independence by removing French troops from NATO's command structure (but not NATO) and insisting that all foreign NATO troops be removed from French soil

Charles de Gaulle

This young woman was executed during the French Revolution for assassinating fiery, radical newspaper editor and Jacobin leader Jean-Paul Marat while he was in his bathtub

Charlotte Corday

Ferdinand Magellan is famous because he commanded the first expedition to do this:

Circumnavigate the world

In the Marburg Colloquy of 1529, Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli failed to reach an agreement on the nature of this sacrament

Communion or The Eucharist

Proponents of this 19th-century ideology sought to restore tradition and order in Europe following the chaos of the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars -- They supported maintaining hereditary monarchy, the privileges of the aristocracy, and the authority of the church

Conservatism

In 1453 this great city on the Dardanelles finally fell to the Turks after a siege of several months

Constantinople

This is the Lutheran belief that, during the sacrament of communion, although Christ is spritually present in the bread and wine they are not actually physically transformed into the flesh and blood of Jesus -- It was Luther's adherence to this doctrine that prevented the union of his movement with that of Ulrich Zwingli

Consubstantiation

Khrushchev changed Soviet economic policy when he came to power by emphasizing for the first time the production of ...

Consumer Goods

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Creation of Man (Sistine Chapel Ceiling) (1508-12) Michelangelo High Renaissance

This school of art often presented preexisting household objects, such as toilets, as art dubbed "readymades"

Dadaism

This school of art was inspired by the horrors of World War I; its artists consciously sought to create an "anti-art" to signal their rejection of the society that had launched the madness of trench warfare

Dadaism

In this religious philosophy embraced by the philosophes, it was believed that a supreme being created the world and established the natural laws by which it operates, but then stepped aside -- He no longer intervenes in the affairs of man or the operation of the natural laws, but judges man after death

Deism

This was the process in the USSR, following the 1953 death of Joseph Stalin, of eliminating the dead leader's cult of personality, condemning his atrocities, and reducing the harshness of his labor camp (gulag) prison system

Destalinization

Strictly speaking, the academic discipline of history attempts to reconstruct and interpret the past using these

Documents

Commercial Farming

The increased productivity that resulted from the Agricultural Revolution encouraged the development of this type of farming, in which farmers sold their products on the open market rather than consume it themselves

Textiles

The industrial revolution began in the 1700s with the mechanization of this industry in England

The ability of any member of the Polish Sejm (legislature) to "explode the Diet," ending the session and nullifying any laws that had been passed, ensured that the most significant political influence in Poland was held by ...

The nobility

This region of Italy has long lagged behind the rest of the country economically despite efforts by the government to promote more economic development here

The south

The Enclosure Movement

The supporters of this controversial process in England, which peaked in the 18th and 19th century, were generally well-to-do farmers who wanted more freedom to experiment with new agricultural methods -- It involved the consolidation and fencing in of one's land holdings in order to farm more effectively without outside interference, and also eliminated the common lands

In June 1789 the French Third Estate broke away from the 1st and 2nd Estates and formed the National Assembly following a dispute over this in the Estates-General:

The voting system (the Third Estate wanted to vote by head, not by estate)

Agricultural Revolution

This refers to the many changes in European farming technology and practices introduced beginning in the mid-1600s, greatly increasing the food supply and promoting a rapid surge in population

Wages/Incomes

While rapid industrial development in western Europe after 1850 caused these to rise for the average person, reducing the suffering of poverty, by 1900 the richest 5% of Europeans still received roughly 1/3 of all of the wealth.

This man succeeded to the imperial throne of Germany in 1888 following the death of his father, Friedrich III, who had ruled for only 99 days. Unlike his grandfather, he was not content to the leave the direction of German affairs to Bismarck, but wanted to rule in his own right. In 1890 he dismissed Bismarck

Wilhelm II

This ruler of Germany from 1888-1918 pursued a much more aggressive foreign policy than Otto von Bismarck had favored, insisting that his country deserved "a place in the sun" -- He would lead his country into World War I and was forced to abdicate his throne following Germany's 1918 defeat.

Wilhelm II

These two people were the Protestant daughter of James II and her Dutch husband who became the monarchs of England during the Glorious Revolution of 1688

William & Mary

This nobleman became a leader of the Dutch Revolt against Spain in the 1560s -- He led the Dutch to a number of victories against the Spanish before he was assassinated in 1584

William of Orange ("The Silent")

On October 31, 1517, Martin Luther supposedly posted his 95 Theses on the door of Castle Church in this town in Saxony where he lived and taught theology at the university

Wittenberg

Despite their critical contributions in such events of the French Revolution as the taking of the Bastille and forcing the royal family to abandon Versailles and move to Paris, the new revolutionary governments denied this group the rights of full citizenship:

Women

In 1831 Giuseppe Mazzini founded this society dedicated to driving the Austrians out of northern Italy and establishing an Italian Republic

Young Italy

During the Cold War, this was the only communist country in Eastern Europe that did not firmly come under the domination of the Soviet Union

Yugoslavia

This country, led by dictator Josip Tito, was an exception to the rule of postwar Soviet control over the countries of Eastern Europe -- It broke with the USSR in 1948 and pursued an independent foreign policy, making Tito the West's "favorite communist"

Yugoslavia

In the 2nd half of the 19th century Tsar Alexander II introduced these district assemblies in Russia to deal with local issues like education, famine relief, and road maintenance -- They were dominated by nobles, but raised false hopes for a higher degree of democracy and freedom in Russia

Zemstvos

These were the two primary reasons that the Dutch revolted against Spanish rule in the late 16th century

- Philip II's efforts to suppress Calvinism in the Netherlands - Excessive Spanish taxation of Dutch industry and trade

Critical Date! This is the year of England's Glorious Revolution

1688

Critical Date! These were the years during which World War I was fought

1914-18

Critical Date! This is the year in which the Russian Revolution began

1917

Critical Date! This is the year in which Adolf Hitler was appointed Germany's Chancellor

1933

The USSR was dissolved on Christmas Day in this year following an unsuccessful coup against Mikhail Gorbachev's government:

1991

In this famous 4-word quote, 18th-century Frenchman Voltaire urges man to bring an end to religious intolerance and persecution

"Crush the infamous thing"

These were the first three words of Martin Luther's famous refusal to recant his teachings at the Diet of Worms

"Here I Stand"

This motto of Louis XIV is a declaration of his intention to be the uncontested ruler of a French kingdom united by a single religion

"One king, one law, one faith"

Critical Date! This is the year in which Napoleon launched the coup d'etat that overthrew the Directory and established the Consulate

1799

The European witch hunt craze peaked during this century

17th century (1600s)

Critical Date! This was the year of Napoleon's final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo

1815

Critical Date! This is the year in which Germany unified

1871

In 1861 this Russian ruler issued the Emancipation Edict, abolishing serfdom, an institution that had long disappeared from Western Europe. Although now free citizens, the peasants had to buy the land they had worked for so long but were usually too poor to do so, and they were often allotted insufficient plots on which to raise a family

Alexander II

Russian defeat in the Crimean War was one of the reasons why this tsar decided to issue an edict emancipating the serfs of Russia in 1861

Alexander II

This novel by Erich Maria Remarque, published in 1929, relates the experiences of a young German soldier fighting in the trenches of World War I, emphasizing in particular how the trauma of combat alienated men from their prewar lives

All Quiet on the Western Front

This 17th-century school of art originated as part of the Catholic Church's efforts to reinvigorate the Catholic faith in the wake of the Reformation and Counter -- It contrasted with Renaissance art by appealing more to the heart than to the intellect

Baroque (1600s)

At the end of World War II this capital city was divided into four zones of occupation controlled by France, Britain, the US, and the Soviet Union -- it would remain divided for over four decades

Berlin

This author's most important work, The Book of the Courtier, served as a handbook for European nobles for centuries

Castiglione

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

David (1440s) Donatello Early Renaissance

This 18th/19th century British writer and statesman believed that people without political experience would be unable to govern revolutionary France. As the revolutionaries proceeded to attack the church, the monarchy, and finally the rest of Europe, this man's ideas came to have many admirers

Edmund Burke

These were the three legitimate children of Henry VIII

Edward VI Mary I Elizabeth I

This Italian city-state is commonly regarded by historians to have been the birthplace, or "cradle," of the Renaissance

Florence

In 1968 this European country, determined to remain a leader in international politics, exploded its first hydrogen bomb despite the urgings of the US and other countries that it not acquire nuclear weapons

France

This Spanish conquistador was responsible for conquering the mighty Incan Empire and putting its emperor, Atahualpa, to death

Francisco Pizarro

In 1536 John Calvin established a ministry in this Swiss city that would last for nearly 30 years

Geneva

In the late 19th century Europe's balance of power was threatened by the unification of these two countries:

Germany and Italy

This artist is regarded by many art historians as the first, during the 14th century, to try to imitate nature in his paintings

Giotto

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Girl with a Pearl Earring (1665-6) Vermeer Baroque (Dutch)

When Ferdinand and Isabella came to power in Spain, this was the last remaining territory on the Iberian Peninsula controlled by the Moors

Granada

This famous 1937 work by Picasso depicted a brutal attack by German bombers on a Spanish town during the Spanish Civil War

Guernica

This is one of the most famous works of the cubist school; it is Picasso's condemnation of the destruction of a Spanish town by German planes during the Spanish Civil war of the 1930s

Guernica

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Hunters in the Snow (1565) Pieter Brueghel the Elder Northern Renaissance

Napoleon first became a major European political figure in the late 1790s when he led the French forces that defeated the Austrians in the northern part of this modern country

Italy

This philosophe's emphasis on the need to give free reign to man's natural instincts and feelings made him an important forerunner of romanticism

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

In such works as Das Kapital (1867) this thinker foretold a violent revolution by the working classes that would eventually establish a classless society in which all shared the fruits of their labor

Karl Marx

During this "Night of Broken Glass" on November 9-10, 1938, Nazi Brownshirts and German civilians attacked Jewish homes, shops, and synagogues following the assassination in Paris of a German diplomat by a Polish Jew -- 91 Jews were killed and thousands were taken to concentration camps -- This event is regarded as a turning point at which the Nazi state went from legally discriminating against Jews to employing violence against them

Kristallnacht

This thinker from Renaissance Italy was dismayed by the constant warring between the various city-states and invasions of the peninsula by foreign powers; he longed for a strong ruler who would restore peace, prosperity, and stability to Italy

Machiavelli

These were the three most prominent painters of the High Renaissance in Italy (1490-1527)

Michelangelo Leonardo da Vinci Raphael

This was the most common spice imported from Asia into Europe

Pepper

This was one of the "buffer states" created at the end of the Napoleonic Wars to keep France in check -- In the 1850s and 60s it became the focal point of the efforts to unify Italy, and in 1861 its king would become the first ruler of the newly-unified country

Piedmont or Piedmont-Sardinia

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Pieta (1499) Michelangelo High Renaissance

Napoleon would use these direct votes by the electorate on a given matter (e.g. his coronation as emperor) in order to give his regime and policies the appearance of popular support

Plebiscites

This was the practice in which Catholic clergymen held multiple church positions simultaneously, collecting more income but making it more difficult for them to perform all of their duties

Pluralism

This term refers to a violent, mob attack against Jewish communities with the approval and/or support of the authorities -- they were most common in Russia, where anti-Semitism was most intense

Pogrom

This alliance of French left-wing parties in the interwar years included socialists, communists, and radicals -- It took power during the Depression of the 1930s and introduced reforms to protect workers and labor unions

Popular Front

These medieval maps of the oceans provided sailors with the distances and compass headings between ports, but they covered relatively small amounts of territory and had little value for long-distance journeys

Portolani

This school refers to a range of late 19th-century artists who were largely reacting against impressionism, seeking to be more radical and individualistic, distorting shapes and intensifying colors in order to convey the emotions that objects and events evoked

Postimpressionism (1880-1920)

This intellectual movement emerged in Europe in the 1970s; it rejected the belief in an objective truth, arguing that reality and knowledge are relative, the product of cultural constructs such as language that shape how humans perceive the world; thinkers associated with the movement include Derrida and Foucault

Postmodernism

This phrase refers to a new economic phenomenon that began in Europe in the 15th century, when prices began to rise at a dramatic rate -- the primary explanations for this inflation are the resumed growth of the European population following the devastation of the Black Death and the influx of precious metals from the New World

Price Revolution

The 1648 Peace of Westphalia significantly weakened the power of the Austrian Habsburg family over the other German states, allowing this northern German state to begin to emerge as a 2nd major German power:

Prussia

This 19th century school of art was concerned to paint the world "as it is" without idealization -- it often depicted the labors and struggles of average workers and peasants

Realism (1830-1870)

This German term refers to Otto von Bismarck's philosophy of doing whatever is necessary on behalf of the state, regardless of moral considerations

Realpolitik

This is the literal translation of the word "Renaissance"

Rebirth

In his 1637 book Discourse on Method, this thinker set forth an approach to acquiring knowledge based entirely on the use of one's reason

René Descartes

In his work 1637 Discourse on Method this writer advocated a process of deductive reasoning in which one used known truths to logically discover other truths with mathematic precision

René Descartes

This 17th-century thinker determined that the universe was composed of two basic substances, mind (the thinking, spiritual world) and matter (the physical world, which could be understood using reason)

René Descartes

Following the August 1792 attack on the Tuileries palace and the overthrow of the French monarchy, the revolutionaries on September 22, 1792 proclaimed that France would thereafter have this form of government:

Republic

This school of art had a fascination with the Middle Ages, the supernatural, and stories or magic and horror

Romanticism

This Nobel Prize-winning British writer of short stories, poems, and novels about life in the colony of India was an advocate of imperialism, remembered especially for his poem White Man's Burden, in which he calls upon Westerners to civilize less-advanced peoples

Rudyard Kipling

In the late 19th century, anti-Semitism was strongest in this European country, where the government used anti-Jewish sentiment to channel popular discontent away from itself

Russia

At the end of WWI these four countries in central and eastern Europe lost significant amounts of territory as their empires were dismantled, territories were seized by the victorious powers, and new countries were created

Russia (USSR) Germany Austro-Hungary Ottoman Empire

In 1815 these three conservative countries established the "Holy Alliance," which was dedicated to the suppression of liberal and nationalist movements in Europe

Russia, Austria, and Prussia

Of all the Western democracies, countries in this region of Europe had the most effective responses to the Great Depression. Their governments took on large-scale deficits to finance public works and thereby maintain production and employment. They increased taxes in order to finance social welfare programs such as old-age pensions and subsidized housing, pioneering a middle way between capitalism on one side and communism & fascism on the other.

Scandinavia

This refers to French philosophe Montesquieu's conception of the division of government authority between an executive branch, a legislature, and a judiciary -- He based it upon his understanding of the British political system

Separation of Powers

This concept was first articulated in a book published in 1690. It is a rejection of the idea that all people are born with certain ideas and ways of thinking; it holds, rather, that all human ideas are derived from experience, and that human development is determined by education and social institutions. It was proposed by John Locke in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, and its English translation is "blank slate."

Tabula Rasa

This refers to the technological advancements and increase in wealth that occurred in Europe after 1871, when Germany replaced Great Britain as the leading industrial power on the continent -- The most important progress was made in the production of steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum-powered engines

The 2nd Industrial Revolution

During the reign of Peter the Great Russia acquired significant amounts of territory on this body of water

The Baltic Sea

Martin Luther would not accept a Christian teaching as valid unless he could find evidence for it here

The Bible

In the 19th century these brothers compiled and published several popular collections of German folk and fairy tales, reflecting the era's new interest in specifically German culture and a growing German nationalism

The Brothers Grimm

This 1904 agreement between the British and the French established peace between the two peoples after centuries of conflict and ended Britain's policy of "splendid isolation" -- The two countries resolved their disputes in Africa and Asia and commenced a period of cooperation that would continue into World War I.

The Entente Cordiale

In 1788 Louis XVI of France decided to summon this long-dormant national assembly to help deal with his kingdom's financial crisis

The Estates-General

During the French Revolution, young military officer Napoleon Bonaparte became a republican and a supporter of this radical political faction -- Robespierre's brother Augustin was his most powerful patron until he was killed in the Thermidorean Reaction

The Jacobins

The final, radical stage of the French Revolution was dominated by an alliance between these two groups: one provided the intellectual leadership and the other provided the strength and fury of the mob

The Jacobins and the Sans-Culottes

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

The Last Judgment (1535-41) Michelangelo High Renaissance

A major challenge faced by King Philip II in the late 16th century was a revolt against Spanish rule by this country

The Netherlands

This was the name of the alliance of Lutheran states of the Holy Roman Empire that fought against the Catholics in the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation

The Schmalkaldic League

This conflict that began in 1756 cost France most of its North American possessions and made Great Britain the world's greatest colonial power

The Seven Years' War

When this conflict ended in 1763, France was no longer a great colonial power, having lost most of its possessions to the British, and many in France became convinced of the need for political reform

The Seven Years' War

During World War II, this was the only country to use women as combatants. They served as snipers and as members of air crews in bomber squadrons.

The Soviet Union

In World War II, this country suffered more deaths than any other

The Soviet Union

The first king of this dynasty in England, Henry VII, was the victor in the Wars of the Roses. His son, Henry VIII, although arguably not as good a king, is much more famous

The Tudor Dynasty

FDR insisted that this international peacekeeping body be created at the end of WWII as a replacement for the League of Nations -- It was established in October 1945 with France, the US, Britain, the USSR, and China as the five permanent members of its Security Council who enjoyed veto power

The United Nations

During the French Wars of Religion, this was the ruling family of France -- Italian noblewoman Catherine de Medici had married into this family and become the queen of France

The Valois

This was a note sent from the German foreign minister to his ambassador in Mexico during World War I. It ordered him to seek an alliance with Mexico that would the Mexicans to seize the American Southwest if the United States entered the war on the side of the Allies. Intercepted and published by the British, it contributed to the American decision to declare war against Germany on April 6, 1917.

The Zimmermann Telegram

This Zionist leader called for the formation of a separate Jewish state following the Dreyfus Affair and in 1897 organized the first Zionist World Congress

Theodor Herzl

The outcome of this war in the mid-1600s marked the emergence of France as the dominant kingdom in Europe and the reduction of Spain, once the strongest in Europe, to a second-rate power.

Thirty Years' War

Cholera

This disease, an infection of the small intestine caused by the consumption of contaminated water or food, was one of the deadliest of the 19th century -- Fear of this disease prompted more active efforts by European governments to protect public health by providing more sanitary sources of water and sewage systems

Irish Potato Famine

This event in the 1840s convinced the British Parliament to finally repeal the controversial Corn Laws in order to prevent grain prices from rising too high and prevent famine.

Textiles

This is the manufacturing industry in which the innovations of the Industrial Revolution were first introduced

Subsistence Farming

This was the type of agriculture most common in Europe prior to the Agricultural Revolution, in which farmers consumed most of what they grew rather than sell it at market

In his 1651 work Leviathan this writer argued that men are naturally selfish and concerned only with fulfilling their own needs & desires

Thomas Hobbes

This is the Catholic belief (rejected by most Protestants) that, during the sacrament of communion, ordinary bread and wine literally become the flesh and blood of Christ

Transubstantiation

This new form of combat, which typified the fighting on the western front during World War I, saw troops digging in at fixed positions to protect themselves from the enemy's small arms fire and artillery -- The soldiers lacked the technology to effectively advance against the enemy's entrenched dugouts until tanks began to be used effectively late in the war.

Trench Warfare

The great error in Christopher Columbus's scheme for reaching Asia by crossing the Atlantic Ocean was that he ...

Underestimated the circumference of the earth

In 1963 and 1967 President Charles de Gaulle of France vetoed the entry of this country into the European Economic Community, fearing that it was too closely tied to the US

United Kingdom

This Russian communist leader, unlike Marx, argued that the proletariat would not develop revolutionary consciousness on its own -- they needed to be led and taught by a small group of professional revolutionaries ("the vanguard of the proletariat")

Vladimir Lenin

When the western Allies and the USSR could not agree on the terms by which their postwar occupation zones of Germany might be reunited into a single state, these two new states gradually emerged

West Germany and East Germany

This 1899 poem by Rudyard Kipling calls upon the great powers to pursue empire, stating that they have an obligation to lift up primitive peoples from poverty and ignorance and provide them with the benefits of western culture

White Man's Burden

In Great Britain, the Reform Bill of 1832 for the first time gave the right to vote to middle-class men living in urban areas, increasing the number of eligible voters by about 50%; it also eliminated these electoral districts with very few voters that were easily controlled by the landed aristocracy.

"Rotten" or "Pocket" Boroughs

During the Italian Renaissance the role of these government officials was redefined; whereas at first they had worked for the welfare of all Christendom, in the Renaissance they began working more to advance the interests of the particular states they represented

Ambassador

Ireland

Among all the countries of Europe, this was the only one to experience a declining population in the 19th century, falling from about 8 million people in 1845 to 4.4 million in 1911. It had become a land of continuous out-migration, late marriage, and widespread celibacy.

As the Dutch took over global trade during the 17th century, this Dutch city became the most important commercial and banking center in Europe

Amsterdam

During the 17th century this Dutch city became the most important banking and trading city in Europe

Amsterdam

Although Columbus made four different voyages to the Americas, he continued to insist until he died that he not discovered new territories but had in fact reached this continent

Asia

This country came into existence after its population rebelled against rule by the Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1830 -- Its independence was recognized in 1831 after the great powers agreed that it would always remain neutral, a decision that came to have great significance during World War I

Belgium

This country's sole Africa colony (actually the personal possession of its king) took up much of Central Africa along the Congo River and was a rich source of rubber and ivory (light blue on the map)

Belgium

This form of contraception first became widely available in the 1960s -- It was revolutionary for its effectiveness and for giving women much greater control over their fertility

Birth Control Pill

In a book entitled Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture, this man argued that because kings receive their authority from God, their power was absolute

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

They had enough resources to set up their own households

By the 18th century, the average age of marriage for Western European men and women was in the late twenties, which helped limit the birthrate and control population growth -- they generally had to wait to get married until ...

These were the lists of grievances (written down in notebooks) that the deputies brought with them to Versailles in 1789 for the convening of the Estates-General -- The two most common demands found in them were for a more fair system of taxation and greater limitations on the power of the king

Cahiers de doléances

In November 1793 the French revolutionary government created a completely new one of these that completely eliminated all religious references and holidays and replaced them with secular ones -- It would eventually be abandoned by Napoleon

Calendar

A very plain church interior with little decoration indicates that its worshippers likely practice this faith:

Calvinism

The Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War for the first time made this religion a legal option in the Holy Roman Empire

Calvinism

One of the causes of the Thirty Years' War was the aspirations of this growing Protestant sect to be recognized as a legitimate religion within the Holy Roman Empire

Calvinists

This was the nickname for the supporters of the king during the English Civil War

Cavaliers

This late-19th-century British businessman, politician, and philanthropist became wealthy through diamond and gold mining in southern Africa -- He was a staunch advocate of British imperialism and instrumental to the expansion of British possessions in southern Africa

Cecil Rhodes

Although Japan at first welcomed European traders in the 16th century for the technologies they were able to provide, the activities of this European group so alarmed the Japanese that they soon expelled most Europeans from their country

Christian Missionaries

In the late 15th century this Italian-born explorer convinced the rulers of Spain to finance a voyage that would attempt to reach the spices of Asia by sailing directly west across the Atlantic Ocean -- in the process he would "discover" the Americas, although he would never acknowledge that he had not reached Asia

Christopher Columbus

Under this Stalinist policy pursued between 1928-40, the Soviet government sought to consolidate individual peasant plots of land into large, state-run farms in order to ensure more food for urban factory workers and more agricultural exports to finance industrialization -- The peasants' resistance to this process led to a dramatic drop in farm output and millions of deaths from starvation and disease

Collectivization

The first constitution written during the French Revolution, the Constitution of 1791, established this form of government for France -- it would only remain in effect for about a year!

Constitutional Monarchy

This school of art, inspired by the madness and horror of WWI, was an "anti-art" that rejected accepted aesthetic standards and sought to shock and outrage viewers and shake them out of their complacency

Dadaism

This school of art, inspired by the madness and horror of WWI, was an "anti-art" that rejected accepted aesthetic standards and sought to shock and outrage viewers and shake them out of their complacency

Dadaism (1915-1922)

This massive 1867 economic work by Karl Marx is an analysis of capitalism: how it exploits workers by paying them low wages, enables the bourgeoisie to accumulate large amounts of wealth, and ultimately creates the conditions for its own destruction through intense competition

Das Kapital

This 14-foot high statue was the largest sculpture produced in Italy since the Roman Empire; although of a religious figure, it also celebrates the beauty and glory of humanity

David

Using a piece of marble that had sat unused for 50 years, Michelangelo created this 14-foot high statue, the largest piece of sculpture created in Italy since Roman times

David

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

David (1504) Michelangelo High Renaissance

According to this 18th/19th century thinker's Iron Law of Wages, workers' wages tend to remain at a subsistence level, because higher wages lead to more children and therefore a larger labor supply, which pushes wages downward

David Ricardo

When Tsar Alexander I of Russia died in 1825, there was confusion as to the succession because the older of his two surviving brothers turned down the throne. In the confusion, a small group of army officers launched this revolt with the intent of securing a constitutional monarchy for Russia. This revolt was put down rapidly and with great brutality, and further reform movements would be quickly suppressed in subsequent years.

Decembrist Revolt

This was the process in which the British, French, Dutch, and Italians lost their colonial empires in the decades after World War II, leading to the creation of over 60 new countries in Africa and Asia

Decolonization

This term refers to the 1938 German occupation and annexation of Austria in violation of the Treaty of Versailles -- It occurred bloodlessly with the support of a significant portion of the Austrian population

Der Anschluß (The Annexation)

This philosophe compiled the ideas of the leading thinkers of his day on a wide array of topics in his 17-volume Encyclopedia, which was invaluable for spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment (religious toleration, political reform, primacy of reason)

Diderot

This term refers to an exemption from some Catholic law granted by the pope -- Henry VIII, for example, needed one from Julius II before he could marry Catherine of Aragon

Dispensation

During the 19th century, the number of people involved in this occupation steadily increased -- a great majority were women, and they were often recent migrants to cities from rural areas. In Great Britain in 1911, one of every 7 people was employed had this job

Domestic Servant (Maid)

This term refers to the money given by the wife's family to a husband when they got married; it could involve quite considerable sums, esp. if the husband's family was more prominent than the bride's family

Dowry

During the Crimean War this British nurse treated wounded and diseased soldiers in Constantinople -- She launched a campaign to improve the treatment of British soldiers through better sanitation, hygiene, and diets, succeeding in dramatically lowering the mortality rate in military hospitals

Florence Nightingale

In his 1790 Reflections on the Revolution in France, this writer condemned the sudden, violent overthrow of the monarchy and the attacks on the Catholic Church and argued that French commoners lacked the necessary skills and experience to govern

Edmund Burke

This Englishman published his most famous work in 1790. It was one of the great defenses of European conservatism, defending the inherited privileges of the English monarchy and aristocracy, and predicting that the reforms of the French Revolution would lead only to chaos and tyranny. The book was titled Reflections on the Revolution in France.

Edmund Burke

This thinker, often regarded as the first to express the ideas of 19th-century conservatism, argued that political change should be gradual rather than sudden and violent and that each generation has an obligation to preserve and transmit the political system to the next generation

Edmund Burke

During the reign of this son of Henry VIII, the Church of England adopted much Protestant doctrine and practice, in contrast to the policies of his father, who had made few substantial changes in Catholic ritual and beliefs following his break from Rome

Edward VI

In December 1804, in a ceremony presided over by the pope in Notre Dame Cathedral, Napoleon assumed this title in order to establish a hereditary dynasty and discourage assassination attempts against him -- Beethoven was so disgusted that he scratched out his dedication to Napoleon from his 3rd Symphony

Emperor

In December 1804, in an effort to ensure that his position would become a hereditary one and to discourage attempts to assassinate him and restore the Bourbon monarchy, Napoleon assumed this title in an elaborate ceremony held in Notre Dame cathedral

Emperor

Coal & Iron

England was fortunate to have an abundance of these two mineral resources critical for its Industrial Revolution

In his "philosophy of Christ" this thinker argued that it was more important for a Christian to live a good, virtuous life modeled after that of Jesus rather than to focus on the ceremony and rituals of the Catholic Church

Erasmus

In his work entitled Praise of Folly this Renaissance thinker satirized the failings of the Catholic clergy

Erasmus

Mussolini had a strong desire to conquer this independent African country, as it had humiliated the Italians in a late-19th-century war. Tensions heightened in 1934 when he established a military base on its territory, and then he invaded in October 1935. The League of Nations only impose economic sanctions on Mussolini after numerous appeals, but still allowed him to receive oil and use the Suez Canal. Mussolini formally annexed this country in May 1936.

Ethiopia

Mary I of England earned herself the nickname of "Bloody Mary" by doing this during her reign

Executing 300 Protestants

This theory, validated in the 19th century and most closely associated with Louis Pasteur, holds that microorganisms are the cause of many diseases

Germ Theory

Wet Nurse

In the 18th century, upper-class and middle-class women, often preferring not to breastfeed their own children because they deemed it undignified or because they needed to work full-time, often hired one of these women to breastfeed their children for them

Napoleon's 1798 military expedition to Egypt was intended to indirectly attack the British by threatening its trade with this important part of its empire

India

This aspect of humanism recognizes and celebrates the unique accomplishments, abilities, characteristics, and personalities of each human being

Individualism

In the early 17th century Galileo was the first to discover this principle, which was refined by Isaac Newton and became Newton's First Law of Motion -- It states that an object at rest will stay at rest unless acted upon by some force, AND that an object in motion will continue to move indefinitely unless deflected by some force

Inertia

The so-called "Price Revolution" that began in the 16th century was in fact this common modern economic phenomenon, which Europeans were not used to experiencing

Inflation

The Lateran Accords of 1929 settled the outstanding differences between these two countries

Italy & the Vatican

This elite infantry unit of the Ottoman Empire was composed of Christians recruited as boys and raised as Muslims -- It was believed that they would be especially loyal to the sultan because they owed their status to him

Janissaries

This controversial Catholic movement arose in the 1600s, particularly in France, embracing Calvinist ideas such as predestination and justification by faith -- Conservative Catholics, led by the Jesuits, condemned the movement as heresy, and Louis XIV took steps to suppress it

Jansenism

This utilitarian's 1781 work Principles of Morals and Legislation provided justification for government intervention to assist the lower classes, even if this seemed to violate tradition and free market doctrine

Jeremy Bentham

This thinker's 1689 work Two Treatises on Government helped provide much of the basis for constitutional government and endorsed the idea of rulers ruling only with the consent of the governed

John Locke

Which philosophe wrote the following?: "Let us then suppose the mind to be, as we say, white paper, void of all characters, without any ideas. How comes it to be furnished? ...To this I answer, in one word, from experience"

John Locke

When this clergyman began travelling around England in the 18th century preaching to often huge crowds in open fields, he did not want to split from the Church of England -- He was merely trying to better reach England's poor and reinvigorate the faith of those who no longer attended church -- His efforts eventually led to the birth of the Methodist movement

John Wesley

This 19th-century thinker argued that history has been a series of struggles between the "haves" and the "have-nots" -- those who control the "means of production" (land/factories) and those who do not

Karl Marx

In their 1848 Communist Manifesto, these two writers predicted an eventual revolution in which the working classes (the proletariat) would overthrow the wealthy factory owners (the bourgeoisie)

Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels

This German term refers to the primary goal of Hitler's foreign policy, the acquisition of new territory for German expansion in Eastern Europe and Russia

Lebensraum

This term, German for "living space," was one of the key components of Nazi ideology -- It was a reference to the perceived need for Germany to acquire the land and raw materials of Eastern Europe to better provide for its growing population -- The Slavic peoples living in Poland and Russia were to be killed or enslaved so that the territory could be repopulated with Germans

Lebensraum

This 1651 work by Thomas Hobbes was written during the English Civil War -- It was one of the first to discuss the concept of the social contract -- It argues that a strong central government is necessary to protect man from the chaos and violence of the state of nature

Leviathan

This refers to the policy, introduced during the French Revolution, of drafting all available Frenchmen to serve in the armed forces -- It was based on the principle that political equality carried an obligation to defend the state and created Europe's first citizen army -- France was now able to field much larger forces than its enemies (and it's armies often had higher morale)

Levée en masse

In 1848, following the overthrow of Louis Philippe, the French people elected this man as president of the newly-established 2nd Republic.

Louis Napoleon (Napoleon III)

This 19th-century French chemist and the father of modern bacteriology was largely responsible for the germ theory of disease; he developed vaccinations and a method of heating products to destroy organisms that cause spoilage

Louis Pasteur

This Renaissance figure was a diplomat in the Republic of Florence for nearly 15 years before he was exiled, during which time he wrote The Prince

Machiavelli

This philosophe and student of history and politics was disturbed by the growth of royal absolutism under Louis XIV. His greatest work, published in 1748, was a comparative study of republics, monarchies, and despotisms, and argued that governments were the produce of geography, history, and traditions. In seeking the conditions that would promote liberty, he argued in Spirit of the Laws that despotism could be avoided if there was a separation of powers among several branches of government.

Montesquieu

On two occasions in the decade prior to World War I, in 1905 and 1911, the Germans and French came into conflict over this North African country; the Germans eventually recognized it as a French protectorate in exchange for territory elsewhere in Africa.

Morocco

This Italian republican nationalist and guerilla fighter played a key role in the 1861 unification of Italy -- In 1860 he and his Red Shirts invaded and took control of Sicily and the kingdom of Naples in southern Italy -- Although he had hoped for an Italian republic, he turned these territories over to Victor Emmanuel II and accepted the new kingdom of Italy in 1861

Giuseppe Garibaldi

This was the policy, introduced in the USSR in the late 1980s by Mikhail Gorbachev, of encouraging freedom of expression and information, particularly when it came to the functioning of government -- His purpose in relaxing censorship was to reduce government corruption, abuses, and failures

Glasnost

These were the three primary products that the Portuguese began acquiring in Africa during their first decades of exploration in the 15th century

Gold Slaves Ivory

This refers to foreign immigrants (many from Turkey and North Africa) recruited in the late 20th century by Western European countries to take jobs not filled by natives

Guest Workers

The economies of the 15th-century Italian city-states were dominated by these associations of craftsmen within a particular trade (e.g. goldsmiths) who sought to protect their interests, maintain quality standards, and limit competition amongst themselves

Guilds

During the French Revolution, this new method of execution was introduced as a means of making death more humane and equal for all Frenchmen, regardless of class -- It was put to regular use during the Reign of Terror

Guillotine

The July 14, 1789 assault on the Bastille was motivated primarily by the desire of the Parisian mobs to acquire this:

Gunpowder

This Swedish king and military innovator was one of the most successful leaders of the Protestant forces in the Thirty Years' War

Gustavus Adolphus

Napoleon lost approximately 50,000 troops to combat and disease in his failed effort to reclaim control of this important sugar-producing colony in the Caribbean. It declared its independence on January 1, 1804, thus becoming the 2nd independent state in the Americas.

Haiti (Saint-Domingue)

At the Potsdam conference following the defeat of Nazi Germany this American president informed Joseph Stalin of the existence of the atomic bomb

Harry Truman

This French king of the House of Valois was the favorite son of Catherine de Medici -- During the War of the Three Henries he had Henry de Guise assassinated and, as he himself was dying from a subsequent assassin's attack, named Henry of Navarre the heir to his throne

Henry III

In 1610 this first of the Bourbon monarchs was assassinated while riding in his coach through Paris -- He had brought the French Wars of Religion to an end by converting to Catholicism and granting limited religious toleration to the Huguenots

Henry IV (Henry of Navarre)

Petrarch is called the "father" of this movement in Renaissance Italy, which was based upon the revival of the study of the classical works of ancient Greece and Rome

Humanism

This school of thought that emerged during the Italian Renaissance emphasized the study of the texts of the classical civilizations of Greece and Rome in order to learn how to live more fulfilling, productive lives

Humanism

The ancient Greek physician Hippocrates seems to have been the first to apply to medicine the idea that the human body contained four basic fluids known as these:

Humors

In 1956 the Soviet Union invaded this country when it tried to establish a multiparty democracy and remove itself from the Warsaw Pact -- It would arrest and execute the country's leader, Imre Nagy

Hungary

This was the specific innovation in printing developed by Johannes Gutenberg in the 1450s that dramatically increased the speed with which books could be printed and reduced their prices; it led to an explosion of book printing throughout Europe and greatly encouraged a rise in literacy

Movable Metal Type

c. 1456

Name the Year: Gutenberg Produces the First Book Using Movable Type

A core belief of Enlightenment thinkers was that the operation of the world was governed by these, which man could discover and use to improve the world

Natural Laws

This term, coined by Charles Darwin in the late 19th century, refers to one of the key mechanisms of evolution, through which traits become more or less common in a population depending upon how they impact the likelihood of survival and/or reproduction

Natural Selection

During the Age of Exploration, this was the Asian spice most in demand among Europeans

Pepper

These were two of the specific Asian spices that were so sought after by Europeans during the Age of Exploration

Pepper Ginger Cinnamon Cloves Mace

This "father of humanism" was among the first to dismiss the Middle Ages as a time of barbarism and ignorance and to idealize the civilizations of Ancient Greece and Rome

Petrarch

This term refers to any of the thinkers of the Enlightenment

Philosophe

This is actually a process (rather than a place) in the Catholic faith in which those bound for salvation are purified of the effects of the sins committed in one's lifetime so that they might be worthy of Heaven -- Indulgences issued by the church were believed to reduce or eliminate the time one would have to spend undergoing this process

Purgatory

While this European country enjoyed the first successes in the efforts to extend control over Asia, it simply lacked the population, resources, and will to establish a large, permanent empire

Portugal

During the Age of Exploration of the 15th and 16th centuries, these "Atlantic states" supplanted the Italian city-states and the Hanseatic League as the dominant economic powers in Europe:

Portugal Spain The Netherlands England France

This idea, most associated with 19th-century thinker Auguste Comte, holds that true knowledge and science may only be based on observable phenomena that occur in nature

Positivism

This school of art rejected the style of the Impressionists who preceded them, seeking to be more radical and individualistic, with each artist developing his/her own style

Post-Impressionism

This tax, originally imposed on English coastal counties to provide for defense against attacks from the sea, was extended by Charles I to all English counties WITHOUT PARLIAMENTARY APPROVAL

Ship Money

Beginning his work in the late 19th century, this Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis argued that dreams are disguised representations of repressed sexual desires

Sigmund Freud

This English mathematician, astronomer, and physicist developed calculus in his efforts to identify the natural laws that govern the movement of bodies on Earth and throughout the universe -- His 1687 work Principia is considered the culmination of the Scientific Revolution

Sir Isaac Newton

In an effort to point out the failings of contemporary civilizations, this Christian humanist wrote a book entitled Utopia about an imaginary society governed by reason and cooperation in which all were equal

Sir Thomas More

Although the Constitution of 1793 established this form of government for France, in which every man had the right to vote, it was never actually put into effect because, it was argued, the revolution first had to defeat its internal and external enemies

Republic

The artists of this 18th-19th century school of art had a fascination with the Middle Ages and exotic cultures -- they were interested in things unknown, mysterious, & supernatural

Romanticism (1780-1850)

This school of art thrived in the early 1800s as a rejection of the reason and order of the Enlightenment and neoclassicism -- it valued the personal, subjective views and experiences of the artist, emphasizing feelings, emotion, passion, spontaneity, & instinct

Romanticism (1780-1850)

In 1510, during a month-long visit to this city, Martin Luther became disillusioned by the worldliness and corruption of the Catholic clergy that he claimed to have witnessed there

Rome

This alliance between Germany and Italy began with a treaty of friendship signed by the two countries in 1936 -- It would last until Mussolini was dismissed from power in Italy in 1943

Rome-Berlin Axis

During World War II, these three individuals who represented the most powerful of the Allied countries were known collectively as "The Big Three."

Roosevelt Churchill Stalin

One purpose of the Reform Act of 1832 was to eliminate these voting districts with very few people that were easily controlled by powerful Englishmen

Rotten (or "Pocket") Boroughs

By 1914 this Slavic state, supported by Russia, was determined to create a large independent state in the Balkans, but Austria was equally set on preventing that possibility

Serbia

The first declaration of war in World War I was Austria's July 1914 declaration of war against this country

Serbia

The disintegration of Yugoslavia that began in 1990 led to the creation of these 7 independent countries:

Serbia Bosnia-Herzegovina Slovenia Croatia Macedonia Montenegro Kosovo

Under this Soviet policy, the USSR claimed the right to intervene militarily in communist countries that introduced capitalist reforms or permitted political participation to non-communist parties -- It was first articulated in 1968 to justify the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia

The Brezhnev Doctrine

This was the cause of death for an estimated 750,000 German civilians during World War I as a result of the British naval blockade of the country and the decline in available farm labor.

Starvation

This refers to the theoretical condition of man prior to the establishment of a formal government

State of Nature

Bismarck provoked this 1866 war with Austria in order to force the Austrians to accept their exclusion from any unified German state -- The Prussian forces were better trained and armed, rapidly overwhelming the Austrians -- Thereafter the northern German states united in a confederation led by Prussia

The Austro-Prussian War or The Seven Weeks' War

When Columbus reached the New World in 1492, his first landfall was in this modern country made up of many islands

The Bahamas

On July 14, 1789, the population of Paris assaulted this fortress-prison in an effort to acquire gunpowder to defend themselves against a feared attack by Louis XVI's forces -- Their successful liberation of seven prisoners after losing over 100 lives was one of the key early events in the French Revolution and is commemorated each year as France's national holiday

The Bastille

This infamous fortress and prison fell to the mobs of Paris on July 14, 1789

The Bastille

This was a failed effort by Germany in the summer and fall of 1940 to gain air superiority in the skies over Britain in preparation for a German invasion of the British Isles -- The victory of the British air force over the Germans ensured that Britain would survive to fight on, a major turning point in the war

The Battle of Britain

In this October 1571 naval battle a coalition of Catholic states led by Spain defeated the main fleet of the Ottoman Empire off of the coast of Greece, eliminating the Turkish threat in the Mediterranean and allowing Philip II to focus his resources on restoring Catholicism throughout Western Europe

The Battle of Lepanto

In this October 1805 naval battle off the coast of Spain, an English fleet devastated a combined French and Spanish fleet, establishing beyond question British control of the seas and forcing Napoleon to abandon any hopes he had of invading Britain

The Battle of Trafalgar

In this devastating naval defeat on October 21, 1805, Napoleon's fleet lost 18 ships and 4,000 men to the British under Admiral Horatio Nelson, ending any hopes Napoleon had of ever invading England

The Battle of Trafalgar

In this battle on June 18, 1815 in modern Belgium, Napoleon was defeated by the combined forces of the English and the Prussians, putting an end to the Napoleonic Wars and his reign as emperor

The Battle of Waterloo

In this August 1798 naval battle off the coast of Egypt, a British fleet commanded by Lord Horatio Nelson sank 11 of 13 French ships of the line and in effect stranded Napoleon's army in Egypt

The Battle of the Nile

This was a failed 1923 effort by Hitler and his Nazi Party to seize power in Munich prior to marching on Berlin and establishing a dictatorship -- He was imprisoned following this coup attempt, but it made him a household name in Germany and taught him that he would have to win power through legal means

The Beer Hall Putsch

In 1830 these people, unhappy with the settlement at the 1815 Congress of Vienna that had included them in the new, enlarged kingdom of the Netherlands, rose up against the Dutch. The great powers of Europe accepted a settlement that created an independent, neutral kingdom for them governed by a constitutional monarchy

The Belgians

This was the name for the barrier constructed in 1961 to completely isolate West Berlin from East Germany -- Its primary purpose was to prevent the flight of educated East Germans to the West and it would remain in place until 1989

The Berlin Wall

In Protestant areas of Europe the education of women in the vernacular languages was encouraged so that they would better be able to read this:

The Bible

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

The Birth of Venus (1480) Botticelli Early Renaissance

Due in large part to this mid-14th century event and the resulting reduction in the number of peasants, serfdom began to die out in western Europe as nobles granted the surviving serfs freedom and hired them as wage laborers or rented lands to them

The Black Death (Bubonic Plague)

In the mid-14th century this disease arrived in Europe from Asia, causing the continent to lose from 1/3 to 1/2 of its population, a loss that took several centuries to replace.

The Black Death (Bubonic Plague)

During the 16th century Dutch farmers known by this name began settling at the Cape of Good Hope and creating a base for provisioning Dutch ships en route to the Spice Islands

The Boers

During the reign of Edward VI this Protestant liturgy book was written and required to be used by all congregations in the Church of England

The Book of Common Prayer

This liturgy book, introduced in the Church of England in 1549, during the reign of Edward VI, was written by Thomas Cranmer and contained largely Protestant doctrine and rituals -- It would be suppressed during the reign of Mary I and revived during the reign of Elizabeth I

The Book of Common Prayer

At the end of the Napoleonic Wars the victorious powers decided to place this family back on the throne of France

The Bourbons

This prominent French noble family, which would emerge as the leaders of France's Protestants, ruled the small kingdom of Navarre and in the late 16th century aspired to take possession of the French throne

The Bourbons

Karl Marx used this term to refer those wealthier members of society, esp. factory owners, who controlled the means of production

The Bourgeoisie

The Seven Years War, fought from 1756-1763, was known by this name by colonists in North America, where the French and British fought for domination of the continent

The French and Indian War

This state security organization was created in Russia under Lenin to deal with threats to the Bolshevik regime -- It imprisoned, tortured, and executed suspected political opponents; ran labor camps; put down rebellions; and seized the food supplies required by the Red Army during the Russian Civil War

The Cheka

This legislation, passed by France's revolutionary government in July 1790, was intended to subordinate the Catholic Church to the French government -- It provided for the election of bishops and priests, and required all clergymen to swear loyalty to the French state above all else -- Nearly half of all priests refused to take this oath, and this legislation caused considerable resentment among the French peasantry

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Napoleon decided to invade Russia in 1812 following the Russian decision to no longer participate in this trade embargo against British goods

The Continental System

By the end of this war in the 1850s it was apparent that the Concert of Europe was over -- This cessation of great power cooperation made possible the unifications of Italy and Germany later in the century

The Crimean War

This war, which broke out in 1853, started in part because the Turks failed to allow the Russians to protect the Christian shrines in the Holy Land

The Crimean War

Much of Russia's foreign policy in the last few centuries has been driven by its desire to secure control over this strait

The Dardanelles

In 1867, following the Austrian loss to Prussia in the Seven Weeks' War, the Magyars forced their Habsburg rulers to accept this new arrangement, in which Hungary would be given control over its internal affairs and the Austrian emperor would separately be crowned king of Hungary

The Dual-Monarchy

In 1905, following an uprising by the Russian people, this assembly, formerly a body that had advised the tsar, was empowered to approve new laws -- Nicholas II, however, was determined to maintain full power over Russia and would often ignore this assembly and dismiss it when it suited him

The Duma

At the beginning of this event in 1566, fanatic Calvinists ("iconoclasts") began a series of attacks against Catholic churches, destroying pictures and statues that they considered to be idols

The Dutch Revolt

This was established in France in 1804 to replace an outdated and inequitable medieval system. Emphasizing the revolutionary principle of equality, it created equal treatment before the law, provided religious toleration for Protestants and Jews, and abolished serfdom and feudalism. Women, however, lost most of the rights they had gained during the revolution

The Napoleonic Code

Facing economic disaster following the devastation of the Russian Civil War and War Communism, Lenin introduced this economic innovation in which Russians would be allowed to engage in a limited degree of capitalism -- The state would continue to control the banks and large enterprises, but individuals could open small businesses and peasants could sell their surplus grain on the open market

The New Economic Policy

This disciplined military force, made up largely of devout Puritans, was led by Oliver Cromwell during the English Civil War and was largely responsible for the defeat of the king's forces

The New Model Army

Staring in 1804, Napoleon, in order to keep his generals loyal and out of politics, began bestowing them with honors and wealth -- He even granted them hereditary titles and grants of land, in effect reestablishing this class supposedly eliminated during the French Revolution

The Nobility

In 1935 these antisemitic laws were passed in Germany with the intention of more clearly making the legal distinction between Jews and non-Jews -- Jews were deprived of of German citizenship and marriage and sex between Jews and non-Jews was prohibited

The Nuremberg Laws

In this series of Allied military tribunals from 1945-46, the surviving leaders of Nazi Germany were prosecuted and punished for crimes committed during WWII

The Nuremberg Trials

These two groups in Soviet society were the primary targets of Stalin's Great Purge in the late 1930s

The Old Bolsheviks The Military

This refers to the brief period in 1815 when Napoleon reclaimed control over France after escaping from Elba -- It came to an end with the Battle of Waterloo

The One Hundred Days

This work by Pico della Mirandola, written in 1486, assured men that they had complete control over their own fates and that man might "have whatever he chooses [and] be whatever he wills"

The Oration on the Dignity of Man

This February 1945 meeting of FDR, Churchill, and Stalin in the USSR made decisions regarding the treatment of Germany following its defeat -- They agreed upon unconditional surrender, the division of Germany into occupation zones, denazification, German reparations payments to the Allies, and free elections in Poland

The Yalta Conference

This group of 18th-century French thinkers argued that land was the only source of wealth and that agriculture and mining were the only means of increasing wealth, rejecting the mercantilist idea that gold and silver were the main determinants of wealth

The Physiocrats

This alliance was first established in 1813 by the enemies of France to ensure the defeat of Napoleon and uphold the settlement reached at the Congress of Vienna -- Its initial members included only England, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, but in 1818 France was admitted to the alliance

The Quadruple Alliance

This was the most violent period of the French Revolution, between September 1793 and July 1794, in which the government, dominated by Robespierre, used regular executions to eliminate perceived enemies of the Revolution -- Many thousands were killed, including the Girondins and Marie Antoinette, before the fall of Robespierre brought it to an end

The Reign of Terror

Otto von Bismarck signed this treaty with Russia in 1887 to ensure that Russia would not establish an alliance with France and confront Germany with the threat of a two-front war -- After dismissing Bismarck, Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1890 allowed this treaty to expire without renewing it.

The Reinsurance Treaty

In March 1947 the United States announced this new policy in which it would provide assistance to any "free peoples .. resisting attempted subjugation" -- The US initially invoked this policy in providing economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey, but it eventually became the basis for the Cold War containment policy

The Truman Doctrine

These 19th-century thinkers, like Robert Owen and Charles Fourier, were dismayed by the working and living conditions of the working classes and presented various plans for communities organized on the cooperative principle, in which all would work and share the wealth that they produced

The Utopian Socialists

These were the three primary families who vied for control over France during the French Wars of Religion

The Valois (moderate Catholics) The Bourbons (Huguenots) The Guise (arch Catholics)

This was a coastal region in western France that rose up in rebellion against the revolutionary government in 1793 -- The rebels were motivated by the Revolution's persecution of the Catholic clergy and the conscription of troops to serve in the revolutionary army -- The Committee of Public Safety ordered the rebellion ruthlessly suppressed, and several hundred thousand people died before peace was largely reestablished in 1795

The Vendée

In 1485 Henry Tudor was crowned Henry VII and established a new ruling dynasty in England after he emerged as the victor in this series of civil wars

The Wars of the Roses

During the Russian Civil War, this was the nickname for the diverse anti-Bolshevik forces and their supporters

The Whites

This is what J-C-C-C-J stands for:

(J)ames I (C)harles I (C)ommonwealth (or Cromwell) (C)harles II (J)ames II

The term Reconquista refers to the efforts of the Spanish to expel these longtime occupiers of the Iberian Peninsula

The Moors

One of the reasons that Philip II sent the Spanish Armada against England was that Elizabeth I was providing aid in this country's revolt against Spanish rule

The Netherlands

On June 20, 1789, the deputies of the Third Estate convened on an indoor tennis court at Versailles and pledged not to disband until they had created this:

A Constitution

It was supposedly this frightening experience as a young man in 1505 that compelled Martin Luther to give up a career as a lawyer and become an Augustinian monk

A Thunderstorm

During the 15th and 16th centuries the Italians frequently found their peninsula serving as a battleground for conflicts between these four great powers

France Spain The Holy Roman Empire Ottoman Empire

Foundling Homes

Although these homes for unwanted infants, established with funding from governments and charities, were receiving up to 100,00 children annually in 1800, there still were insufficient places for all of the abandoned babies

This de facto ruler of Florence from 1469 to 1492 presided over the peak of the city-state's artistic achievements, patronizing such artists as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci

Lorenzo de Medici

This man was the grandson of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. As king of a united Spain and the Holy Roman Empire, he was the most powerful ruler in Europe during the first half of the 16th century. He controlled lands in Spain and its colonial empire as well as the Netherlands, Southern Italy, Austria, and other lands in central Europe

Charles V

By the late 19th century, urban families in Europe desired fewer of these because, rather than being assets as they were on the farm, they were now expensive liabilities

Children

This disease, an infection of the small intestine caused by the consumption of contaminated water or food, was one of the deadliest of the 19th century -- Fear of this disease prompted more active efforts by European governments to protect public health by providing more sanitary sources of water and sewage systems

Cholera

This branch of humanism emphasized the study and analysis of the earliest Christian texts to reform the Catholic Church and society

Christian (or Northern) Humanism

Under this form of monarchy, most common in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, there were no formal limits placed on the power of the king by legislatures, churches, or the nobility -- This type of rule is most often associated with the reign of Louis XIV of France

Absolutism

In his Wealth of Nations (1776), this thinker rejected mercantilism and advocated free trade, with no tariff barriers between countries

Adam Smith

This 18th-century Scottish professor believed that government should not interfere in the operation of a country's economy -- prosperity would be achieved by "the invisible hand" when each person was free to do what was in his/her best interests economically

Adam Smith

This 16th-century Swiss physician was a pioneer in the use of chemicals (drugs) to cure medical problems

Paracelsus

In the years following World War I, this former Allied power was most determined to enforce the harshest terms of the Versailles treaty on the Germans, as much of the war had been fought on its soil and it had tremendous reconstruction costs to pay. It also believed that its future security depended upon holding the Germans down indefinitely, especially after the United States failed to ratify the treaty.

France

This German-Swiss-American mathematical physicist was in 1921 awarded the Nobel prize for his theories of relativity that stated that space and time were not absolute, but relative to the observer; he also concluded that matter was just another form of energy

Albert Einstein

At the end of the Franco-Prussian War in 1871, France was forced to surrender these two provinces to the new country of Germany

Alsace & Lorraine

At the end of the Franco-Prussian War, France was forced to surrender these two eastern territories to Germany

Alsace & Lorraine

According to this ideology which emerged in the late 19th century people could not be free until all governments and social institutions had been abolished

Anarchism

Renaissance humanism is best defined as an educational curriculum based upon the study of the texts produced by these two civilizations:

Ancient Greece & Ancient Rome

This man used actual dissections of cadavers to prepare his 1543 masterpiece on human anatomy, On the Structure of the Human Body

Andreas Vesalius

What Copernicus was to astronomy, this man was to anatomy -- His illustrated book On the Structure of the Human Body (1543) was based on human dissections and provided the most accurate descriptions of the human body yet produced

Andreas Vesalius

This was the 2nd wife of Henry VIII

Anne Boleyn

Strictly speaking, in the 1530s Henry VIII did not want the pope to allow him to divorce Catherine of Aragon -- He wanted one of these, a declaration that his marriage had been invalid from the outset

Annulment

The June 1914 assassination of this heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne by a Serbian nationalist was the first in the chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914.

Archduke Francis Ferdinand

In this portion of the Treaty of Versailles, the German government accepted responsibility for the outbreak of WWI and for the losses and damages caused by the conflict -- It justified the reparations the Germans were required by the treaty to pay to the Allies

Article 231 or The War Guilt Clause

Napoleon acquired this military specialty early in his career -- It seemed well suited to his mathematical skills and seemed to offer more opportunity for rapid advancement

Artillery

In the 1530s this emperor of the Incas was defeated by a small force of Spanish invaders, captured, and executed

Atahualpa

This is usually cited as Napoleon's greatest military victory -- On December 2, 1804, despite being outnumbered, he defeated a combined force of Austrian and Russian troops, inflicting 27,000 casualties while suffering only 8,000 of his own

Austerlitz

The power of the Medici family in Florence was initially based largely on the wealth and influence they enjoyed due to their success in this industry

Banking

Europe's bloodiest struggle since WWII was fought in this former Yugoslav republic in the 1990s when violence erupted amongst its various ethnic groups following its declaration of independence

Bosnia

A primary concern of the sans-culottes at the outbreak of the French Revolution was the rising price of this good, which absorbed roughly 50% of their income

Bread

This English naturalist originated the theory of evolution by natural selection and in 1859 published On the Origin of Species; he argued that animals changed over time in response to their environment

Charles Darwin

In novels such as Oliver Twist and Great Expectations this British author from the realist school condemned the treatment of the poor and downtrodden in industrial 19th-century England.

Charles Dickens

In 1713 this Habsburg Holy Roman Emperor, concerned that he would not have a son, issued the Pragmatic Sanction, which permitted a daughter to inherit his lands, which had been previously prohibited -- Although the great powers accepted this edict, Frederick the Great of Prussia in 1740 would attempt to seize Silesia from Maria Theresa, this man's daughter and heir

Charles VI

This Swedish king was the primary opponent of Peter the Great in the Great Northern War of the early 1700s

Charles XII

This young Swedish king's forces won many victories against the Russians in the early years of the Great Northern War, but after introducing a number of military reforms Peter the Great ultimately defeated him at the decisive 1709 Battle of Narva

Charles XII

This was a new trend among Europeans as wages rose in the post-WWII years, in which people sought to acquire the goods such as televisions, cars, washing machines, and stereos that signalled middle class success

Consumerism

Galileo was condemned for heresy by the Inquisition in 1633 for publicly supporting this man's heliocentric system

Copernicus

The Scientific Revolution is usually said to have begun with the publication of this man's book in 1543

Copernicus

This economic system adopted in fascist states like Italy and Germany was a middle ground between capitalism and socialism; while it still permitted private ownership of businesses, it heavily regulated the economy through the creation of organizations within each industry that settled problems and disputes through negotiation

Corporatism

In The Social Contract, Rousseau made a nice prediction, writing that "I have a presentiment that one day this small island will astonish Europe" -- To which island was he referring?

Corsica

Napoleon was born on this island in 1769, only a year after it was acquired by France from Genoa -- Napoleon's classmates at his French military academy would mock him for speaking French with a heavy accent

Corsica

Although this country played a minimal role in the defeat of Nazi Germany, it was given occupation zones in Germany and granted a permanent seat on the UN Security Council -- The British wanted to make sure that it was revived as a great power so that the Allies could better meet future threats

France

At the outbreak of World War I, this country had the lowest birthrate of all the major European powers.

France

During the "scramble for Africa" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this country took possession of most of the continent's western bulge (the pink territories on the map)

France

During the Thirty Years' War this Catholic country pursued a policy of supporting the Protestant princes and rulers against the Habsburgs

France

This 17th-century thinker, the most famous advocate of empiricism, argued that man could identify nature's laws through observation and experimentation

Francis Bacon

In the 1530s this Spanish conquistador required fewer than 200 men to defeat and capture the forces of the Incan emperor and complete the conquest of Peru

Francisco Pizarro

The subtitle of this 1818 Romantic-era Mary Shelley work is The Modern Prometheus -- It seems to be a tale warning against the dangers of pursuing science too far

Frankenstein

This late-19th-century German philosopher rejected Christian and liberal ethics, detested democratic ideals, declared that "God is dead," and celebrated the Ubermensch (superman) capable of imposing his own law

Friedrich Nietzsche

The ideas of this 2nd century AD Greek physician and surgeon were the basis for much medical thought prior to the Scientific Revolution -- He based much of his thought on the dissection of pigs and monkeys, and endorsed the idea that physical and mental ailments were caused by imbalances in the body's four "humors"

Galen

This Italian physicist and astronomer used a telescope to generate evidence that supported the heliocentric theory -- In 1633 he was forced to appear before the Inquisition for challenging the Catholic Church's authority by teaching that the Earth moves -- To avoid torture and possible death, he recanted

Galileo

On June 28, 1914 this 19-year-old Bosnian Serb assassinated Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie, setting in motion the chain of events that led to the outbreak of World War I in August 1914

Gavrilo Princip

At the end of the Spanish Civil War this leader established an authoritarian regime in Spain that endured until the 1970s

General Francisco Franco

Corn & Potatoes

In the 18th century, European farmers began embracing these two New World crops that provided important improvements in their diets

Marriages

In the 16th-18th centuries, before these would occur the males heads of two families often met and discussed terms, but it was rare for the two people involved not to know each other in advance or to have no prior relationship. Parents did not force total strangers to live together and children had a legal right to protest against one of these if they were opposed.

Eastern Europe (Russia)

In the 16th-18th centuries, people in this part of Europe often married much earlier than they did elsewhere, often before the age of 20. Children were therefore born to much younger parents, and households were larger, often exceeding 9 people and possibly more than 20, with three or perhaps four generations of the same family living together.

Canals

In the 1770s, because it was so much cheaper to transport goods by water rather than by land, England began a boom in the construction of these man-made waterways that greatly facilitated the movement of iron, coal, and other goods of the Industrial Revolution.

Martin Luther would accept no Christian teaching or practice as valid unless he could find sufficient evidence for it here:

In the Bible

The Domestic System or The Putting-Out System or Cottage Industry

In the early Industrial Revolution, prior to the development of factories, goods were manufactured in private homes under this system known as ...

The Great Famine or The Great Potato Famine

In this crisis, which lasted from 1845-51, approximately 1 million Irishmen died and perhaps 2 million more were compelled to emigrate from the country

"Putting-Out System" or "Domestic System" or Cottage Industry

In this manufacturing practice, common prior to the Industrial Revolution, merchants would deliver raw materials to the homes of rural workers, who would return the finished product to the merchants in return for payment -- Entire families would often work together to produce goods as a means of supplementing their farming income

Gleaning

In this practice, permitted under the open-field system of farming, poor women were allowed to go through the fields after the harvest and pick up the individual grains that remained behind on the ground

In the mid-15th century, this humanist scholar used textual analysis and logic to demonstrate that the Donation of Constantine, a document in which the 4th-century Roman emperor Constantine had supposedly granted the pope a large amount of land in Italy, was in fact a forgery -- Although a good Catholic, he would later become a hero to Protestant reformers

Lorenzo Valla

This Austrian foreign minister was probably the most dominant figure during the negotiations at the 1814-15 Congress of Vienna

Klemens von Metternich

This early 19th-century European leader had the Karlsbad Decrees issued to close down the German nationalist organizations called Burschenschaften

Klemens von Metternich

The Nuclear Family

Like modern families, most families in Western Europe from 1500-1750 lived in this type of household, in which two generations, parents and children, lived together, rather than extended families of three or more generations

This artistic technique, rediscovered during the Renaissance, uses intersecting "parallel" lines and vanishing points to give a 2-dimensional artwork a 3-dimensional appearance

Linear Perspective

This artistic technique, developed by the painters of the Renaissance, employs lines that converge at a vanishing point in order to create a 3-D effect and an illusion of depth in a flat painting

Linear perspective

Name two things that were imported into the New World from the Old World as a part of the Columbian Exchange

Livestock (Cows, Pigs, Horses, Goats) Wheat Sugar Disease

The War of the Austrian Succession convinced this woman of the need to extend her control more completely over her domains. She succeeded in stripping the regional diets of most of their administrative functions, making German the language of administration throughout Austria, establishing state control over the Roman Catholic Church, and imposing taxes on the nobility and clergy

Maria Theresa

In 1587, after years of refusing to do so, Elizabeth I finally authorized the execution of this person, her cousin and the heir to the English throne

Mary, Queen of Scots

This religious movement arose in England during the 18th century in response to a perceived indifference and lack of enthusiasm in the Anglican Church -- It leaders began giving passionate, open-air sermons outside of the traditional church structure, urging listeners to confess their sins and be spiritually reborn -- Its most important preacher was John Wesley

Methodism

Renaissance artists were the first to introduce this kind of paint, which enabled them to work with a wider variety of colors and to make changes to their works to create fine detail

Oil

During the French Revolution this female playwright and political activist demanded that women be granted full equality with men -- Her criticism of the revolutionary government and the Reign of Terror led to her arrest and execution in 1793

Olympe de Gouges

In 1791, in the midst of the French Revolution, this woman wrote a document entitled Declaration of the Rights of Women in which she demanded that women be given full political and economic equality with men; in 1793 she would be executed for her criticism of the Reign of Terror

Olympe de Gouges

This 1764 work by Cesare Becarria was a call for reforms in the legal system, including consistent punishments designed to deter others from committing crime and an end to the death penalty and torture

On Crimes and Punishments

Smallpox

One of the reasons for the decline in the European death rate in the 1800s was Edward Jenner's development in 1796 of a vaccine for this once devastating disease

Great Britain

One of the reasons this country took the lead in industrialization was that no place in the country was more than twenty miles away from a navigable waterway (a river, a canal, or the ocean)

This was the code name for Germany's massive June 1941 invasion of the USSR, opening up the Eastern Front, where the bulk of WWII's casualties would occur -- Despite much early success, the Soviets would eventually halt the enemy advance and by 1945 push its forces all the way back to Germany

Operation Barbarossa

Frederick the Wise of Saxony, Martin Luther's patron and protector, was said to have amassed a collection of over 5,000 of these which might reduce one's time in Purgatory by 1,443 years

Relics

This label refers to the ideal person of 15th-century Italy, one with a wide range of talents and skills capable of achievements in many areas of life -- Castiglione's The Courtier sets forth the criteria for such a person

Renaissance Man (l'uomo universale)

15th-century Florence claimed to have this type of government, although in fact only a tiny percentage of the population had the right to vote and political decisions were largely controlled behind the scenes by the Medici family

Republic

This half-sister of Peter the Great served as his regent when he was a boy and on several occasions plotted to remove him from power -- Peter eventually had her confined to a convent

Sophia

In 1808 this country rose in rebellion against Napoleon after he placed his brother Joseph on its throne -- It waged a long guerrilla war against France and forced Napoleon to devote most of his forces to an unsuccessful effort to end the revolt

Spain

What 17th-century country is being described in the following passage? "Its most cherished ideals were military glory and strong Roman Catholic faith. It lacked the finances and manpower to fight the expensive wars in which it got involved. It also ignored the new mercantile ideas and scientific methods because they came from heretical nations, Holland and England. The incredible wealth that it imported from South America destroyed what remained of its middle class and created contempt for business and manual labor. It had become of victim of its past, because it could not forget the grandeur of the 16th century and look to the future."

Spain

Much of Europe united together in the War of the Spanish Succession to prevent the union of these two kingdoms

Spain & France

This infamous event in Paris began on August 24, 1572, as an effort by the Valois family to eliminate the Huguenot leadership following the marriage of Princess Margot and Henry of Navarre -- They soon lost control of events, and many thousands of Protestants were killed in Paris and throughout France

St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

The indulgence being sold in 1517 that got Luther so fired up was intended in part to finance the construction of this building in Rome

St. Peter's Basilica

In 1703, during the Great Northern War, Peter the Great founded this city on the Baltic Sea as his "window unto the West" -- In 1712 he made it his new capital

St. Petersburg

This conflict between the supporters of Parliament and the supporters of Charles I lasted from 1642 until 1649, ultimately ending with the execution of the king and the establishment of the Commonwealth

The English Civil War

This conflict lasted from 1642-49 -- it was a struggle for power in England between the supporters of King Charles I and the supporters of Parliament

The English Civil War

In 1534 Henry VIII had Parliament pass this legislation making him the head of the Church of England

The Act of Supremacy

The French monarchy greatly increased its debt burden by providing financial and military support during this conflict in the 1770s and 80s, borrowing 91% of the money it spent

The American Revolutionary War

During the Reformation, members of this religious group tried to return literally to early Christian teachings and practices, advocating complete separation of church and state and arguing that a true Church was a voluntary association of believers who had undergone a spiritual rebirth and had then been baptized

The Anabaptists

This is the name given to the transfer of plants and animals between the New World and the Old as a result of European exploration and colonization

The Columbian Exchange

This phrase refers to the transfer of plant and animal life between the New World and the Old as a result of European exploration beginning in the late 15th century -- important crops, livestock, and diseases were introduced in both Europe and the Americas that had profound cultural impacts

The Columbian Exchange

This term refers to the transfer of plant and animal life between the New and Old Worlds during the Age of Exploration

The Columbian Exchange

What phenomenon is being described in the following passage?: "The European encounter with the Americas produced remarkable ecological transformations that have shaped the world to the present moment. The same ships that carried Europeans and Africans to the New World also transported animals, plants, and germs that had never before appeared in the Americas. There was a similar transport back to Europe and Africa. This process is named after the famous explorer who unwittingly initiated it."

The Columbian Exchange

This 12-man body effectively governed France during the most radical stage of the French Revolution

The Committee of Public Safety

During this 18th-century movement, intellectuals attempted to apply the concepts of the Scientific Revolution to the study of man, seeking to identify the natural laws governing such realms as politics, economics, history, criminal justice, and religion

The Enlightenment

The Romantic movement was largely a reaction against the principles of this 18th-century intellectual movement:

The Enlightenment

In 1999 the European Union introduced this new currency

The Euro

This approach to German unification (The "Big German" approach) would have united all German-speaking peoples, including the Austrians, in a single state -- It didn't happen this way!

The Großdeutsch Solution

These were the three noble families who sought control over France in the French Wars of Religion

The Guise The Valois The Bourbons

During the French Wars of Religion, this family led the extreme Catholic party that refused to make compromises with the Huguenots

The Guise Family

This French family was opposed to any compromise with the Protestants in 16th-century France and actually hoped to seize the throne for itself

The Guise Family

This was a system of forced labor camps used in the Soviet Union, used particularly during the rule of Joseph Stalin, for the punishment of criminals and the confinement of political prisoners -- It is estimated that over 1 million people died as a result of the brutal conditions in these camps

The Gulag

Adam Smith coined this phrase to refer to the principle that society ultimately benefitted when individuals were allowed to selfishly pursue their own self-interests -- It was used to justify his laissez-faire economic philosophy (capitalism)

The Invisible Hand

It was this tragedy in the 1840s which ultimately convinced Britain's Parliament to repeal the Corn Laws.

The Irish Potato Famine

This "law" discovered by David Ricardo in the early 19th century stated that industrial workers could never expect to be paid much more than required to keep them alive (a subsistence wage)

The Iron Law of Wages

The May 1915 sinking of this British ocean liner by a German U-boat with the loss of 1,198 lives turned public opinion in many countries against Germany and contributed to American entry into WWI on the side of the Allies in 1917.

The Lusitania

In 1992 the member countries of the European Community signed this agreement that led to the creation of a common currency, the Euro.

The Maastricht Treaty

This 1992 treaty signed by members of the European Economic Community led to the creation of a common currency, the Euro

The Maastricht Treaty

In June 1789, after Louis XVI insisted that the Estates-General vote "by order" rather than "by head," the deputies of the Third Estate adopted this name, claiming to represent not just their order, but all of the people of France -- The king eventually yielded and requested that deputies from the other two orders join this new body

The National Assembly

One of the centerpieces of the "cradle-to-grave" social welfare programs introduced in Britain by the Labour Party following the end of World War II was this system of free medical care for all British citizens

The National Health Service (NHS)

In Germany the Great Depression led to a dramatic increase in support for these two political parties

The Nazi Party and The Communist Party

In 1919 Adolf Hitler joined this small right-wing party in Munich and soon after became its leader -- He skillfully built up its membership and influence by pledging to restore Germany to greatness and condemning the threat of communism -- It initially sought to appeal to Germany's working classes, but would find the most success among the middle classes

The Nazi Party or The National Socialists

In this stunning August 1939 agreement, the Soviet Union and Nazi Germany each agreed to remain neutral in the event that one of these countries were attacked -- A secret protocol to this treaty provided for the partitioning of Poland between the two countries and Soviet control of Finland and the Baltic States

The Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact or The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

After achieving independence from the Spanish, this country began its "Golden Age" of the 17th century, during which it dominated international trade and shipping

The Netherlands

Many of the Portuguese possessions in Africa and Asia would eventually be taken over by this European country, which largely dominated world trade during the 17th century

The Netherlands

This refers to the period in English history following the reestablishment of the monarchy in 1660 and the return of the Stuart kings to power in the person of Charles II -- Many Englishmen were thrilled to see an end to the Puritan restrictions on their lives

The Restoration

This uprising of the Russian people, sparked by the country's loss in the Russo-Japanese War, forced Tsar Nicholas II to introduce a number of liberal reforms, including the granting of a constitution -- Within a few years, however, the most substantial concessions had been undone

The Revolution of 1905

During the radical stage of the French Revolution, this court was established by the Convention to try enemies of the revolution -- The accused were denied the right to a defense lawyer and prevented from calling witnesses, and there were only two possible outcomes of every trial: acquittal or death

The Revolutionary Tribunal

Most of these uprisings in the mid-19th century failed to achieve permanent change because of the divisions among the different revolutionary groups (e.g. conflicts between ethnic groups in Habsburg Empire, the split between German liberals and German working classes)

The Revolutions of 1848

At the end of World War I, this German territory was permanently demilitarized by the Allies

The Rhineland

In 1799, during Napoleon's Egyptian campaign, one of his officers discovered this famous artifact that later made it possible to translate hieroglyphics

The Rosetta Stone

During the late 19th century, this region of Germany, rich with coal deposits, became one of Europe's leading industrial centers; it was occupied by the French and Belgians in 1923

The Ruhr

In 1923, when Germany failed to make the reparations payments required by the Treaty of Versailles, French and Belgian troops occupied this urban and industrial region in northwest Germany in order to seize the output of its factories and mines -- The German government adopted a policy of "passive resistance," paying laborers not to work

The Ruhr

This war, fought from 1904 to 1905, was the first conflict in modern history in which an Asian power defeated a European power

The Russo-Japanese War

At the outbreak of World War I, this was the German military plan for dealing with a two-front war against France and Russia -- It entailed quickly defeating the French in the west before rapidly transporting German troops to deal with Russia in the east before it could fully mobilize.

The Schlieffen Plan

This is the name given to the German strategy, developed in the years prior to World War I, of dealing with a two-front war against Russia and France; first they would commit the bulk of their troops to rapidly defeating France before turning east to take on the Russians.

The Schlieffen Plan

On October 5, 1789 a group of enraged women marched 12 miles to this site outside of Paris to demand bread from Louis XVI

Versailles

Steam Engine

The first one of these that was efficient enough to be used profitably in mines and factories was patented by James Watt in 1769

Corn and Potato

The introduction of these two New World crops contributed to a tremendous increase in Europe's population in the 18th and 19th centuries

The Spinning Jenny

This device of the Industrial Revolution, invented in 1764 by James Hargreaves, greatly reduced the amount of work required to make yarn by allowing a textile work to simultaneously control 8 or more spools at a time

The Rocket

This 1829 invention, the most advanced steam locomotive of its day and the prototype for those that followed, was largely designed by George Stephenson

The Steam Engine

This 18th-century invention, perfected by James Watt, became the most important source of power well into the 20th century -- It provided for the first time a reliable source of energy that made it possible to locate factories anywhere and was key to the advances of the Industrial Revolution

Edwin Chadwick

This 19th-century British reformer became convinced that the disease in England's cities was caused by filthy environmental conditions, and his work convinced British officials to finance the construction of more effective sewage and water supply systems; as a result, urban death rates began to decline.

Under this political system, associated with both the Soviet Union under Stalin AND Hitler's Germany, the government has unlimited control over society and seeks to regulate all aspects of life, public and private

Totalitarianism

The Three-Field System

Under this agricultural practice common in the Middle Ages, farmers would leave 1/3 of their land unplanted each year to allow the soil to replenish its nutrients

Between 3,000 and 10,000 people occupied this place each day. Given the demand for space, even high nobles had to make do with cramped and uncomfortable living quarters. All great nobles were required to spend time here attending to the king. In the 17th century this place became the summit of political, social, and cultural life in France. More than a royal residence, it was a mirror of French greatness to the world.

Versailles

In 1682 Louis XIV made this royal palace outside of Paris the seat of his government and court in order to remove himself from the Parisian mobs and better secure control over the French nobility

Versailles

This term refers to the economic and political system imposed on Russia by the Bolshevik regime during the Russian Civil War -- It entailed government control of all industry, trade, and railroads; the seizure of surplus grain from peasants; and the brutal suppression of all political opposition

War Communism

Under the first constitution written during the French Revolution, the Constitution of 1791, these were the only people who could vote or hold office:

Wealthy Men

This pioneer of quantum physics in 1927 articulated the "uncertainty principle" stating that the act of observing phenomena in quantum physics (the motion of very small objects) affects the phenomena (e.g. the light used to observe a particle can change its position), limiting the ability of quantum scientists to know anything with certainty

Werner Heisenberg

The rapid resurrection of this country's devastated economy in the aftermath of World War II is often referred to as the "economic miracle." Wages rose, work hours were cut, and unemployment fell. By 1955 its gross national product exceeded its prewar level.

West Germany

Serfdom

While this form of labor largely died out in Western Europe in the aftermath of the Black Death of the 14th century, it would endure in Eastern Europe until the late 1800s

The 1555 Peace of Augsburg ending the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation established this compromise through which each ruler within the Holy Roman Empire received the right to determine whether his state would be Lutheran or Catholic

"Cuius regio, eius religio" (Whose region, his religion)

These are traditionally cited as the three primary motivations for the Age of Exploration that commenced in the 15th century

"God, glory, and gold"

Critical Date! This critical year saw both the end of the Hundred Years' War and the fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks

1453

This city was Europe's most important center of trade and banking in the early 17th century

Amsterdam

This 17th-century thinker argued that reason applied only to science, not religion, and that a "leap of faith" was required for men to believe in God

Blaise Pascal

This Italian noblewoman was a French queen in the late 16th century who played an important role behind the thrones of her three sons when they ruled France -- Her main objectives were to keep the throne in the Valois family and to bring an end to the destructive conflict between France's Catholics and Protestants

Catherine de Medici

This term refers to the Renaissance technique of using shading to create a three-dimensional effect in paintings

Chiaroscuro

This prime minister of Piedmont was primarily responsible for engineering the unification of Italy in the 1850s and 60s

Count Camillo di Cavour

In his campaign to unify Germany, Bismarck led Prussia into war against these three countries

Denmark Austria France

The centerpiece of German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck's foreign policy in the aftermath of German unification was to ensure that this country remain isolated without allies, as it was embittered toward Germany after 1871 and determined to recover the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine

France

From whom did the European slave traders acquire most of their African slaves?

From African merchants

Many of the longstanding ideas of this 2nd-century A.D. Roman medical authority, who taught that disease resulted from imbalances in the four bodily humors, were proved wrong during the Scientific Revolution

Galen

European commoners greatly resented these traditional laws that prohibited hunting on lands reserved exclusively for the use of the nobility

Game Laws

During his 1798-99 campaign in Egypt, Napoleon showed great respect for this religion and insisted that his troops do the same in order to better win the support and cooperation of the local population

Islam

In March 1796, at age 26, Napoleon married his first wife, this 32-year-old widow of a nobleman executed during the Reign of Terror

Josephine

This is the name of the triangular sails used on caravels to better allow these ships to sail against the wind

Lateen Sails

It was due to the influence of his powerful, wealthy family that this Medici pope had been made an abbot at age 7 and a cardinal at age 13 -- He was pope when Martin Luther posted the 95 Theses in 1517

Leo X

In the 1880s this Belgian king secured personal ownership of the Congo Free State in central Africa, a territory 76 times larger than that of Belgium -- He used brutal methods against the native populations in extracting ivory and rubber from the Congo, acquiring a vast personal fortune before being forced to turn the colony over to the Belgian government in 1908

Leopold II

In 1770 this Habsburg princess married Louis XVI and in 1774 she became France's queen -- She came to be disliked by the French people for her excessive spending and rumored infidelities, and during the French Revolution she was executed for treason

Marie Antoinette

1688

Name the Year: The Glorious Revolution

These people were the most susceptible to charges of witchcraft, in part because many of them tried to make a living selling healing remedies

Old women

In 1789, when the French Revolution began, about half of government spending was committed to this expenditure:

Paying interest on its debt

Because this Eastern European country had an elected monarch, and meetings of its legislature could be stopped by a single dissenting member, government was often reduced to chaos

Poland

The world map produced by this 2nd century astronomer and geographer became more widely available in the 15th century and was the basis for the European conception of the globe

Ptolemy

This was the nickname for the supporters of Parliament during the English Civil War

Roundheads

This late 19th-century legal scandal revealed deep political divisions between the conservative and liberal elements in French society

The Dreyfus Affair

In this conflict, which lasted from 1700-1721, Russia under Peter the Great took control of the Baltic Sea away from Sweden

The Great Northern War

In this set of laws compiled in the early 19th century, French women lost many of the rights they had won during the French Revolution

The Napoleonic Code

This liberal, democratic government was established in Germany following the defeat of WWI and Wilhelm II's abdication -- It was plagued by the shame of signing the Versailles Treaty, the postwar reparations, hyperinflation, vocal opponents on the left and right, and the Great Depression, ultimately succumbing to Hitler in 1933

The Weimar Republic

The Crystal Palace

This iron and glass building was erected in London during the Great Exhibition of 1851 to display the latest British technological achievements of the Industrial Revolution

Sugar was the first important crop grown on the plantations of the New World; name two other high-value crops that would later be grown in the New World

Tobacco Coffee Cotton

This was the movement launched by European Jews in the late 19th century to establish a new homeland for Jews in Palestine

Zionism

In this novel, Jean-Jacques Rousseau seemed to advocate a traditional role for women as a wives and mothers who were obedient to their husbands

Émile

This 1762 novel by Rousseau is actually a treatise on education -- It urges educators to allow children to pursue their natural interests and to learn from their experiences rather than confine them in a disciplined classroom environment

Émile

The most famous defender of Alfred Dreyfus following his conviction for espionage in the 1890s was this famous author of Germinal

Émile Zola

At the end of the Thirty Years' War, each of the states within the Holy Roman Empire became virtually independent, as they were given the right to determine their own foreign policies -- Approximately how many states were in the empire?

300

During the Age of Exploration, Portugal focused most of its initial efforts in the 15th century on locating a sea route around this continent

Africa

Because the 16th-century Native American population was insufficient in number and decimated by European diseases, the sugarcane plantations of the New World increasingly relied on this labor source:

African Slaves

In 1488 this Portuguese explorer became the first known European to lead an expedition around the Cape of Good Hope at the southern tip of Africa

Bartholomeu Dias

In the 15th century this term was used in Spain to refer to those recent converts to Christianity from Judaism or Islam

Conversos

These were the three legitimate children of Henry VIII who each ruled England in turn following their father's death

Edward VI Mary I Elizabeth I

This most famous of the Christian humanists was a staunch critic of the Catholic Church; he is said to have "laid the egg that Luther hatched"

Erasmus

The containment policy of the Truman Doctrine was first applied by the US in these two countries, which were given $400 million to resist communist insurgencies

Greece and Turkey

These political parties emerged in Europe in the 1970s with a variety of objectives, including securing better protections for the environment, nuclear disarmament, and the promotion of women's rights; the movement was strongest in Germany

Green Parties

This Picasso masterpiece was only to be handed over to the government of Spain once the country was a republic again. It was painted during the Spanish Civil War in response to an attack by German and Italian warplanes on the civilian population of a town on market day.

Guernica

During the Commonwealth period in England, the constitution adopted by the republic granted Oliver Cromwell this title for life and the right to name his successor

Lord Protector

This organization was established in 1831. Its goals were to eliminate Austria's domination of Italian affairs, overthrow the Italian tyrants, and unite Italy as a liberal and democratic republic. Its founder was Giuseppe Mazzini, the leading figure among Italy's revolutionary republicans

Young Italy

This term, derived from the Greek word for nephew, refers to the practice, common among Renaissance popes, of appointing family members to high church offices

Nepotism

This British politician served as prime minister from 1937-40 and is most associated with the policy of appeasing the Germans to avoid war, esp. the surrender of the Czech Sudetenland to Germany at the 1938 Munich Conference

Neville Chamberlain

With the dramatic increase in literacy in Europe after 1871 came a rise in the mass-circulation versions of these, which sold millions of copies a day. They were written in an easily-understood style and tended toward the sensational, including lurid crime stories, gossip, and sports.

Newspapers

This term refers to the economic "restructuring" of the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev with market-like reforms in order to make communism more efficient and responsive to the desires of Soviet consumers

Perestroika

The most famous painting of the surrealist school, most distinguished by its melting clocks, is this 1931 work by Salvador Dali

Persistence of Memory

This Romanov ruled Russia from 1682 to 1725 -- He focused on transforming his country into a powerful, modern state, travelling to western Europe to acquire technology and experts -- He remade his army on the western model and, in the Great Northern War against Sweden, succeeded in establishing Russia as the strongest power on the Baltic Sea

Peter the Great

In the last half of the 1500s this powerful, devout Habsburg king of Spain (and son of Charles V) devoted himself to expanding his empire and stopping the spread of the Protestant faith -- His efforts were largely thwarted, as he would lose control of the Netherlands and fail to restore Catholicism to England

Philip II

This French term refers to any of the thinkers of the Enlightenment who sought to discover and publicize the natural laws that governed human societies

Philosophe

One of the main goals of Baron Haussmann's ambitious reconstruction of the city of Paris under Napoleon III was to make it easier for government troops to suppress these.

Revolts

This man was a successful British industrialist who in the early 19th century created a model industrial community in Scotland at New Lanark, the site of cotton mills. Contrary to prevailing practices, he paid high wages, reduced working hours, ended child labor, built decent homes, provided education for the workers, and permitted the workers to share in management and profits

Robert Owen

This peace agreement ended the War of the Spanish Succession and forbade the Bourbons from ever uniting the thrones of France and Spain

The Peace of Utrecht

As a result of this 1648 peace agreement that ended the 30 Years' War ... - Switzerland and Holland were guaranteed independence from the Habsburgs - France and Sweden gained some territory from the Holy Roman Empire - German princes were granted complete sovereignty, including the right to raise armies and form alliances - Calvinism was recognized as a legal religion within the Holy Roman Empire

The Peace of Westphalia

This 1648 peace agreement ending the Thirty Years War recognized for the first time the independence of Switzerland and the Netherlands

The Peace of Westphalia

This peace agreement ended the Thirty Years' War

The Peace of Westphalia

Parliament made Charles I accept this document in 1628 before it would grant him new taxes -- It was a reinstatement of the English rights that Charles seemed to be ignoring, including Parliament's "power of the purse" and the prohibitions against imprisonment without cause and the quartering of troops in private homes

The Petition of Right

Magellan is credited with the first circumnavigation of the globe even though he was killed by natives in these islands -- They would eventually become an important Spanish possession

The Philippines

This was Erasmus's belief that true Christians were more concerned to base their daily lives on the teachings of the New Testament than participate in the rituals demanded of the Catholic Church

The Philosophy of Christ

This was Erasmus's idea that Christianity should be less a set of beliefs, rituals, and doctrine that one must abide by, and more a guide for how one should live one's daily life, modeled on that of Jesus

The Philosophy of Christ

Francois Quesnay was the leader of this group of 18th-century French thinkers who believed that land was the source of all wealth and sought to reduce government regulation of the economy

The Physiocrats

These 18th-century forerunners of Adam Smith, led by Francois Quesnay, argued that society prospered most when individuals were left to pursue their economic self-interest (laissez-faire) and that government should not strictly regulate the economy as under mercantilism

The Physiocrats

This 1834 legislation in Britain sought to make poverty so unbearable that people would do anything to escape it -- It made all poor people who sought government assistance to report to workhouses that were intentionally miserable, separating husbands and wives, serving bad food, and demanding unpleasant labor

The Poor Law

In the 1840s the failure of this crop in Ireland caused widespread death and suffering and prompted 2 million people to emigrate to the US and Britain

The Potato

This final WWII meeting of the leaders of the US, USSR, and Britain in July 1945 divided Germany into 4 occupation zones and agreed that the country be demilitarized and democratized, that its annexations be undone, that it pay reparations, and that Nazi war criminals be prosecuted

The Potsdam Conference

This elaborate hairstyle, popularized by Marie Antoinette, was much emulated by other women, but also became a symbol of the decadence and corruption of the French court on the eve of the Revolution

The Pouf

This was an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI to ensure that the Habsburg lands could be inherited by a daughter at his death, which was legally prohibited -- Although the great powers accepted this edict, Prussia under Frederick II would nonetheless invade Silesia in 1740

The Pragmatic Sanction

The Rump Parliament was created in England when Oliver Cromwell had these more moderate Puritans removed from Parliament by force

The Presbyterians

This work by Machiavelli, published in 1513, used historical examples to instruct rulers on how best to maintain and expand their power -- They were not to be restrained by moral considerations, but to use violence and deception when necessary to advance their interests

The Prince

Give the author and title of the 1513 Renaissance work that advised rulers to be prepared to do evil when necessary to maintain their power

The Prince by Machiavelli

Karl Marx used this term to refer to the members of the poor, working class who had nothing to sell other than their labor

The Proletariat

Marx & Engels used this term to refer to the working classes who had no control over the means of production (e.g. tools, raw materials, land, factories, capital) -- They only had their labor to sell

The Proletariat

Following the March 1917 overthrow of the monarchy in Russia, this short-lived moderate democratic government was established

The Provisional Government

This term refers to those devout Protestants in England who, beginning in the late 16th century, sought to remove all remaining Catholic elements from the Church of England and to put an end to the episcopal system of church governance

The Puritans

This Spanish term refers to the centuries-long effort by the Spanish to expel the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula that began in the 11th century

The Reconquista

England's 1588 victory over Spain in this conflict was a major blow to Spanish prestige and ensured that England would remain Protestant

The Spanish Armada

This ill-fated 1588 expedition was the culmination of Philip II's efforts to restore Catholicism to England during the reign of the Protestant Elizabeth I

The Spanish Armada

During this "dress rehearsal" for World War II, Germany and Italy provided military support for Franco and the USSR supported the Republicans

The Spanish Civil War

During this civil war in the 1930s, Britain, France, and the other democracies were hesitant get involved to assist a young republic

The Spanish Civil War

This civil conflict in the 1930s overthrew a republic and installed an authoritarian, right-wing government

The Spanish Civil War

This civil war is now considered to be a dress rehearsal for World War II, because the Germans and Italians sent forces to support the fascist leader Francisco Franco

The Spanish Civil War

What conflict is being described in the following sentence?: "The Popular Front was assisted by trucks, planes, tanks, and military advisers from the Soviet Union and forty thousand volunteers from other countries; Franco's forces were aided by arms, money, and men from the fascist regimes of Italy and Germany."

The Spanish Civil War

In the late 1400s this special tribunal of the Catholic Church was created to investigate the sincerity of Spanish conversos, Jewish Spaniards who had recently converted to Christianity

The Spanish Inquisition

In this 1572 event around 3,000 Protestants were killed in Paris by Catholic mobs

The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Receiving the news of this horrific event of August 24, 1572 was rumored by his enemies to have been the only occasion on which Philip II was known to have smiled

The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

This strait at the southern tip of South America is named after the European explorer who discovered it in the early 16th century

The Strait of Magellan

These elite Moscow military guardsmen rebelled against the rule of Peter the Great several times in the late 17th century -- In 1698 Peter cut short his Great Embassy to western Europe in order to brutally suppress one such rebellion

The Streltsy

At the Munich Conference of 1938 Britain and France consented to Hitler's seizure of this German-speaking region along the western border of Czechlosovakia in order to maintain peace in Europe

The Sudetenland

In 1869 this man-made body of water was constructed to link the Mediterranean and Red Seas

The Suez Canal

This man-made body of water connecting the Red and Mediterranean Seas opened in 1869, becoming a key route between Europe and Asia -- In 1875 Britain would purchase a large share of the ownership of this waterway to ensure its easy access to India

The Suez Canal

This political movement emerged in the late 19th century with the primary goal of creating an independent Jewish state in Palestine, then part of the Ottoman Empire

Zionism

Critical Date! This is the approximate year in which Gutenberg produced his first book using movable metal type

c. 1456

In a classic statement of realist politics, Otto von Bismarck declared in an 1862 speech that the great issues of his day would be decided not through parliamentary democracy, but through these two substances

"Iron and Blood"

This was James I's famous response to the request of English Puritans that he abolish the episcopal system of church government and give each congregation more control over church doctrine and practice

"No bishop, no king"

These were the famous words supposedly uttered by Henry IV in 1593 when he decided to convert to Catholicism to better win the allegiance of his subjects, the majority of whom were Catholic

"Paris is worth a mass"

This supposed five-word quote by Henry IV summarizes his decision to convert to Catholicism before he was crowned king of France in 1594 -- It was a reference to the fact that the region around his capital city was overwhelmingly Catholic

"Paris is worth a mass"

This refers to a voting district within the United Kingdom with very few eligible voters -- They therefore had a disproportionate share of political power and could be easily controlled by a wealthy patron who sought more influence in Parliament -- The Great Reform Bill of 1832 addressed this problem by eliminating 57 of these districts

"Pocket Boroughs" (or "Rotten Boroughs")

This phrase refers to Parliament's jealously-guarded right to approve all new taxes in England -- It was challenged by the Stuart monarchs, especially Charles I

"Power of the Purse"

This English king, the first of the Tudor monarchs, established a stable and prosperous government while reducing the power of the English nobility

Henry VII

This English monarch ruled from 1509 to 1547 and is best remembered for breaking with the Catholic Church and establishing a Church of England under his direct control in order to secure the annulment of his first marriage so that he might produce a legitimate son

Henry VIII

Both of these English rulers had Parliament pass legislation known as the Acts of Supremacy making the monarch the head of the Church of England

Henry VIII Elizabeth I

The French Wars of Religion culminated in the War of the Three Henries; name the 3 Henries:

Henry of Navarre Henry III (de Valois) Henry of Guise

This beloved French king from the House of Bourbon was long the leader of the Huguenots -- With his accession to the throne in 1594 following the deaths of his rivals in the War of the Three Henries, he decided to convert to Catholicism to better secure the loyalty of the French people

Henry of Navarre (Henry IV)

This noblewoman from Mantua, dubbed "the first lady of the world," was one of the great patrons of Renaissance art, attracting many artists and thinkers to her court and often ruling Mantua in the absence of her husband

Isabella d'Este

With the marriage of these two monarchs in 1469, the unification of Spain as a single kingdom commenced -- They are best remembered for reconquering the remaining Moorish lands on the Iberian peninsula, sponsoring the voyages of Christopher Columbus, and expelling the Jews from their kingdoms

Isabella of Castille & Ferdinand of Aragon

The unification of these two countries in the latter half of the 19th century greatly undermined the European balance of power

Italy and Germany

In 1898 Émile Zola published this open letter in a French newspaper in which he accused the French government of anti-Semitism and of unjustly convicting Jewish army officer Alfred Dreyfus of espionage -- It inflamed passions within France over the case and ultimately helped to secure Dreyfus's exoneration

J'accuse

These 5 letters serve as a handy little mnemonic device for remembering the order of the Stuart monarchs in England

J-C-C-C-J

A major difference between Calvinism and Lutheranism was this doctrine, emphasized by John Calvin, according to which a person's salvation or damnation was already decided when they were born

Predestination

This is the Protestant idea, emphasized particularly by John Calvin, that the gift of faith had only been granted to some ("the elect") and that each person's fate had been determined prior to their birth

Predestination

This quote represents 17th-century French thinker Rene Descartes's starting point for his reconstruction of all knowledge after rejecting what he has been taught by the intellectual authorities -- Because he was doubting what he has been taught, he was thinking -- Because he was thinking, he must exist

"Cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am)

In the 1648 Peace of Westphalia that ended the Thirty Years War, this compromise agreement, first established by the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, was expanded to include Calvinism in addition to Catholicism and Lutheranism

"Cuius regio, eius religio" (Whose region, his religion)

This Latin phrase refers to the compromise, first established in the 1555 Peace of Augsburg, by which princes of the Holy Roman Empire were permitted to choose the religions of their individual states

"Cuius regio, eius religio" (Whose region, his religion)

This little phrase is useful for remembering the identities and order of the six wives of Henry VIII

"Divorced, Beheaded, Died, Divorced, Beheaded, Survived"

In this 1968 event, Czechoslovakia under Alexander Dubcek sought to introduce reforms such as a greater degree of democracy and capitalism -- Brezhnev eventually sent in Soviet troops and crushed the movement

"Prague Spring"

This refers to the period in early 1968 in which the Czech government under Alexander Dubček sought to introduce a greater degree of democracy, individual freedom, and economic advancements -- Concerned about the scope of these reforms, the USSR invaded in August 1968 and forced their abandonment

"Prague Spring"

These privateers of many nationalities were enlisted by the leaders of the Dutch Revolt to attack and plunder Spanish vessels and Spanish-controlled towns

"Sea Beggars"

This refers to the assurance of support that Germany gave to Austria-Hungary in July 1914 following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand -- This pledge encouraged the Austrians to be more aggressive toward Serbia in responding to the assassination and increased the likelihood of war.

"The Blank Check"

This refers to rapid postwar rehabilitation and growth of the West German economy starting in the 1950s under Konrad Adenauer

"The Economic Miracle"

In this event, on August 4, 1789, largely in response to the peasant uprisings of the Great Fear, the National Assembly voted to abolish all estate privileges and tax exemptions, bringing an end to feudalism and France's centuries-old class system

"The Evening of Sacrifices"

In 1946 Winston Churchill coined this term to refer to the postwar division of the European continent into two rival blocs: Soviet-dominated, communist Eastern Europe, and the US-led capitalist West

"The Iron Curtain"

This term was coined by Gertrude Stein to refer to the people who came of age in the era of World War I; it refered to their confusion, aimlessness, and alienation from their societies in the wake of the conflict, and included writers like Ernest Hemingway, James Joyce, F. Scott Fitzgerald, and Erich Maria Remarque.

"The Lost Generation"

This phrase refers to Parliament's exclusive right in England to approve new taxes

"The Power of the Purse"

This Lutheran idea eliminated the clear distinction between the clergy and the laity that existed in the Catholic Church -- It claimed that all baptized members of the church had the right and responsibility to preach the Christian faith

"The Priesthood of All Believers"

This was a 1956 address Khrushchev made to representatives of the Soviet Communist Party condemning the purges of Stalin and his "cult of personality" -- Afterwards Stalin's body, on display next to Lenin, would be removed from public view and Russia would begin a period of liberalization

"The Secret Speech"

Elizabeth I of England was known by this nickname because of her decision not to marry -- Her refusal to take a husband had many reasons, including the fear of being dominated by a male, her desire to use marriage negotiations as a diplomatic tool, and her personal memories of her father's marriages

"The Virgin Queen"

This refers to a new approach to warfare, fully evident during WWI, in which a society mobilizes all available resources and its entire population to defeat the enemy -- It entails less differentiation between soldiers and civilians; the rationing of goods and more government regulation of the economy; the introduction of more females into the workforce; and the widespread use of propaganda to secure public support for the war.

"Total War"

This year in the mid-19th century saw liberal and nationalist uprisings throughout much of Europe, but NOT in England or Russia

1848

This May 1968 period of uprisings and strikes in France was led by students and workers in a challenge to conservative values and policies -- It nearly brought about the collapse of Charles de Gaulle's government before coming to a sudden end

1968 Student Riots

1492 was a critical year in the reign of Spain's Ferdinand and Isabella, for it saw these three events:

- The Completion of the Reconquista - The Explusion of the Jews - Columbus's "Discovery" of the New World

In the late 19th century these were the three primary goals of women's rights activists:

- The right to own and control property - Easier access to divorce - The right to vote

Critical Date! These were the approximate years for the High Renaissance in Italy

1490-1527

Critical Date! This was the year in which ... - Ferdinand and Isabella completed the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula from the Moors - Jews were expelled from Spain - Columbus discovered the "New World"

1492

Critical Date! This is the year in which Vesalius published On the Structure of the Human Body (De Humani Corporis Fabrica) -- It was the same year in which Copernicus published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres!

1543

Critical Date! This is the year in which Charles V and the other princes of the Holy Roman Empire signed the Peace of Augsburg, which granted Lutherans legal status for the first time

1555

During World War I, the British used this effective strategy to deny Germany the goods it needed to sustain its war effort, esp. food -- It is estimated that 750,000 Germans died of hunger during World War I

A naval blockade of the German coast

This 18th-century professor of philosophy and leading figure of the Enlightenment was highly critical of the heavy government regulations of mercantilism, arguing that free competition was much preferable as it gave consumers the lower prices and allowed all citizens the equal right to do whatever they did best. The full title for his 1776 book was Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.

Adam Smith

In 1933 this National Socialist of Austrian origin became Chancellor of Germany, and within a matter of months he had made himself dictator -- His rule was characterized by a corporatist economic approach, anti-Semitism, the dismantling of the Versailles Treaty's restrictions, and ultimately a war to establish German control over the continent

Adolf Hitler

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Adoration of the Magi (1476) Botticelli Early Renaissance

A painting method developed in the Renaissance that creates the illusion of depth by adjusting the color of objects as they recede into the distance

Aerial (or Atmospheric) Perspective

This was the practice, banned by the Council of Trent, of Catholic bishops living in Rome or on their landed estates rather than in the dioceses for which they were responsible

Absenteeism

This was a method used by Renaissance artists such as Da Vinci to enhance realism and help create the illusion of depth in their paintings; "distant" objects were painted with muted colors and less detail and clarity, just as they would appear to the human eye in real life

Aerial (or Atmospheric) Perspective

Following Russia's humiliating defeat in the Crimean War, this tsar introduced a series of reforms to help his country better compete with the western powers -- His most important reform was the emancipation of Russia's serfs, but the freed serfs often received the poorest lands to farm and were required to compensate the nobles for their freedom

Alexander II

This German-born wife of Nicholas II was the 1st tsarina of Russia -- Disliked by the Russian people, her efforts to aid her hemophiliac son by showing favor to the mystic Rasputin further undermined the public's support for the tsar and contributed to her family's downfall

Alexandra

At the end of World War I France regained these two territories from Germany

Alsace & Lorraine

Henry VIII broke from the Catholic Church in large part so that he would be free to marry this lady-in-waiting at his court, who had promised that she could give him his much-desired son

Anne Boleyn

This Archbishop of Canterbury under Charles I was an opponent of English Puritans, insisting upon the maintenance of the episcopal system and many elements of Catholic ritual -- In 1644 he was executed by order of Parliament

Archbishop William Laud

For over 1,500 years after his death in the 4th century BC, the beliefs of this Greek philosopher provided the basis for a wide range of scientific fields in Europe -- Only with the Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries were his ideas seriously challenged (and often overturned)

Aristotle

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Arnolfini Wedding (1434) Jan Van Eyck Northern Renaissance

Although responsible for some of the greatest achievements of the Scientific Revolution, Johannes Kepler was also greatly interested in this pseudoscience, which holds that the movement of the heavenly bodies has an impact on events on earth and human affairs

Astrology

Martin Luther only found enough evidence in the Bible to retain 2 of the 7 Catholic sacraments -- name them

Baptism & Communion

In 1852 Napoleon III hired this city planner to modernize Paris -- He cleared away many of the slums, forcing workers to move to the suburbs; constructed more sanitary water systems; and built broad boulevards that made it easier to move troops through the city and could not be easily barricaded by rebels

Baron Haussmann

When this famous urban planner created many new long, broad, straight tree-lined boulevards through the center of Paris in the latter half of the 19th century, one of the goals was to make it more difficult for revolutionary crowds to easily create barricades that would hinder the movement of government forces.

Baron Haussmann

This 17th-century school of art was characterized by the dramatic use of light and color, especially the "spotlight effect," to maximize the emotional impact on the viewer -- It often depicted scenes of vigorous action, "freeze framing" dramatic scenes in mid-motion

Baroque (1600s)

This 19th-century French philosopher is regarded as the father of sociology; his "POSITIVISM" argued that the only true knowledge is empirical, observable scientific knowledge, and he sought to establish a true science of society as a basis for social planning

Auguste Comte

After defeating this country in 1866, Prussia treated it leniently and insisted only that it not interfere with the process of German unification

Austria

In 1809 Napoleon annulled his marriage to Josephine so that he might marry 19-year-old Marie-Louise, a princess from this country with which he sought to finally establish a lasting peace

Austria

Between 1772 and 1795 these three countries divided Polish territories up among themselves until it ceased to exist

Austria Prussia Russia

In the late 18th century the country of Poland ceased to exist; what three countries participated in its partitioning?

Austria Prussia Russia

In the Compromise of 1867 a dual-monarchy was established in this country to satisfy the aspirations of the Magyars

Austria-Hungary (The Habsburg Empire)

This term refers to the surge in birth rates throughout much of Western Europe in the twenty to thirty years following World War II

Baby Boom

The Medici family owed its initial wealth and influence to its success in this industry; they really hit pay dirt when they landed the pope as a client

Banking

In 1488 this Portuguese explorer led the first European expedition to round Africa's Cape of Good Hope, proving that the continent had a southern limit and that Asia might be reached by sea

Bartholomeu Dias

In the 16th century this Spanish friar and settler in the New World became an advocate for the rights of the Native Americans who were being exploited and abused under the encomienda system, ultimately securing greater legal protections for the indigenous peoples

Bartolomé de Las Casas

Both Christians and Jews were threatened by this 17th-century Dutch thinker's ideas because they believed his near pantheistic position meant that human beings might not be personally responsible for their actions and that there could be no personal, individual immortality of the human soul after death

Baruch Spinoza

The British victory in this 1942 battle in North Africa was their first important victory over the Germans -- It ensured that the Germans would not occupy Egypt, seize the Suez Canal, or gain access to the oil of the Middle East

Battle of El Alamein

This 1942-43 battle between the Germans and Soviets on the Eastern Front caused around 2 million deaths -- The Soviet victory in this battle halted the furthest German advance into the USSR, and the Soviets would thereafter remain on the offensive for the remainder of WWII

Battle of Stalingrad

This leader of Italy's Fascist Party ruled the country from 1922-43 as Il Duce ("The Leader") and is regarded as one of the founders of the fascist ideology -- In 1936 he signed a treaty with Hitler that inaugurated what would become the Axis alliance of WWII -- He was ousted from power following the Allied invasion of Italy and ultimately executed by communist partisans in 1945

Benito Mussolini

In the late 19th century this British prime minister and leader of the Conservative Party supported such traditional institutions such as the monarchy and the Church of England, and believed government should intervene on behalf of the poor and underprivileged -- His ministry sought to provide better urban sanitation and housing to the working class, and gave greater protection to unions

Benjamin Disraeli

When in 1948 the USSR cut off all land traffic between the Allied-controlled Germany and West Berlin, the British and Americans responded with this ambitious effort to supply the needs of West Berliners from the air -- Over 200,000 flights were flown before the Soviets relented and reopened land traffic

Berlin Air Lift

This was the USSR's policy between June 1948 - May 1949 of preventing the Allies rail and road access to the sectors of Berlin under their control, thereby denying West Berlin fuel and food -- The Soviet intention was to force the Allies to abandon West Berlin, but the Allies countered with a massive airlift of supplies

Berlin Blockade

This was one of the primary advantages that the Portuguese enjoyed in their conflict with Asian powers as they fought to take over the spice trade

Better armed ships Better seamanship

The theory of the divine right of kings provided an intellectual justification for absolute monarchy. In around 1670 this French bishop set forth this theory in a treatise entitled Politics Drawn from Holy Scripture. Referring to the Bible as the authority for his arguments, he maintained that the king ruled by the will of God and was responsible only to God and not to any earthly power

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

This bishop and supporter of absolute monarchy under Louis XIV argued that because God established kings and endowed them with power, they were responsible to no one and could not be challenged (divine right)

Bishop Jacques Bossuet

In a famous "wager," this 17th-century French thinker argued that it was wiser to believe in God than not to, for if he exists one wins salvation, and if he does not one has lost nothing

Blaise Pascal

This 17th-century French scientist and mathematician sought to reconcile science and Christianity and demonstrate that Christianity was not contrary to scientific reason

Blaise Pascal

This 17th-century French thinker argued that reason applied only to matters of science, not religion, and that a "leap of faith" was necessary for men to believe in God

Blaise Pascal

This German term meaning "lightning war" refers to a new set of military tactics pioneered by the Germans and first employed with the outbreak of WWII -- It entails an entirely mechanized force of infantry, tanks, artillery, and airpower operating in concert to rapidly break through enemy lines and bypass their strongpoints

Blitzkrieg

What new military technique pioneered by Germany is being described in the following passage?: "Armored columns or panzer divisions supported by airplanes broke quickly through Polish lines and encircled the overwhelmed Polish troops. Regular infantry units then moved in to hold the newly conquered territory."

Blitzkrieg

This was the Marxist political party of Lenin that ultimately became the Communist Party of the Soviet Union -- It refused to cooperate with the Provisional Government and seized control of Russia in a November 1917 coup d'etat

Bolsheviks

When, in August 1991, hardline Russian communists staged a coup against the government of Mikhail Gorbachev, this leader of the democratic forces in Russia bravely defied the plotters and led the resistance, ultimately leading to the break-up of the Soviet Union

Boris Yeltsin

These early-19th-century nationalist student organizations in the German states became centers for political discussion and opposition to the conservative order in Europe -- They so threatened Metternich that in 1819 he had them dissolved by the Karlsbad Decrees

Burschenschaften

As part of the electoral process in France in 1789, these lists of grievances were drawn up by members of each of the three estates to inform and instruct the deputies of local views and authorize reform. They generally called for the limitation of royal power and greater tax equity.

Cahiers de doleances

During the first months of the Russian Revolution Lenin argued that it was not necessary for Russia to fully pass through this stage of development as Marx had taught; rather, it could proceed immediately to the Socialist (or Proletariat) Stage

Capitalist (or Bourgeois)

The early Portuguese and Spanish voyages of exploration relied heavily upon this type of sailing ship, which was relatively small and maneuverable, and was more easily sailed into the wind

Caravel

This Italian-born cardinal was the first minister of Louis XIV during the king's youth -- His unpopularity contributed to the outbreak of the Fronde

Cardinal Mazarin

During the Thirty Years War, this first minister of French king Louis XIII was so eager to undermine the power of the Habsburg family that he provided funds and troops to support the Protestants, even though he was a Catholic cardinal

Cardinal Richelieu

This man, the first minister under Louis XIII, focused on building up the power of the French monarchy at the expense of the nobility and keeping the power of the Habsburgs in check

Cardinal Richelieu

This festival was a period of celebration and excess in Catholic Europe that preceded Lent, the 40 days of fasting and penitence before Easter. It typically took place in February or March and was characterized by drinking, dancing, and spectacles, giving people a much needed chance to release their frustrations and aggressions.

Carnival

This was a European festival celebrated in the days prior to Lent in which the community would consume much food and drink, sing normally inappropriate songs, engage in acts of violence and aggression, and criticize and insult their neighbors, even their social superiors

Carnival

This Italian Renaissance author argued that, to better serve his prince, a nobleman had to develop a wide range of abilities, including military prowess, athletic talent, musical skills, and a knowledge of proper etiquette

Castiglione

Ferdinand and Isabella were never the rulers of a unified Spain. Name the two kingdoms that they actually ruled

Castile & Aragon

Who is being described in the following passage?: "This moderate Catholic looked to religious compromise as a way to defuse the political tensions, but found to her consternation that both sides possessed their share of religious fanatics unwilling to make concessions. The extreme Catholic party favored strict opposition to the Huguenots and was led by the Guise family."

Catherine de Medici

This Spanish-born woman, the daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella, was the first wife of England's King Henry VIII -- When she failed to provide him with a son, Henry became convinced that their marriage was cursed and sought to have it annulled by the pope

Catherine of Aragon

This woman was the first wife of Henry VIII

Catherine of Aragon

These were, in order, the six wives of Henry VIII

Catherine of Aragon Anne Boleyn Jane Seymour Anne of Cleves Catherine Howard Catherine Parr

Before Henry IV was crowned king of France in 1594, he decided to convert to this religion in order to better secure the allegiance of the great majority of his subjects

Catholicism

This Italian philosophe opposed capital punishment and torture, and argued that the criminal justice system should be designed only to deter crime, not inflict brutality

Cesare Beccaria

This was a European social custom in which a community would signal its disapproval of someone's behavior (e.g. adultery, beating one's wife, having a child out of wedlock) by gathering a crowd at the offender's home, banging on pots and pans, and singing load songs

Charivari

In his 1859 work The Origin of Species this thinker argued that all organisms were descendants of earlier, less complex creatures

Charles Darwin

This late 19th-century British novelist publicized conditions in industrial society and the sufferings of the lower classes in such works as David Copperfield, Tale of Two Cities, Oliver Twist, A Christmas Carol, and Hard Times

Charles Dickens

This 19th-century French utopian socialist had some very strange ideas -- He called for the creation of planned communities called phalanxes in which life would be more free and enjoyable, such as being able to work at different tasks during the day in order to avoid boredom -- He also predicted the anti-whale!

Charles Fourier

The reign of this English king, the son of James I, was marked by constant conflict with Parliament over his religious policies and his efforts to circumvent Parliament's power of the purse -- Indeed, he succeeded in ruling for 11 years without calling Parliament by developing creative ways to raise revenue

Charles I

This son of the executed Stuart king Charles I became the king of England in 1660 with great rejoicing following the end of the Commonwealth -- He unsuccessfully tried to grant more religious toleration to Catholics and non-Anglicans

Charles II

This son of Catherine de Medici became king of France as a boy -- His mother exerted tremendous control over him and likely played a major role in convincing him to order the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre of 1572

Charles IX

In the first half of the 1500's this Holy Roman Emperor sought unsuccessfully to suppress the teachings of Martin Luther, both because he was a devout Catholic and because he wanted to prevent his empire from being fragmented by religious differences

Charles V

The chief rival of this ruler of the Holy Roman Empire was the Valois king of France, Francis I

Charles V

This 16th-century Holy Roman Emperor led the Catholic states of the Empire against the Lutheran states during the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation

Charles V

Who is being addressed by Martin Luther in the following speech?: "Unless I am convinced by Scripture and plain reason ... my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I will not recant anything, for to go against conscience is neither right nor safe. Here I stand, I cannot do otherwise. God help me. Amen."

Charles V

This French general and statesman led the Free French Forces during WWII following his country's June 1940 surrender to Germany -- He established a French government in exile, insisted that the Allies continue to treat France as a great power, and urged his people to continue resisting the Germans

Charles de Gaulle

This French general and statesman was president of the 5th Republic during the 1960s -- He sought to rebuild France as a great power independent of US or Soviet domination, acquiring nuclear weapons and withdrawing France from NATO military command (but not NATO) -- He also granted independence to Algeria and pursued strong ties with West Germany within the European Economic Community

Charles de Gaulle

This movement was started by factory workers in England in the first half of the 19th century in an effort to win a greater degree of democracy. It sought the vote for all males, salaries for members of Parliament, and regular annual meetings of Parliament. It failed to achieve these goals, but did successfully organize large numbers of workers for the first time

Chartism

The willingness of the USSR to acknowledge the 1986 meltdown of a nuclear power plant in this city was evidence of the new openness, or glasnost, of Gorbachev's Russia

Chernobyl

This primary compiler of the Encyclopedia (1751-72) was also a harsh critic of Christianity

Diderot

This artistic technique, developed during the Renaissance, uses contrast between light and dark areas (shading) to give a 3-dimensional appearance to objects like the human body

Chiaroscuro

This technique employed by Renaissance painters literally means "light-dark" - it uses shading to give volume to objects in paintings and increase the 3-D effect

Chiaroscuro

Erasmus and Thomas More are the most famous figures in this school of thought, which sought to utilize the ideas of classical civilization in reforming the Catholic Church

Christian (or Northern) Humanism

According to this type of humanism, a humanist scholar has an obligation to take his knowledge and use it for the benefit of his fellow man as a statesman

Civic Humanism

This branch of humanism emphasized the use of the knowledge contained in the ancient texts to better serve and improve one's own society (rather than simply study the classical authors for one's personal benefit)

Civic Humanism

Following the end of World War II in July 1945, in one of the greatest upsets in political history, this leader and his Labour Party defeated Winston Churchill in British elections, a signal that the British people now wished to focus on the country's domestic needs and creating new social programs

Clement Atlee

This Huguenot leader and advisor to the young French King Charles IX was resented and mistrusted by the king's mother, Catherine de Medici -- Her failed attempt to have him assassinated led to a widespread attack on France's Huguenots remembered as the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre

Coligny

The capture of this city by the Ottoman Turks in 1453 threatened the traditional trade routes in the Eastern Mediterranean and gave more impetus to the search for an alternate route to the spices of Asia

Constantinople

During the Renaissance wealthy families might place their daughters in these institutions, in which women had more freedom to study and the opportunity to rise to positions of leadership

Convents

The Spanish Inquisition under Ferdinand and Isabella in fact had no authority to investigate Jews and Muslims - it concentrated primarily on investigating these people

Conversos (Jews or Muslims whose families had recently converted to Christianity)

In March 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella issued an order requiring all Jews in Spain to leave the country OR to do this

Convert to Catholicism

This tax, much resented by France's peasants prior to the Revolution, required them to provide roughly two weeks of service each year maintaining and improving the kingdom's roads -- It was abolished on August 4, 1789, along with other feudal privileges

Corvée

During the mid-15th century this man used his banking wealth to establish his family's long dominance over the city-state of Florence without actually holding a formal political position -- He was also a generous supporter of the arts, patronizing great artists like Donatello and Brunelleschi

Cosimo de Medici

This man was chief of the German general staff from 1901 to 1905. He developed a scheme to help Germany avoid fighting a two-front war in which Germany would invade and defeat France from the north via Belgium before turning east to face the Russians

Count Alfred von Schlieffen

This prime minister of Piedmont is commonly regarded as "the head" of the efforts to unify Italy in the 1850s and 60s -- He hoped to build Piedmont into a great military and economic power by making it the core of unified Italy under a constitutional monarchy -- He succeeded in securing key French support in ejecting the Austrians from northern Italy

Count Camillo di Cavour

1815

Countries on the European continent such as France, the Netherlands, and the German states lagged behind England economically and did not really begin to industrialize after this year, when the Napoleonic Wars came to an end

1769

Critical Date! This was the year in which James Watt patented his version of the steam engine

Artists of this early 20th-century school of art fragmented their subjects into their basic geometrical shapes, with many sharp angles and distortions

Cubism

Artists of this early 20th-century school of art fragmented their subjects into their basic geometrical shapes, with many sharp angles and distortions

Cubism (1908-1914)

By 1938, this was the only country in Eastern Europe that still had a liberal, democratic government -- the rest had been taken over by authoritarian dictatorships

Czechoslovakia

This intellectual approach, advocated by Rene Descartes in the 17th century, involves moving from the general to the specific -- Starting from established, known truths, one can use reason to establish new truths and make predictions without relying upon one's senses (rationalism)

Deductive Reasoning

These were the three countries that Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck fought wars against in the latter half of the 19th century in order to achieve German unification

Denmark Austria France

Name three foreign countries which intervened militarily in the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War on behalf of the PROTESTANTS

Denmark Sweden France

The primary purpose of Napoleon's Continental System was to ...

Destroy the economy of Great Britain

This doctrine, embraced by rulers like James I and Louis XIV, holds that monarchs are appointed by God and are therefore accountable to no earthly authority -- Because a king has been chosen by God, those who challenge him are guilty of sacrilege

Divine Right

In contrast to Catholicism, most Protestant communities would come to permit this in cases of adultery, impotence, desertion, conviction for a capital crime, deadly assault, and even the contraction of a contagious disease.

Divorce

In 1789 this French physician, a delegate to the Estates-General and National Assembly, proposed that all persons sentenced to death in France be decapitated "by means of a simple mechanism"

Dr. Joseph Guillotin

The Food Supply

During the 18th century, Europe began a period of rapid population growth due primarily to an increase in ...

Southern and Eastern Europe

During the 19th century, these two regions of Europe remained the least industrialized

This refers to the "thawing" of tensions between the US and the USSR in the 1960s and 1970s as both sides sought to reduce the economic burdens of maintaining the arms race

Détente

According to Kepler's First Law of Planetary Motion, first published in 1609, this is the shape of the planets' orbits

Ellipse

Johannes Kepler's 1st Law of Planetary motion, first published in 1609, states that this is the shape of the planets' orbits as they revolve around the sun

Ellipse

This theory of knowledge, closely associated with 17th-century Englishman Francis Bacon, holds that true knowledge might only be acquired through actually observing and experiencing a phenomenon

Empiricism

This refers to the form of government adopted by several Eastern European monarchs in the 18th century -- While they resisted any limits on their personal power, they embraced the reason of the Enlightenment as a means of strengthening their kingdoms -- They permitted more religious toleration and freedom of speech, reduced restrictions on trade, and sought to adopt more rational codes of law

Enlightened Absolutism (or Despotism)

This is a type of motion in which heavenly bodies supposedly move in an orbit within an orbit -- This does not actually occur, but was used by Ptolemy (and later by Copernicus) to explain the apparent retrograde (backward) motion of the planets

Epicycle

This orbit-within-an-orbit was used by both Ptolemy and Copernicus to help explain the movement of the planets, but they don't actually exist

Epicycle

Under this heirarchical system of church government, used in the Catholic Church and the Church of England, bishops have authority over churches within a given region, and they in turn answer to a higher, central authority (such as the pope or the English monarch)

Episcopal System

During the Renaissance this famous Christian humanist, in such works as Praise of Folly, was highly critical of Catholic clergymen for being overly focused on ceremony, wealth, and politics -- He was therefore said to have laid the egg that Luther hatched

Erasmus

This Christian humanist from the Netherlands argued that Christianity should be a guide for everyday living rather than a system of dogmatic beliefs and practices

Erasmus

This Christian humanist sought to correct the errors in the standard Latin Vulgate Bible by editing and publishing a version of the New Testament in the original Greek as well as a new Latin translation

Erasmus

This Dutchman was the most important of all the Christian (or northern) humanists

Erasmus

This northern humanist wrote new versions of the New Testament to make the Christian texts available in their original form and correct the errors that he believed to be found in the standard Latin Vulgate version of the Bible

Erasmus

This work, published anonymously by Thomas Malthus in 1798, argued that because population has the capacity to increase faster than the food supply necessary to support it, the working classes are condemned to poverty and suffering

Essay on the Principles of Population

This African territory succeeded in maintaining its independence from European control when it humiliated the Italians in the 1896 Battle of Adowa

Ethiopia

By 1914 these were the only two African territories not under European control

Ethiopia Liberia

Europe's population growth in the late 19th century was caused primarily by ...

Falling mortality (death) rates

In the 16th century approximately 80% of Europeans did this for a living

Farming

This political ideology, associated most closely with Mussolini's Italy and Hitler's Germany, embraces extreme nationalism, an aggressive foreign policy and territorial expansion, the subordination of individual rights to the interests of the state, and the glorification of strength, struggle, and conquest

Fascism

During the 1960s in Europe there was renewed interest in this movement, as women realized that achieving full legal and political rights had not brought complete equality with men, as they did not receive pay equal to men in the workforce and were still expect to perform the bulk of the household chores

Feminism (or Women's Liberation)

In 1519 this Portuguese explorer departed on a mission for the Spanish king to find a westward route to the riches of Asia -- after sailing around the southern tip of South America he crossed the Pacific Ocean, whereupon he was killed in the Philippines, but his crew would complete the first circumnavigation of the world

Ferdinand Magellan

These were the two parents of Catherine of Aragon

Ferdinand and Isabella

In June 1791 it became apparent to the people of France that Louis XVI was an opponent of the French Revolution when he and his family were caught trying to do this:

Flee the country

What place is being described in the following passage?: "It dominated the region of Tuscany. By the beginning of the fifteenth century, it was governed by a small merchant oligarchy that manipulated the apparently republican government. In 1434, Cosimo de Medici took control of this oligarchy"

Florence

Food

Following the Agricultural Revolution, Englishmen had more money to spend on manufactured goods such as shoes, clothes, and toys because they no longer had to spend almost everything they earned on this:

In the 1940s, under the Fourth Republic, this country finally gave the vote to women

France

When the Thirty Years' War ended in 1648 it was apparent that this was the most powerful country in Europe

France

In 1907 these three countries completed the establishment of the Triple Entente:

France England Russia

Historians often refer to these three kingdoms of the late 1400s as the "new monarchies" because of their success in increasing the authority and power of the central government

France England Spain

These were the 6 original members of the European Coal and Steel Community established in 1951:

France West Germany Italy Belgium The Netherlands Luxembourg

This 17th-century Englishman argued that scientific knowledge could best be acquired inductively, using careful observation and experimentation to collect data and arrive at general principles

Francis Bacon

This 17th-century Englishman famously urged scientists to conduct carefully-organized experiments and make systematic observations to develop correct generalizations about the world

Francis Bacon

This 17th-century Englishman was the Scientific Revolution's most famous proponent of empiricism, in which knowledge is basely solely upon what one has actually observed and experienced

Francis Bacon

This man had only 180 troops at his disposal when he landed on the Pacific coast in 1530 and began the conquest of the Incan Empire

Francisco Pizarro

This king of Prussia ruled from 1740-86 -- He was a proponent of enlightened absolutism and a great patron of artists and writers, including Voltaire -- He modernized his kingdom's bureaucracy, introduced greater religious toleration, and promoted economic development -- In the year he took power he invaded Silesia, starting the War of the Austrian Succession

Frederick II ("the Great")

This king of Prussia (and father of Frederick II) from 1713-1740 focused all of his energies and resources on building up his army, doubling its size during his reign, but he fought practically no wars himself

Frederick William I

This ruler (or Elector) of Saxony was one of Martin Luther's most important defenders during the early years of the Reformation -- He ensured, for example, that Luther's case would be heard before the Diet of Worms and not in Rome, and that he was granted safe passage to and from the Diet

Frederick the Wise

By the late 1600s, this was the primary language spoken at most courts and diplomatic meetings in Europe:

French

This friend and writing partner of Karl Marx was the son of a German industrialist and the author of a work about workers' unpleasant lives entitled The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844 -- He was also co-author of the Communist Manifesto

Friedrich Engels

Every time they did this, as many as 10% of women died during the Renaissance

Gave Birth

This leader of the fascist Falange Party had the support of the Catholic clergy and large landowners when, in 1936, he launched a revolt against Spain's republican government that he would eventually win

General Francisco Franco

John Calvin long dominated life in this Swiss city-state

Geneva

John Calvin was invited to lead the Protestant Reformation in this Swiss city-state, upon which he imposed a strict moral code working in close conjunction with its secular rulers -- It became the continent's most important center for the teaching and spreading of Protestantism

Geneva

To many Christians in the 16th century, this city was "the most perfect school of Christ since the days of the Apostles." Religious refugees from France, England, Spain, Scotland, and Italy visited this place, and its church served as the model for the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, the Huguenot Church in France, and the Puritans churches in England. The most dominant leader of this city was John Calvin.

Geneva

This was the name of the great 2nd-century A.D. work by Ptolemy containing his world map that became available in Europe in the 15th century and had much influence on the explorers of the Age of Exploration

Geography

In the late 19th century this became the first European country to develop a social welfare system for its citizens

Germany

This European country was a latecomer to the "scramble for Africa" in the late 19th century, but still acquired a few colonies, including Togoland, Cameroon, and Southwest Africa (light green on the map)

Germany

These were the three main Central Powers in World War I:

Germany Austria-Hungary The Ottoman Empire

During the Spanish Civil War from 1936-39, these two foreign countries provided military assistance to the fascists led by Francisco Franco

Germany & Italy

In August 1939, on the eve of World War II, the western democracies were taken aback when these two countries signed a non-aggression pact

Germany and The Soviet Union

This charismatic Italian leader, often referred to as the "heart" of the Italian unification movement, created the Young Italy society in 1831 to expel the Austrians from Italy and hopefully spark nationalist uprisings throughout Europe

Giuseppe Mazzini

These three "G" words are often cited as the primary motives behind the European Age of Exploration that began in the 15th century

God Gold Glory

The Boer War from 1899-1902 was fueled in part by the discovery of these two commodities in South Africa

Gold & Diamonds

Historians long believed that it was the importation of massive amounts of this into Europe from the New World that caused the Price Revolution of the 16th century

Gold & Silver (Bullion)

Continental Europe

Government in this part of Europe played a much more active role in promoting industrialization than it had in England, financing infrastructure, financing technical education, and using tariffs to protect their industries from competition from British goods

During the "scramble for Africa" in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this European country sought (unsuccessfully) to establish a series of colonies from Egypt in the north to South Africa in the south (yellow on the map)

Great Britain

This Swedish king was a military innovator, developing more flexible infantry and cavalry tactics that he employed when he intervened in the Thirty Years' War on behalf of the Protestants

Gustavus Adolphus

This leading Protestant ruler was king of Sweden from 1611-1632 -- He introduced important innovations in battlefield tactics and intervened in the Thirty Years War to protect the northern Protestant states within the Holy Roman Empire -- He won significant victories for the Protestants before perishing in the Battle of Lützen

Gustavus Adolphus

This ruler was the ablest administrator of his day and a devout Lutheran. During the Thirty Years War he intervened to support the oppressed Protestants of the Holy Roman Empire, and Cardinal Richelieu provided financial support for his army. After a number of victories this king of Sweden died on the battlefield in 1632.

Gustavus Adolphus

This man perfected the process for which he is famous in Mainz in the 1450s. It involved printing multiple copies of books using movable metal type

Gutenberg

As Columbus was planning his voyage across the Atlantic, this was the great miscalculation that he made about the world

He underestimated its size

In 1572, as part of her plan to make peace between French Catholics and Huguenots, Catherine de Medici arranged a marriage between these two people

Henry of Navarre and Marguerite (Margot) de Valois

During the War of the Three Henries, Henry III of France had this rival assassinated because he feared that he had become too powerful and thereafter formed an alliance with Henry of Navarre

Henry, the Duke of Guise

This conquistador was responsible for the conquest of the Aztecs in central Mexico

Hernán Cortés

Between 1921 and 1923 Germany faced this economic catastrophe, in which the value of the German currency fell at an astounding rate, causing prices to skyrocket -- It was caused by Germany's efforts to make its reparations payments and worsened by government payments to the striking workers in the Ruhr -- Although eventually solved, the problem did much to undermine faith in the new Weimar Republic

Hyperinflation

The interiors of Calvinist churches were much simpler that Catholic churches and mostly devoid of altars, statues, and images because Calvinists believed such objects amounted to this sin:

Idolatry

After being injured in battle, this Spanish nobleman and soldier founded the Society of Jesus (the Jesuits) -- He and his followers became "soldiers for God" who took oaths of obedience to the pope -- They sought to stem the spread of Protestantism and spread Catholicism around the world

Ignatius Loyola

This Spanish founder of the Society of Jesus required all members to take a vow of absolute obedience to the pope

Ignatius Loyola

This former Spanish soldier established the Society of Jesus which became the most important Catholic organization established during the Counter-Reformation

Ignatius Loyola

This philosophe seemed to capture the spirit of the Enlightenment when he urged his fellow man to "dare to know! Have the courage to use your own intelligence."

Immanuel Kant

Monet, Manet, and Renoir are the most celebrated artists of this late-19th-century school most notable for its visible, choppy dabs of paint

Impressionism

The artists of this late-19th-century school were fascinated by the changing effects of light and color -- they usually used short, choppy dabs and brush strokes and worked directly from nature in the open air (as opposed to the confines of a studio)

Impressionism

In the late 19th century this revolutionary school of art sought to depict the immediate sensations of momentary scenes, breaking down light into its component colors and allowing the spectator's eye to fuse them when viewing a painting from a distance

Impressionism (1867-1886)

This 1509 work by Erasmus was one of history's first bestsellers -- It used satire to criticize the abuses and corruption of the Catholic Church

In Praise of Folly

Breastfeeding

In early modern Europe, this was a chore that some upper-class women found distasteful for reasons of vanity and convenience. Many of them, therefore, put their newborn children out to wet nurses for as long as 18 months, virtually abandoning the primary care of their infants.

Get Married

In the 17th and 18th centuries, most young men and women could not do this until they could support themselves economically; they first had to inherit land or accumulate the resources necessary to start a business, which typically did not happen until they were in their mid to late twenties.

Cholera

In the 1830s and 1840s, outbreaks in towns and cities of this deadly disease, generally caused by the contamination of water supplies with human waste, convinced reformers of the need to introduce more effective water and sewage systems

Get Married

In the 18th century in Northwestern Europe, men usually did not do this until they were 27 or 28, and women between the ages of 25 and 27 because they were saving up the resources needed to establish their own households

Foundling Home

In the 18th century, these places became one of the favorite charities of rich and powerful Europeans. By the 1770s, 1/3 of all babies born in Paris were immediately abandoned to one of them by their mothers. Even though great numbers of babies entered these places, few left. Even in the best of them, 50% of babies normally died within a year, and in the worst as many as 90% died.

The Great Famine or The Irish Potato Famine

In this tragedy of the 1840s and 50s, approximately 1 million Irishmen died and the country's population fell by about 25% due to starvation, disease, and migration -- It was caused by a disease that attacked the primary food source of the great percentage of Irishmen

Europeans finally opened up the direct sea route to the spices of Asia in 1498 when Vasco da Gama landed on the shores of this modern country

India

The beginning of the dismantling of the British Empire was this country's declaration of independence on August 15, 1947, which started a domino effect throughout the empire

India

These were granted by the Catholic Church to worshippers to reduce or eliminate the punishment for their venial (minor) sins -- They were usually issued in exchange for services or payment to the church, a practice that Martin Luther would condemn in the 95 Theses

Indulgences

These French royal officials were first introduced by Richelieu and became important instruments in the centralization of power in France -- They were responsible for ensuring that the policies and will of the king were being carried out in the provinces, supervising the court system, the maintenance of order, and the collection of taxes

Intendants

These officials could never be natives of the districts for which they were responsible. They were almost always recruited from the nobles of the robe. After 1634, one was assigned to each of France's 32 districts, and they performed essential financial, judicial, and policing functions, such as recruiting soldiers, supervising tax collection, and monitoring the activities of local nobles. They were appointed directly by the king of France and were solely responsible to him.

Intendants

This influential neoclassical painter was a supporter of the French Revolution, immortalizing its major events in works like The Tennis Court Oath and The Death of Marat -- He would later become an ally and admirer of Napoleon, creating some of the most famous images of the emperor

Jacques-Louis David

This was the first of England's Stuart monarchs -- He was resented by many Englishmen for his Scottish origins, but many Puritans hoped that he would introduce the presbyterian form of church governance used in Scotland

James I

This Stuart king reigned for three short years (1685-88) -- He pursued pro-Catholic policies and violated the rights of Parliament in an effort to return to absolutism -- He was forced to flee England in 1688 when, after his wife gave birth to a son who was to be raised Catholic, Parliament invited his Protestant daugher Mary and her husband William of Orange to take the throne

James II

This Asian country at first welcomed the Europeans who began arriving in the 16th century, especially because they were able to import goods such as firearms; they became alarmed, however, by the success of Christian missionaries and took steps during the 17th century to expel nearly all Europeans

Japan

These were the three main Axis powers in World War II

Japan Germany Italy

This finance minister of Louis XIV and ardent mercantilist improved the collection of taxes in France, built up the French navy, promoted the development of French industry, and used high tariffs to make imported goods more expensive to purchase

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

In The Social Contract (1762) this thinker argued that government is necessary, but should be a direct democracy that seeks to protect the common good (the general will)

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This French philosophe believed that human beings had been most free and happy in the state of nature (the "noble savage"), but had been corrupted by civilization

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

This radical journalist, among the most popular and powerful of the Jacobins during the French Revolution, called for the ruthless use of violence against counterrevolutionaries -- He was assassinated in his bathtub in July 1793 by Charlotte Corday, who blamed him for the bloodshed of the revolution's radical stage

Jean-Paul Marat

In the early 19th century, this thinker's arguments were used to justify a more prominent role for the government in addressing the problems of the new industrial era. He believed that government should focus less on protecting natural rights and instead pursue policies that brought the greatest good for the greatest number of people.

Jeremy Bentham

This 18th/19th century father of utilitarianism believed that laws should be judged by their usefulness, that is their ability to produce the greatest good for the greatest number of people

Jeremy Bentham

This 19th-century thinker famously argued that society's goal should be to produce the "greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people"

Jeremy Bentham

This man developed his doctrine in a 1789 work entitled Principles of Morals and Legislation. Central to this doctrine was the belief that every human practice and institution should be evaluated in terms of its utility, which he defined as the amount of happiness it provides.

Jeremy Bentham

This Dominican friar made a living using the jingle, "As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, the soul from purgatory springs" -- It was his 1517 campaign to sell indulgences that compelled Martin Luther to write the 95 Theses

Johann Tetzel

In around 1456 this man from Mainz in the Holy Roman Empire printed the first true book using movable metal type, a copy of the Bible -- His invention greatly facilitated the spread of ideas in Europe and promoted scholarship and literacy

Johannes Gutenberg

The success of the Protestant Reformation was due in part to this man's invention of a metal movable type printing press in the 1450s, which encouraged literacy and greatly accelerated the speed with which ideas could spread throughout Europe

Johannes Gutenberg

In the early 1600s this German astronomer, using Tycho Brahe's data, provided precise mathematical formulas that explained the motion of the planets, thereby providing strong support for the heliocentric theory

Johannes Kepler

This 17th-century astronomer was the first to discover the mathematical formulas that explained the motion of the planets in the heliocentric system

Johannes Kepler

This German mathematician and astronomer and one-time assistant to Tycho Brahe was a supporter of heliocentrism -- In the early 17th century he used Brahe's data to develop his Three Laws of Planetary Motion

Johannes Kepler

In his 1535 book The Institutes of the Christian Religion this theologian set forth the main ideas of Protestantism

John Calvin

This 1535 this reformer published the single most important book of Protestant thought, entitled the Institutes of the Christian Religion

John Calvin

This Frenchman converted to Lutheranism as a young man and was forced to flee the persecution of Protestants by the French king -- He would end up in Geneva, which he would make into the most influential Protestant center in Europe

John Calvin

This 17th-century Englishman believed that people choose to enter a social contract to form a government which establishes and enforces laws to protect their natural rights (life, liberty, and property) from possible infringement by others -- If the government fails to protect those rights, people have the right to rebel!

John Locke

This 17th-century Englishman believed that the state of nature is not completely lawless -- It is governed by natural law (reason), and that men in the state of nature have the natural rights to life, liberty, and property

John Locke

During the Great Depression this British economist criticized the efforts of governments to deal with the crisis by cutting their spending; he argued that they should instead "prime the pump," that is increase government expenditures on public works in order to get their economies moving again.

John Maynard Keynes

In a 1920 book entitled The Economic Consequences of the Peace, this British economist condemned the Treaty of Versailles as immoral and unworkable, in particular the reparations imposed on Germany -- His arguments helped build support in Britain for revising the treaty to make it more lenient toward the Germans

John Maynard Keynes

This British economist argued that, during depressions, governments should act to stimulate consumer demand for goods by financing public works projects, if necessary using deficit spending

John Maynard Keynes

This popular pope led the Catholic Church from 1978-2005 -- Conservative on matters of faith and doctrine (rejecting the use of birth control, female priests, and clerical marriage), he supported resistance to communism in Eastern Europe and tirelessly travelled the globe to expand the church's influence in the non-western world

John Paul II

This 19th-century utilitarian was an early advocate of women's rights, including educational opportunities and the right to vote

John Stuart Mill

This utilitarian thinker's 1859 work On Liberty endorsed individual freedom and laissez-faire economics, but argued that society had an obligation to correct social injustices and redistribute some wealth to assist the poor

John Stuart Mill

When this clergyman began travelling around England in the 18th century preaching to often huge crowds in open fields, he did not want to split from the Church of England -- He was merely trying to better reach England's poor and reinvigorate the faith of those who longer attended church -- His efforts eventually led to the birth of the Methodist movement

John Wesley

This Habsburg ruler, who came to the throne in 1780, introduced many ambitious reforms in his realm. He granted religious toleration to Protestants and Jews, and in 1781 abolished serfdom. These changes were rejected by nobles and peasants alike, and were mostly reversed following his death.

Joseph II

This son of Maria Theresa was the enlightened monarch who attempted the most far-reaching reforms of the 18th century -- He abolished serfdom and the death penalty, imposed equal taxes on all classes, promoted religious toleration, and permitted more freedom of speech -- His reforms were generally not well-received by the elites, and most were undone after his death

Joseph II

These were the three most prominent enlightened monarchs (or despots) of the 18th century:

Joseph II (Austria) Frederick II ("the Great") (Prussia) Catherine II ("the Great") (Russia)

In the late 19th century this English surgeon's antiseptic system revolutionized modern surgery by greatly reducing the chances of infection

Joseph Lister

Following the death of Lenin, this man prevailed over Leon Trotsky to become the leader of the USSR -- Under his rule Russia underwent a rapid industrialization program, the collectivization of agriculture, and an extensive purge of perceived political enemies -- This leader would also lead his country to victory over Germany in WWII

Joseph Stalin

This communist leader of Yugoslavia from roughly 1943-1980 -- He insisted on keeping his country free from Soviet domination and on not aligning his country with either side during the Cold War -- He sought to suppress the nationalist sentiments within Yugoslavia that would erupt with the end of the Cold War

Josip Tito

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Judith Slaying Holofernes (1614-20) Gentileschi Baroque (Italian)

This "warrior pope" was ridiculed by Erasmus for his lack of piety, his deep involvement in worldly affairs, and his willingness to lead troops into battle

Julius II

This pope personally led the forces of the Papal States into battle against its enemies and is therefore remembered as the "Warrior Pope"

Julius II

This refers to any member of the landholding Prussian nobility

Junker

These landowning nobles of Prussia and Germany long monopolized the highest positions in the army and were exempt from most forms of taxation

Junkers

One of Galileo's most important discoveries with his telescope in the 17th century was the existence of four moons revolving around this planet:

Jupiter

According to this Lutheran doctrine, Christians can not earn their way into Heaven - salvation may only be achieved through belief in the promise of God to redeem mankind

Justification by Faith

This was Martin Luther's basic doctrine, based on his reading of the New Testament, that states that "good works" were neither sufficient nor required to earn one salvation -- only belief in God's love and mercy was necessary

Justification by Faith or Salvation by Faith Alone

This 19th-century writing team argued that women were oppressed by society on two different levels -- They were exploited by their husbands in the home AND used as a source of cheap labor by industry

Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels

The 1st of these 17th-century laws states that planets move in elliptical orbits, the 2nd that planets' orbits carve out equal area in equal time (in other words, they speed up as they get closer to the sun), and the 3rd that there is a precise mathematical relationship between each planet's distance from the sun and the time it takes to complete one orbit

Kepler's Three Laws of Planetary Motion

To maintain the new conservative order after 1815, this statesman espoused the principle of intervention, by which he meant that the great powers had the right to intervene militarily in other countries to crush revolutionary movements against legitimate rulers

Klemens von Metternich

From 1949-63 this West German chancellor of the Christian Democratic Union sought to tightly align his country with the western powers and resist the threat of Soviet domination -- He presided over a remarkable "economic miracle" in which citizens enjoyed dramatic improvements in their lifestyles

Konrad Adenauer

This chancellor of West Germany from 1949-63 led his nation out of the ruins of World War II to the "Economic Miracle" that made it the wealthiest country in Europe -- He pursued peaceful relations with France and European unification, and as a strong anti-communist joined NATO and became a strong US ally

Konrad Adenauer

In 1999, in the largest military action in Europe since the end of WWII, NATO launched an air campaign against Serbia to protect ethnic Albanians being removed from this province by Serb forces -- In 2008 this province declared itself an independent country

Kosovo

During his efforts to collectivize Soviet agriculture, Stalin resolved to "liquidate" (or destroy) this class of more prosperous peasants whom he regarded as barriers to his efforts to better secure control over his country's food supply and boost agricultural production

Kulaks

In the 1920s and 30s, as Stalin sought to secure greater control over Soviet agriculture, this term referred to peasants who seemed to be prospering under the terms of Lenin's New Economic Policy, which allowed them to sell their surplus grain on the open market -- During collectivization they were depicted as enemies of the proletariat, being deported or killed by Stalin's officials until they were "liquidated" as a class

Kulaks

This term, literally translated as "the beautiful era," refers to the period from 1871-1914 -- The term was coined following the horrors of World War I, compared to which this time period seemed to be one of optimism, progress, and improvement in man's material conditions

La Belle Époque

Although they disagreed on most things, economic thinkers Adam Smith and Karl Marx both emphasized the importance of this input in determining how much value a product has (how much it can be sold for)

Labor (The Labor Theory of Value)

This "Nine Day Queen" was a Tudor relative of Henry VIII placed on the throne of England by the advisors of Edward VI following the boy king's death -- She was soon thereafter deposed by supporters of Mary I and eventually executed for treason

Lady Jane Grey

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Las Meninas (The Maids of Honor) (1656) Velasquez Baroque (Spanish)

This Renaissance pope, the son of Lorenzo de Medici, was made a cardinal at age 13. He was a great patron of Renaissance artists such as Raphael , and was also pope in 1517 when Martin Luther launched the Protestant Reformation

Leo X

This man, the son of Lorenzo de Medici, was pope when Luther posted his 95 Theses; he said that Luther was just a drunken German and that he would feel differently once he sobered up

Leo X

This Russian Marxist was second only to Lenin in the Bolshevik Party -- During the Russian Civil War he founded the Red Army and led it to victory over the Whites -- Following Lenin's death he would engage in and ultimately lose a power struggle with Joseph Stalin for the succession

Leon Trotsky

This was Stalin's main rival for the leadership of the USSR following the death of Lenin -- He supported the rapid industrialization of Russia, ending the New Economic Policy, and efforts to export communism outside the USSR -- He would lose the power struggle and go into exile, ultimately being assassinated by a Stalinist agent in 1940

Leon Trotsky

Who is being described in the following passage?: "As commissar of war, he reinstated the draft and even recruited and gave commands to former tsarist army officers. He insisted on rigid discipline; soldiers who deserted or refused to obey orders were summarily executed. The Red Army became a formidable fighting force, largely due to this man's organizational genius"

Leon Trotsky

This genius seemed to embody the ideal of the Renaissance Man, for he was a scientist, an inventor, and an artist who used his knowledge of human anatomy and mathematics in his work -- His most famous pieces are the Mona Lisa and The Last Supper

Leonardo da Vinci

This successor to Nikita Khrushchev was leader of the USSR from 1964-82 -- His rule was generally marked by reduced tensions with the US (détente) and economic stagnation

Leonid Brezhnev

These documents issued by the French king allowed a subject to be sentenced and imprisoned without a trial

Lettres de cachet

In the Revolutions of 1848 this French king was forced to abdicate his throne -- He was replaced by the short-lived Second Republic, then by the Second Empire of Napoleon III

Louis Philippe

This son of Henry IV became king of France in 1610 -- His most important adviser would be the first minister, Cardinal Richelieu, who sought to centralize power under the monarchy

Louis XIII

This monarch, who ruled France from 1643-1715, was the dominant ruler of his era -- He sought to establish absolute monarchy, expand the borders of France through constant warfare, and restore Roman Catholicism as the only religion permitted within his realm

Louis XIV

This great-grandson of Louis XIV ruled France from 1715-1774 -- He was an ineffective ruler who engaged in financially-ruinous wars, including the Seven Years War in which France lost most of its overseas empire -- The French nobility also began to reclaim some of the power it had lost under Louis XIV, resisting his efforts to impose taxes upon them

Louis XV

This man was king of France from 1774-1792 -- During the French Revolution he was weak and indecisive, at times yielding to the will of the people but also seeking to preserve France's traditional institutions -- In January 1793 he became the only French king to ever be executed

Louis XVI

Following the abdication of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1814, this Bourbon brother of Louis XVI became ruler of France

Louis XVIII

This Bourbon king came to power in France in 1814 following the downfall of Napoleon and ruled until 1824 -- He understood that he could not take back the rights that had been granted to the French people since the Revolution, and was content to rule as a constitutional monarch under a document called the Charter -- He made no effort to reclaim lands lost by the nobles and church during the Revolution

Louis XVIII

The Revolutions of 1848 were sparked by the overthrow of this French king nicknamed the "bourgeois monarch"

Louis-Philippe

The event that sparked the Revolutions of 1848 was the overthrow of this French king:

Louis-Philippe

This French king came to power in the July Revolution of 1830 - He was more liberal than Charles X, and was known as the "bourgeois monarch" for protecting the interests of the business classes -- He showed little concern for the problems of France's working classes, and in 1848 popular uprisings forced him to abdicate the throne

Louis-Philippe

This Renaissance figure is best remembered for teaching that leaders of countries do not have the luxury of ruling according to some moral code; they must do whatever is necessary to protect their states and achieve their objectives

Machiavelli

This Renaissance thinker was much dismayed by the divisions and warfare between Italian city-states that prevented them from uniting, and hoped that a strong leader would emerge to restore unity and stability to the Italian peninsula

Machiavelli

This mistress and friend of Louis XV was an important adviser to the king who enjoyed a great deal of informal political influence at court in the mid-1700s -- She became involved in military and foreign affairs, and patronized artists and writers (including Voltaire)

Madame de Pompadour

In the Revolutions of 1848 this ethnic group demanded that Hungary be granted independence from the Austrian Empire, inspiring German Austrians to demand a constitution from the Habsburg emperor -- These efforts would ultimately fail (after initial successes) because of in-fighting amongst the rebel groups and troops provided to the Austrians by the Russians

Magyars

In 1867 the Austrian Empire found it necessary to sign an agreement with this ethnic group that created a dual monarchy. Each state was to be independent but united under the mutual leadership of Franz Joseph, who would wear the crowns of both the Austrian empire and this new monarchy.

Magyars (Hungarians)

This 16th-century school of art rejected the balanced, natural, dramatic depictions of the world in Renaissance art -- Human figures were often distorted, exaggerated, and elongated, and the lighting and colors were harsher

Mannerism (1520-1600)

This daughter of Catherine de Medici was forced to marry Henry of Navarre as part of her mother's efforts to secure peace between France's Catholics and Protestants

Marguerite (Margot)

The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 was intended to secure this woman's inheritance of all of the lands of the Habsburgs

Maria Theresa

This mother of Joseph II and Marie Antoinette was the only woman to ever rule the Habsburg lands -- She was opposed to many Enlightenment ideas, such as religious toleration, but she did introduce reforms such as improved tax collection, the abolishment of capital punishment, and mandatory education for all Austrian children

Maria Theresa

When in 1740 this woman inherited the lands of the Habsburgs following the death of her father Charles VI, Frederick II of Prussia promptly invaded the territory of Silesia, beginning the War of the Austrian Succession

Maria Theresa

The last words of this person, traditionally regarded as the first victim of France's Reign of Terror, were supposedly an apology to the executioner for stepping on his foot

Marie Antoinette

This Austrian woman, Napoleon's second wife, failed to join him in exile on Elba in 1814 -- Instead she returned home to Austria with their son and never saw her husband again

Marie-Louise

Although Protestants denied that this was a sacrament, they praised it as desirable, arguing that it had been ordained by God when he presented Eve to Adam, served as a "remedy" for the unavoidable sin of lust, allowed for the raising of God-fearing Christians, and provided men and women with companionship and consolation.

Marriage

In 1517 this priest and theology professor from Saxony challenged the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences, thereby inaugurating the Protestant Reformation

Martin Luther

In a pamphlet entitled Against the Robbing and Murdering Hordes of Peasants, this religious leader urged the German princes to ruthlessly suppress the peasant rebellion of the 1520s, demonstrating how much his movement depended upon the support of secular authorities

Martin Luther

These were the three most important 16th-century reformers, whose ideas became the basis for the doctrine and practices of most Protestant churches

Martin Luther Ulrich Zwingli John Calvin

This daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon restored the Catholic faith to England when she became queen in 1553 -- She would marry the future Philip II of Spain, and she earned her infamous nickname for having around 300 Protestants executed for heresy during her reign

Mary I ("Bloody Mary")

In 1818 this woman published Frankenstein at age 19 after her friend Lord Byron challenged her to write a tale of the supernatural

Mary Shelley

In her Vindication of the Rights of Woman this 18th-century writer asserted that women possessed the same reason as men and were therefore entitled to the same rights and education -- she is regarded as the founder of the European feminist movement

Mary Wollstonecraft

This Englishwoman argued in the 18th century that the Enlightenment was based on an ideal of reason innate in all human beings, and that if women have reason, then they too are entitled to the same rights that men have

Mary Wollstonecraft

One of the factors that contributed to Philip II's decision to launch the Spanish Armada was the execution of this woman, the heir to the English throne

Mary, Queen of Scots

The final straw that convinced Philip II to send the Armada against England might have been Elizabeth I's execution of this woman, her cousin and the Catholic heir to the throne of England

Mary, Queen of Scots

This cousin of Queen Elizabeth aspired to take the throne of England and return the country to Catholicism; in 1587 she was finally executed by Elizabeth after many years of imprisonment

Mary, Queen of Scots

This woman ruled at one time as queen of France and Scotland -- She was a devout Catholic, a cousin of Elizabeth I, and the heir to the English throne -- Elizabeth kept her in captivity for 19 years and, after years of wavering, finally had her executed for plotting against her life and throne

Mary, Queen of Scots

This German physicist in 1900 formulated the quantum theory, which states that energy exists in individual units called quanta rather than as a constant electromagnetic wave, undermining the teachings of classical, Newtonian physics; he thereby established a new branch of physics known as quantum mechanics, which focuses on the study of atomic and subatomic particles

Max Planck

This early machine gun, invented in 1883, was a key factor in Britain's success in the "Scramble for Africa."

Maxim Gun

In 1789 this bourgeois lawyer was a deputy for the Third Estate in the Estates-General -- As the revolution progressed, he became a leader of the Jacobin Club and the "Mountain," and as the dominant member of the Committee of Public Safety he presided over the Reign of Terror until his own execution in July 1794

Maximilien Robespierre

Karl Marx used this phrase to refer to any resources, like land, tools, factories, and raw materials, that are used to create goods and wealth

Means of Production

This work, published by Hitler between 1925-26, was part autobiography and part explanation of his political views -- He clearly states his opposition to Judaism and communism, his desire to overthrow the restrictions of the Treaty of Versailles, and the need for Germany to acquire more "living space" in the East

Mein Kampf

This Russian Marxist party split from the Bolsheviks in 1903 -- Its members tended to be more moderate than the Bolsheviks, believing that Russia could not have a proletariat revolution until it was more fully industrialized and that it was acceptable to participate in the liberal Provisional Government set up following the abdication of Nicholas II in March 1917

Mensheviks

This economic doctrine, embraced by European states from the 16th-18th centuries, holds that the prosperity and well-being of a country depends upon the amount of bullion (gold and silver) it controls -- It emphasizes maintaining a favorable balance of trade by maximizing exports and minimizing imports

Mercantilism

This economic philosophy under which governments carefully regulate their economies to maximize their control of gold and silver dominated the Age of Exploration

Mercantilism

This economic theory held that there is a limited amount of wealth in the world, and that governments therefore needed to carefully regulate their economies to maximize their access to precious metals

Mercantilism

This economic theory, dominant during the Age of Exploration, held that a country's political and economic well-being was determined primarily by its supply of precious metals -- It was believed that the government needed to play a heavy role in regulating the economy, especially in maintaining a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports!)

Mercantilism

This is the name given to the set of economic policies followed by the European states in the 16th and 17th centuries; they were designed to ensure that a country exported more goods than they imported

Mercantilism

What term embodies the set of beliefs and practices described in the following passage? "To encourage exports, governments should stimulate and protect export industries and trade by granting trade monopolies, encouraging investment in new industries through subsidies, importing foreign artisans, and improving transportation systems by building roads, bridges, and canals. By placing high tariffs on foreign goods, they could be kept out of the country and prevented from competing with domestic industries."

Mercantilism

This type of map projection is very valuable to ship captains because it allowed for accurate navigation, but it greatly distorts the size of the land masses at the poles

Mercator Projection

Although the city-states of Renaissance Italy often claimed to be republics, most were dominated by the elite members of this profession, who also were the primary consumers of Renaissance art and literature

Merchants ("The mercantile elite")

Although the city-states of Renaissance Italy often claimed to be republics, most were dominated by the elite members of this social group, who also were the primary consumers of Renaissance art and literature

Merchants ("The mercantile elite")

This religious movement arose in England during the 18th century in response to a perceived indifference and lack of enthusiasm in the Anglican Church -- Its leaders began giving passionate, open-air sermons outside of the traditional church structure, urging listeners to confess their sins and be spiritually reborn -- Its most important preacher was John Wesley

Methodism

Following the disastrous French invasion of Russia in 1812, this Austrian foreign minister seemed willing to negotiate with Napoleon and to allow him to remain in power, for he hoped to maintain him as a counterweight to the Russians -- Napoleon, however, insisted on fighting on

Metternich

It was largely at the insistence of this statesman that in the 1820s French and Austrian troops invaded both Spain and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies to reverse liberal revolutions and restore the legitimate monarchs to their thrones.

Metternich

This artist from Florence, who had received the patronage of Lorenzo de Medici, claimed to be primarily a sculptor, not a painter -- During the Renaissance he produced the Pietà, the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and a huge marble statue of David

Michelangelo

This late-19th-century Russian revolutionary is often regarded as the father of anarchist theory -- He rejected all governing systems as oppressive, advocating a society in which free workers would collectively control the means of production

Mikhail Bakunin

This was the last leader of the USSR -- He governed the country from 1985-91, introducing a number of political and economic reforms to revitalize the communist system and reduce Cold War tensions -- His policies led to the liberation of Eastern Europe from Soviet domination and brought new freedoms to his people, but also resulted in the dissolution of the USSR and the end of his career

Mikhail Gorbachev

Upon becoming leader of the Soviet Union in 1985, this man began introducing a series of reforms designed to preserve the failing communist system

Mikhail Gorbachev

Name three of the 5 major powers that dominated the Italian peninsula in the 15th century

Milan Venice Florence The Papal States Naples

This Englishwoman took a moderate approach to securing the vote for women, believing that the more militant and violent approach of Emmeline Pankhurst actually undermined the suffrage movement

Millicent Fawcett

In 1519 this Aztec ruler at first welcomed the arrival of Hernán Cortés and his soldiers, believing him to be a representative of an Aztec god, but a conflict soon broke out that cost him his empire and his life

Moctezuma (or Montezuma)

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

Mona Lisa (1503-06) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance

During the English Reformation Henry VIII seized the land and possessions of these Catholic institutions and sold much of it to the English nobility

Monasteries

During the Reformation, these Catholic institutions disappeared in those areas of Europe that had embraced Protestantism

Monasteries and Convents

This 16th-century writer and thinker grew up during the French Wars of Religion. Although he was a Catholic, he approached all questions with an open, tolerant mind, and he doubted that any faith had a monopoly on truth. He is remembered as a founder of a school of thought known as skepticism, which doubts that total certainty or absolute knowledge are ever attainable.

Montaigne

In The Spirit of the Laws (1748) this philosophe argued that government power should be divided among several different branches of government

Montesquieu

In the Spirit of the Laws this philosophe argued that no single political system is best for all peoples -- A country's ideal form of government was dependent upon its particular conditions, circumstances, and history

Montesquieu

This 18th-century Frenchman praised England's government for separating power among three branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) and for providing a system of checks & balances

Montesquieu

This French aristocrat wanted to limit royal absolutism, and urged in his book The Spirit of the Laws (1748) that power be separated among three branches of government: the executive, the legislative, and the judicial

Montesquieu

This philosophe believed that the separate executive, judicial, and legislative powers in England served to balance and control each other

Montesquieu

In the Catholic faith, these are serious sins, such as murder or blasphemy, which break a Christian's relationship with God and condemn him/her to Hell if they go unconfessed and if penance is not completed before one dies

Mortal Sins

A combined Catholic and Protestant force in 1535 brutally toppled the radical Anabaptist regime established in this German city -- These Anabaptists were unique in their willingness to use violence (most Anabaptists were pacifists), the introduction of polygamy, and the abolition of all private property

Münster

This military alliance, established in 1949, provided for its members, which included the US, Canada, and most of the countries of western Europe, to come to each other's aid in the event of an attack -- Its primary objective was to resist an invasion by the Soviet Union

NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization)

1492

Name the Year: Columbus Discovers the "New World" (& Reconquista Completed & Jews Expelled from Spain)

1543

Name the Year: Copernicus Publishes On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres (& Vesalius Publishes On the Structure of the Human Body)

1598

Name the Year: Henry IV Issues the Edict of Nantes

1933

Name the Year: Hitler Appointed German Chancellor

1687

Name the Year: Isaac Newton Publishes Principia Mathematica

1769

Name the Year: James Watt Produces His Steam Engine

1992

Name the Year: Maastricht Treaty Creates European Union

1517

Name the Year: Martin Luther Composes His 95 Theses

1848

Name the Year: Marx and Engels Publish the Communist Manifesto

1815

Name the Year: The Congress of Vienna

1545

Name the Year: The Council of Trent Opens

1588

Name the Year: The Defeat of the Spanish Armada

1649

Name the Year: The Execution of Charles I

1453

Name the Year: The Fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks

1989

Name the Year: The Fall of the Berlin Wall

1917

Name the Year: The Russian Revolution

1871

Name the Year: The Unification of Germany

1861

Name the Year: The Unification of Italy

1929

Name the Year: US Stock Market Crash Helps Bring on Great Depression

1715

Name the Years: Death of Louis XIV

1527

Name the Years: High Renaissance Ends in Italy

1789

Name the Years: The French Revolution Begins

1648

Name the Years: The Peace of Westphalia Ends the Thirty Years' War

1914-1918

Name the Years: World War I

1939-1945

Name the Years: World War II

This talented Corsican military officer took advantage of the unpopularity of the Directory to overthrow it in a 1799 coup d'etat and establish himself as ruler of France, eventually assuming the title of emperor -- His military campaigns succeeded in establishing French dominance over much of the European continent before his united enemies finally succeeded in defeating him for good in 1815

Napoleon Bonaparte

At the end of the Franco-Prussian War this French emperor was forced to abdicate

Napoleon III

This French ruler had a fondness for Italy, having lived there during his youth. At a secret July 1858 meeting with Cavour at Plombières, he promised to send troops to aid Piedmont in a war against Austria

Napoleon III

This nephew of Napoleon was the first president of the 2nd Republic established in 1848 -- By 1852 he had proclaimed the 2nd Empire and had himself crowned emperor -- During his authoritarian rule he quashed political opposition, promoted free trade and prosperity, and sought to reclaim the glory and power France had known under his uncle

Napoleon III

One of the most significant results of the Napoleonic Wars was the encouragement of these two political movements -- In one, Europeans sought to unite their ethnic groups in single states; in the other they sought more protection for individual freedoms by limiting the power of their governments

Nationalism & Liberalism

This Romanov was the last tsar of Russia, presiding over his country during its disastrous performance in WWI and being forced to abdicate in March 1917 -- In July 1918 the Bolsheviks executed him and his entire family

Nicholas II

This man was as determined as his father Alexander III had been to uphold the autocracy in Russia, but he lacked his father's iron will and determination. His wife, the German-born Alexandra, exerted considerable influence over him

Nicholas II

In the 16th century this Polish astronomer formulated a new, heliocentric model of the solar system that is often regarded as the starting-point of the Scientific Revolution

Nicholaus Copernicus

This successor to Joseph Stalin led the USSR from 1953-64, presiding over efforts to de-Stalinize the country, advance the exploration of space, boost agricultural productivity, make more consumer goods available, and permit a higher degree of artistic freedom

Nikita Khrushchev

On the eve of the French Revolution, members of this social group owned about 25% of the land in France and were exempt from most taxes; they also continued to enjoy certain manorial rights on their lands, such as the exclusive right to hunt and fish, monopolies on baking bread and pressing grapes for wine, and fees for administering justice.

Nobles (or the 2nd Estate)

This term refers to those more established, traditional French nobles whose nobility was based upon their ancestors' military service to the French monarchy

Nobles of the Sword

This June 1944 Allied invasion of France was the largest amphibious operation in history -- It opened up a western front against the Germans and within months forced the Germans to abandon most of France

Normandy Invasion or D-Day

This part of the United Kingdom was torn by conflict between the majority Protestants and minority Catholics for much of the 20th century

Northern Ireland

Protestant leaders emphasized that the primary role of women was to be wives and mothers, and they left few other alternatives for women because they had shut down these Catholic institutions, in which women had enjoyed a significant amount of power and responsibility

Nunneries

The Chartists or The Chartist Movement

Often considered the world's first labor movement, this group of English workers beginning in 1838 began demanding a higher degree of democracy, including the vote for all men, annual elections, and secret ballots -- By 1850 the movement had fizzled out

This term refers to a government by a small group of people at the top of society, such as the merchant families that largely controlled the republican government of Florence

Oligarchy

This man rose to prominence as a leader of the Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War -- He was an independent Puritan who supported the execution of King Charles I in 1649, after which he ruled the Commonwealth largely as a military dictator until his death in 1658

Oliver Cromwell

During the Reign of Terror, this woman, the author of the Declaration of the Rights of Women & a fierce advocate of women's rights, lost her head to the guillotine

Olympe de Gouges

This work by Copernicus, published while he was on his deathbed in 1543, proposed a heliocentric model of the universe and is regarded as the first important work of the Scientific Revolution

On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres

Nitrogen

One advantage of crops like clover and turnips, which were systematically planted in formerly fallow fields after the Agricultural Revolution, is that they restore this nutrient to the soil

Guilds

One of the advantages of introducing the "putting-out" system in rural areas was that it allowed merchants to avoid the restrictions placed upon manufacturing by these business organizations that dominated trade in towns and cities

Bubonic Plague

One of the factors in the dramatic population growth Europe experienced starting in the 18th century was the dying out of this disease; the last major outbreak was in France in 1720

In 1862 this conservative Junker became the prime minister of Prussia -- In an effort to quash the growing power of liberals in the Prussian parliament, he took up the banner of German nationalism and led Prussia into three wars, at the end of which the German states had been unified under Prussian leadership

Otto von Bismarck

In the late 19th century this conservative statesman, in an effort to win the support of working-class people in Germany, established the first national social security system

Otto von Bismarck

Soon after Wilhelm II became German kaiser in 1888, he came into conflict with this esteemed German chancellor over both foreign and domestic policy and decided to dismiss him.

Otto von Bismarck

There was such resentment of Peter the Great's campaign to require all Russian men to be clean shaven that he finally relented, allowing them to keep their beards if they did this:

Paid a Tax

This arrogant 16th-century physician challenged Galen when he stated that disease was not caused by an imbalance of the four humors, but by chemical imbalances that could be treated with chemical remedies

Paracelsus

In the latter half of the 19th century the birth rate fell in nearly every country in Western Europe because ...

Parents were deciding to have smaller families as the cost of raising children increased

The 17th century in England was dominated by a struggle for power between these two institutions

Parliament & the Monarchy

This process was developed by a French chemist who began studying fermentation in 1854 at the request of brewers. He used his microscope to develop a simple test that brewers could use to avoid the spoilage of their products, and discovered that fermentation depended on the growth of living organisms. He created this method, today named after him, to suppress the activity of the organisms by heating the beverages.

Pasteurization

In 1721 Peter the Great abolished this high church position within the Russian Orthodox Church. In its place he established a synod headed by a layman, called the procurator general, to rule the church in accordance with secular requirements. This action was the most radical transformation of a traditional institution during Peter's reign

Patriarch

This term simply refers to those wealthy institutions, families, and individuals who provided financial support to Renaissance artists, providing them with studios and materials and commissioning works of art; two examples would be the Catholic Church and Lorenzo de Medici

Patrons

In 1933 this president of the Weimar Republic, fearing the growing power of the Communist Party in Germany, took the fateful step of appointing Hitler Chancellor.

Paul von Hindenberg

This Renaissance thinker famously argued in his 1486 Oration on the Dignity of Man that man has the potential to figuratively become whatever he wants, whether it be one who soars with angels or one who crawls with insects

Pico della Mirandola

Between 1903 and 1906, these took place in almost 700 Russian towns and villages, mostly in the Ukraine. These organized massacres of Jews compelled thousands of Russian Jews to emigrate to the United States, Canada, and Palestine.

Pogroms

Between 1772 and 1795 this country was partitioned, with its various territories being divided between Austria, Prussia, and Russia

Poland

This country's political and military strength could not match that of its stronger, more ambitious neighbors. Its partitioning in the late 18th century clearly demonstrated that any nation that had not established a strong monarchy, bureaucracy, and army could no longer compete within the European state system

Poland

World War II began when on September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded this country

Poland

During the late 16th century, this term referred to a leader who believed that politics was more important than religion and who preferred peace and stability to religious war

Politique

During the religious conflicts of the 16th century, this term referred to a ruler, such as Catherine de Medici or Elizabeth I, who was willing to compromise on matters of religion in order to secure peace, stability, and control over his/her kingdom

Politique

This pope, known as "the warrior pope" for personally leading troops into battle, was condemned by Erasmus for his neglect of his spiritual duties as he sought to expand papal power in Italy -- He also was an important patron of Michelangelo, commissioning the great artist to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling

Pope Julius II

This son of Lorenzo de Medici became pope in 1513 -- He was a secularly-minded humanist and patronized artists like Raphael -- He also unsuccessfully sought to suppress Martin Luther after he composed his 95 Theses in 1517

Pope Leo X

Historians now believe that this was the primary cause of the increased inflation rate experienced by Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries

Population increase

Christopher Columbus spent a number of years in this country, the first European kingdom to pursue overseas exploration in the 15th century, before moving to Spain and unsuccessfully sought its support for his trans-Atlantic voyage

Portugal

During the Age of Exploration explorers and traders from this country became the first to establish direct contact with China and Japan

Portugal

This country situated on the Atlantic Ocean took the lead in the Age of Exploration and was responsible for the first significant new discoveries

Portugal

This school of art was composed of late 19th-century artists such as Van Gogh who were largely reacting against impressionism, seeking to be more radical and individualistic, distorting shapes and intensifying colors in order to convey emotion

Post-Impressionism

Name two foods previously unknown to Europeans that were discovered in the New World during the Age of Exploration:

Potato Corn Tomato Sweet Potato Chocolate

In 1800 Napoleon established these new officials to govern the French departments (administrative districts) -- They were responsible for maintaining public order and ensuring that the policies of his central government were being carried out -- They were similar to the intendants in pre-Revolutionary France

Prefects

Napoleon created these officials to protect the interests of his government and increase his authority over the French provinces -- They used semaphores (signal flags) to communicate with Paris

Prefects

In this system of church government, first developed by John Calvin, each congregation chooses elders (presbyters) to represent it in an assembly empowered to make decisions for all of the congregations

Presbyterian System

During the English Civil War, these were the moderate Puritans who wanted to replace the episcopal system of church government with the more democratic, decentralized presbyterian system -- They also favored sparing the life of Charles I

Presbyterians

This 15th-century Portuguese prince was an important early advocate and patron of European exploration, financing numerous Portuguese voyages down the western coast of Africa in order to advance maritime knowledge and acquire profits through trade

Prince Henry the Navigator

This important Portuguese sponsor of exploration along the coast of West Africa during the 15th century actually spent hardly any time at sea himself

Prince Henry the Navigator

This man is responsible for sponsoring and encouraging the first European voyages down the coast of Africa; by the time he died the Portuguese had made it as far as modern Liberia

Prince Henry the Navigator

The culmination of the Scientific Revolution was the 1687 publication of this work by Sir Isaac Newton

Principia Mathematica (or Principia)

This 1687 work by Isaac Newton is considered perhaps the most important scientific book ever published -- It contained his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation, explaining the movement of all bodies in the universe and ending all doubts about heliocentrism

Principia or Principia Mathematica

Dowry

Prior to marriage, young women in Western Europe were most concerned to accumulate one of these, which they could contribute toward setting up independent households with their future husbands

Midwives

Prior to the 19th century, the overwhelming majority of babies were delivered by these women, who specialized in aiding women during labor, birthing children, and treating other female ailments

Common Lands

Prior to the Agricultural Revolution, most western European villages traditionally set aside these fields, accessible to all in the community, to be used as pasture for livestock and for the production of hay

The Open-Field System

Prior to the Agricultural Revolution, this was the standard method of farming in western Europe, in which villagers worked together to sow and harvest their crops -- The lands were divided into long, narrow, individually-owned strips, and there were no hedges or fences limiting access to them

The resources to set up independent households

Prior to the Industrial Revolution, men and women in Western Europe were forced to delay marriage until they were in their mid- to late-twenties as they sought to acquire this:

In order to secure greater control over the Russian Orthodox Church, Peter the Great created this secular government office to serve as the head of the church (replacing the traditional church position of patriarch)

Procurator

Under the Hohenzollern rulers this country's rulers concentrated on securing the loyalty of the Junkers (nobles) and building the 3rd or 4th strongest army in Europe (even though it was only 13th in population size)

Prussia

Starting in the late 19th century, Sigmund Freud pioneered this method for treating mental illness, in which patients were encouraged to speak freely in order to retrieve from their unconscious minds their repressed memories, desires, and conflicts

Psychoanalysis

This ancient astronomer and geographer had dramatically underestimated the circumference of the earth, leading Columbus and other adventurers to believe that it would be possible to sail west from Europe to reach Asia

Ptolemy

This astronomer, geographer, and mathematician lived in Egypt in the 2nd century A.D. -- His geocentric model of the universe was the accepted standard prior to the Scientific Revolution

Ptolemy

During the 16th and 17th centuries, these English Protestants were dissatisfied with Elizabeth I's religious settlement and the Church of England -- They hoped to remove all remaining Catholic elements from the Church of England and replace the episcopal system of church government with the presbyterian system

Puritans

This new branch of physics emerges in the late 19th century and involves the study of the motion and processes of very small particles like atoms and electrons; some of its main contributors were Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg, and Albert Einstein, and their work entailed a challenge to the laws of classical physics established by Isaac Newton

Quantum Mechanics

This was the most important French settlement in Canada; in the mid-18th century it was lost to the English at the end of the Seven Years' War

Quebec

This antimalarial drug first became widely available in the 1850s; it was a key factor in the European ability to quickly overrun and colonize Africa in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Quinine

This Renaissance artist produced many paintings of the Madonna and Jesus as well as a fresco called The School of Athens

Raphael

This Renaissance artist produced many paintings of the Madonna with the baby Jesus, as well as a large fresco in the pope's library that depicted the great philosophers, scientists, mathematicians, and rulers of Ancient Greece known as the School of Athens

Raphael

This Russian mystic came to have great influence over the Romanov family during the last years of their reign because of his perceived ability to alleviate the suffering of the hemophiliac child Alexei -- His scandalous reputation helped to discredit the Romanov family and might have contributed to their downfall

Rasputin

This 19th century school of art was concerned to paint the world "as it is" without idealization -- it often depicted the labors and struggles of average workers and peasants

Realism

This German term, usually associated with Otto von Bismarck, refers to an approach to politics that dispenses with any ethical or moral concerns -- One simply does whatever is necessary to increase the power of one's state and protect its interests

Realpolitik

In November 1793 the radicals who had taken charge of the French Revolution decreed that Notre Dame was no longer a Catholic cathedral, but rather a temple dedicated to the worship of this:

Reason

This 1790 work by Edmund Burke, published early in the French Revolution, condemned the rapid changes the French were making in their government and institutions and argued gradual reforms that respected tradition -- It became one of the founding works of European conservatism

Reflections on the Revolution in France

17th-century Frenchman Voltaire urged man to "crush the infamous thing" -- What was the infamous thing?

Religious Intolerance

What was the "infamous thing" that philosophe Voltaire wanted to "crush"?

Religious Intolerance

What was the "infamous thing" that the famed philosope Voltaire sought to "crush"?

Religious intolerance

This thinker of the Scientific Revolution famously doubted the reliability of his own senses and therefore rejected empiricism as a means of acquiring knowledge

René Descartes

When he wrote "cogito ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am) this 17th-century thinker was explaining the process in which he rejected all he had been taught and resolved to rebuild all of his knowledge from scratch using reason alone

René Descartes

Following the end of WWII in Europe, the Americans, British, and French quickly suspended the collection of these payments in their zones of occupation in Germany once they realized how devastated the German economy was

Reparations

This term refers to the war debt that Germany was required to pay to the Allies at the end of World War I; in 1921 it was calculated to be $31.4 billion dollars, to be repaid over an extended period of time.

Reparations

A psychological defense mechanism identified by Sigmund Freud, this term refers to an individual's efforts to repel an unacceptable desire or impulse from the conscious mind into the unconscious

Repression

This utopian socialist created a textile mill in New Lanark, Scotland in 1799 that provided good housing for his workers and schools for their children -- It served as a model for reformers who sought to improve the treatment of the working classes by their employers

Robert Owen

The artists of this 18th-19th century school of art had a fascination with the Middle Ages and exotic cultures -- they were interested in things unknown, mysterious, & supernatural

Romanticism

This artistic school of the early and mid-18th century is sometimes referred to as the Counter-Enlightenment school for its rejection of the calm, orderly works of the neoclassical artists

Romanticism

This school of art thrived in the early 1800s as a rejection of the reason and order of the Enlightenment and neoclassicism -- it valued the personal, subjective views and experiences of the artist, emphasizing feelings, emotion, passion, spontaneity, & instinct

Romanticism

This female German communist opposed her country's participation in World War I, co-founding the anti-war Spartacist League, which eventually became the German Communist Party -- She was murdered in January 1919 following a failed communist effort to overthrow the Weimar Republic.

Rosa Luxemburg

In his novel entitled Émile this philosophe advocated an approach to education that allowed children to pursue and develop their natural instincts

Rousseau

This philosophe was vigorously opposed to equality for women, insisting that their proper sphere was in the home and that they remain under the authority of men; he urged that they be "closed up in their houses [where they] must receive the decisions of fathers and husbands like that of the church!"

Rousseau

This philosophe's emphasis on the freedom enjoyed by man in the state of nature, his belief that civilization had corrupted man, and his rejection of an exclusive reliance upon reason make him, the eyes of many, the founder of Romanticism

Rousseau

Of all European countries in the 18th century, the effectiveness of the rulers of this country was most limited by their country's enormous land area

Russia

Name one major European country that did not experience a revolution in 1848

Russia England Sweden

As hostesses of these gatherings of intellectuals during the Enlightenment, many upper-class women acquired a greater degree of cultural and political influence than they had ever enjoyed

Salons

These 18th-century gatherings created environments free of religious dogma and political censorship. Attendees included members of the intellectual, economic, and social elites, who were free to debate the issues of the day and think critically about almost any question. They brought together philosophes, French nobles, and prosperous businessmen, and usually took place in the private drawing rooms of wealthy hostesses.

Salons

These gatherings of intellectuals during the Enlightenment were usually hosted in the private homes of aristocratic women, who served as mediators of discussions of literature, politics, and religion -- They were attended by nobles and members of the bourgeoisie, helping to break down social barriers

Salons

During the French Revolution this term referred to the working classes of the cities who supported the most radical policies, such as a greater degree of democracy, price controls on food, and the ruthless punishment of those opposed to the Revolution -- They played key roles in such events as the assault on the Bastille and the Women's March on Versailles

Sans-culottes

This term refers to Renaissance humanists' concern to focus upon the nature, opportunities, and needs of this world, as opposed to God, salvation, and the afterlife -- It did not necessarily mean a rejection of Christianity or religious beliefs

Secularism

The realization of this principle, according to which each ethnic group has the right to form its own state and choose its own government, was one of the war aims of the Allies in World War I and included in Woodrow Wilson's 14 Points; it was the basis for the dismantling of the Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian empires in the aftermath of the war.

Self-determination

This Russian finance minister under Tsar Nicholas II presided over a period of extensive industrialization within Russia which included an ambitious program of railroad construction, increased foreign investment, and the improved education of industrial personnel

Sergei Witte

How many prisoners were actually liberated during the storming of the Bastille on July 14, 1789?

Seven

This Renaissance painting technique, associated primarily with Leonardo da Vinci, involves blending multiple layers of paint to make it appear as if a veil of smoke separates the viewer from the painting -- This hazy effect is apparent in the ambiguous expression of the Mona Lisa

Sfumato

The War of the Austrian Succession began in 1740 when Frederick the Great seized this Austrian province

Silesia

This French feminist and existentialist philosopher is best remembered for her work The Second Sex, in which she argued that men stereotyped women as mysterious and deviant in order to justify keeping them subordinate

Simone de Beavoir

This was the practice, condemned as corrupt by many reformers, of buying and selling positions within the Catholic Church hierarchy

Simony

This English sailor was the most famous of the Sea Dogs enlisted by Elizabeth I as privateers to harass and seize Spanish shipments of gold and silver from the New World -- In 1588 he served as one of the commanders of the British fleet that defeated the Spanish Armada

Sir Francis Drake

This famous Christian humanist and friend of Henry VIII refused to acknowledge his king as the head of the Church of England and paid for it with his life

Sir Thomas More

This friend and advisor of Henry VIII served as Lord Chancellor of England but was executed for refusing to acknowledge the king as the head of the church

Sir Thomas More

17th- and 18th-century thinkers Hobbes, Locke, and Rousseau each based their political theories on this theoretical agreement through which humans left the state of nature and granted authority to a government

Social Contract

This is a theoretical agreement through which man agrees to leave the state of nature and empowers a government to rule

Social Contract

This idea, most closely associated with Herbert Spencer, justified European imperial expansion in the late 19th century -- It held that the world's various ethnic groups were locked in struggle with one another for dominance, and that the strongest peoples would prevail

Social Darwinism

This independent labor union was established in Poland in the early 1980s under the leadership of Lech Walesa -- Although outlawed and forced to go underground, in 1989 the Polish government recognized it and pledged to hold multiparty elections, thus ending communist control over the country

Solidarity

When the League of Nations was established in 1920, these three major powers were not among its members, greatly undermining its power and legitimacy. Two of them would eventually join the organization.

Soviet Union Germany The United States

These were the primary territories directly governed by Philip II as king of Spain from 1556-98

Spain Portugal Kingdom of Naples (southern Italy) The Netherlands The New World

In 1494, in order to reduce the chance of conflict, the Treaty of Tordesillas divided up the world's newly discovered territories between these two countries

Spain & Portugal

The 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas divided the newly discovered lands of the Age of Exploration between these two countries

Spain & Portugal

In 1815 this island in the south Atlantic became Napoleon's final place of exile following his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo -- He would die here in 1821

St. Helena

These were the four most significant industries that emerged during the 2nd Industrial Revolution of the late 19th and early 20th centuries:

Steel production Electricity Chemicals Petroleum

In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, male politicians often used this derisive term to refer to those women who were vocal and aggressive in demanding the right to vote

Suffragettes

Europeans used slave labor to grow a wide range of profitable crops on the islands of the Caribbean; this was the most important and profitable of these crops

Sugar

Prior to the Industrial Revolution and the rise of cotton as a cash crop, this was the most important, valuable product of the New World exported to Europe:

Sugar

The introduction of this lucrative crop into the New World by the Portuguese in the 16th century did much to fuel the growth of the slave trade

Sugar

This crop is actually native to the South Pacific, but during ancient times gradually made its way to the Mediterranean. Plantations for its growth were established by Italians and the Portuguese on the islands of the Atlantic in the late 15th century, at which time African slaves became the main source of labor for its cultivation. It was originally an expensive luxury only affordable for wealthy Europeans, but demand increased as the population grew and became more prosperous. Columbus would introduce the crop in the West Indies, and it became the first great money crop in the New World.

Sugar

The Portuguese first transported African slaves in large numbers to Brazil and the Caribbean to supply labor for large plantations that grew this crop:

Sugarcane

This early 20th century school of art was an expression of the hidden reality within the mind of the artist, juxtaposing unexpected objects to create hallucinatory, dream-like scenes that defied reason

Surrealism

This school of art, which first emerged in the 1920s, presented viewers with odd, dreamlike scenes and was heavily influenced by Freudian psychology

Surrealism

This early 20th century school of art was an expression of the hidden reality within the mind of the artist, juxtaposing unexpected objects to create hallucinatory, dream-like scenes that defied reason

Surrealism (1920-1930s)

This became one the goals of European environmentalists in the 1960s; it may be defined as an approach to economic growth that seeks to preserve the globe's natural resources, maintain the long-term well-being of the planet, and extend the benefits of prosperity to all social classes

Sustainable Development

Gustavus Adolphus, the king of this country, intervened in the Thirty Years' War on the side of the Protestants and led them to many victories before dying in battle

Sweden

17th-century Englishman John Locke used this Latin term to refer to man's condition at birth -- He did not believe man was born with his identity predetermined, but rather was shaped by his experiences during life -- This became the basis of the Enlightenment idea that better institutions and policies could improve man's condition

Tabula Rasa ("Blank Slate")

The Netherlands and Great Britain

The 17th and 18th century technological advancements of the Agricultural Revolution were largely developed in these two countries:

This disastrous 1812 invasion was the beginning of the end for Napoleon -- He began with over 600,000 men, but fewer than 100,000 made it back to France -- Within two years the Allies would force him to abdicate

The 1812 Russian Campaign

This crisis began in 1973 after the West supported Israel against the Arabs in the Yom Kippur War -- OPEC (the Organization of Petroleum-Exporting Countries) responded by placing an embargo on the sale of oil to the West, leading to high oil prices, inflation, and unemployment

The 1973 Oil Crisis

In pre-Revolutionary France, this social order was made up of all clergymen, from bishops to parish priests -- It included less than 1% of the population and could not be taxed

The 1st Estate

Napoleon III established this government in France in 1852 after he overthrew the 2nd Republic, of which he had been president -- During this era France sought to regain its former prestige by becoming involved in the Crimean War, assisting Piedmont against the Austrians, and declaring war on Prussia in 1870

The 2nd Empire

This social order included all of France's nobles, between 1-2% of the population -- They were exempt from most taxes

The 2nd Estate

The creation of this new German political entity was proclaimed in January 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles following the Prussian defeat of France

The 2nd Reich

This short-lived republic was established in France in 1848 following the ousting of Louis Philippe -- Its first president was Louis Napoleon (the future Napoleon III)

The 2nd Republic

This social order included about 97% of the population of pre-Revolutionary France -- It was made up of the peasantry, the bourgeoisie, and the sans-culottes, and it carried most of France's tax burden

The 3rd Estate

In 1517 Martin Luther compiled this list of arguments against the Catholic Church's sale of indulgences (and possibly posted this list on the door of Castle Church in Wittenberg) -- They initiated the conflict with the pope that ultimately led to the Lutheran split from the Catholic Church

The 95 Theses

Because her sister Mary I had restored England to the Catholic faith during her reign, Elizabeth I in 1559 had Parliament pass legislation known by this name, as her father had done, to make the monarch once again the head of the Church of England

The Act of Supremacy

This legislation, passed by Parliament in 1534, made Henry VIII the head of the Church of England and created a permanent spilt with the Catholic Church based in Rome -- Decades later, his daughter Elizabeth I would have Parliament pass a similar act

The Act of Supremacy

Members of this Protestant group angered secular rulers by demanding complete separation of church and state & refusing to serve in the army or hold political office

The Anabaptists

Members of this Protestant sect believed that Christians had to voluntarily profess their faith and therefore advocated adult rather than infant baptism

The Anabaptists

These were the radicals and outcasts of the Protestant Reformation who believed that only true believers could be members of the church and therefore that baptism should be delayed until one reached adulthood -- They were persecuted by all governments for their insistence on the complete separation of their communities from state control, refusing to pay taxes or serve in the military

The Anabaptists

This Protestant group often antagonized secular authorities by refusing to recognize their jurisdiction over them; they would often refuse to take oaths, serve in the military, or pay taxes

The Anabaptists

This political movement was launched in Britain in 1838 to overturn the high tariffs that had been placed on imported grain in 1815 at the insistence of large British landowners who wanted to protect themselves against foreign competition; it helped turn public opinion against these tariffs, which were ultimately repealed in 1846.

The Anti-Corn Law League

The introduction of this device in Europe in the Middle Ages encouraged the Age of Exploration by better enabling sailors to determine their latitude by measuring the angle of the sun or a particular star above the horizon

The Astrolabe

At the end of the Napoleonic Wars, France was preserved as a great power because the victors wished to preserve this:

The Balance of Power

Louis XIV instigated several wars in his efforts to expand the power of France and the Bourbon dynasty. Each military thrust was met by a coalition of European states that kept French gains minimal compared to the amount of blood spilled and treasure spent. His limited success was due to the effective functioning of this phenomenon, in which smaller powers united to keeping any one single power from dominating all of them

The Balance of Power

Otto von Bismarck famously predicted in the late 19th century that the next European conflict would be caused by "some darn foolish thing" that happened here

The Balkans

Because East Germany was suffering from "brain drain" in the 1940s and 50s as thousands of their most educated citizens fled the country for the West, it decided in 1961 to erect this infamous barrier that became the symbol of the Cold War division of Europe

The Berlin Wall

One of the conditions that Parliament insisted upon when William and Mary became the English monarchs in 1688 was that they accept this document, which listed the rights of Parliament (e.g. power of the purse, meetings every 3 years) and gave a stronger legal basis for constitutional government in England

The Bill of Rights

In recent decades this has fallen so low in most European countries that, without immigration, they would have been unable to sustain their populations

The Birth Rate

This was the name of the secret Serbian nationalist organization that sponsored the June 1914 assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand that started World War I.

The Black Hand (Union or Death)

This peace conference that opened in 1814 with the defeat of Napoleon created "buffer states" around France to discourage further French aggression

The Congress of Vienna

Beginning in the 1920s these groups, made up of nationalists, former soldiers, and landowners, emerged as the military arm of Mussolini's fascist movement, employing violence and intimidation against Mussolini's political opponents

The Black Shirts or The Squadristi

The British were alarmed by other Europeans' criticisms of their policies during this war at the turn of the 20th century -- Following their victory they began to emerge from their "Splendid Isolation" and acquire allies

The Boer War

This was a conflict fought from 1899-1902 between the British and Dutch Settlers in Southern Africa (Afrikaners)

The Boer War

Although three of Catherine de Medici's sons became kings of France, they never produced the offspring necessary to prevent the throne of France from being taken over by this family

The Bourbons

This 1898-1901 uprising against foreign domination of China was led by secret societies whose members claimed to be invulnerable to bullets -- It was largely directed against missionaries and Christians, and was ruthlessly suppressed by the colonial powers, who forced the Chinese to pay a large indemnity

The Boxer Rebellion

The official name for this group formed in the late 1890's was the Society of Harmonious Fists, and its primary goal was to push all foreigners out of China

The Boxers

The doctrine and practices of the Church of England (or Anglican Church) established by Henry VIII remained almost identical to the doctrine and practices of this church:

The Catholic Church

Beginning in the mid-16th century, this Catholic movement sought to correct the abuses within the church, strengthen the faith of the Catholic laity, and stop the spread of the Protestant faiths

The Catholic Reformation (or Counter-Reformation)

In July 1790, King Louis XVI was forced, to his horror, to accept this legislation that basically made the French church a department of the government. Bishops were to be chosen by assemblies of parish priests, who would be elected by their parishioners. Clergy were now civil servants whose salaries were paid by the government, and they had to swear an oath of loyalty to the French state.

The Civil Constitution of the Clergy

This refers to the dramatic surge in global trade as a result of the discoveries of the Age of Exploration; it brought great wealth to the states along the Atlantic seaboard, and led to innovations in financing such as joint-stock companies and stock exchanges

The Commercial Revolution

During the radical stage of the French Revolution, this 12-man body ruled as the de facto government of France and presided over the Reign of Terror

The Committee of Public Safety

This small ruling body, composed of about 12 men, basically ruled France during the radical stage of the Revolution and presided over the Reign of Terror -- Its purpose was to protect the new republic against internal and foreign enemies, and it was dominated by Maximilien Robespierre

The Committee of Public Safety

After the execution of King Charles I in 1649, Parliament abolished the monarchy and established a new republican government known as this:

The Commonwealth

This was the name for the supposed republic established in 1649 following the English Civil War and the execution of Charles I -- In fact, Cromwell used his control of the army to rule England as a military dictator, and when he died in 1658 most Englishmen were ready to return to monarchy

The Commonwealth

This short work, published in 1848 by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, argued that all history had been driven by conflict between the classes, and that the struggle in their lifetimes was between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, who would eventually succeed in establishing a classless society

The Communist Manifesto

This device seems to have come into common use in the Mediterranean during the 1300s; using a magnetized needle, sailors were able to more accurately determine which direction their vessel was sailing in, encouraging more voyages into unfamiliar waters

The Compass

This is an informal label for the period of time between the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the Revolutions of 1848, in which the great powers of Europe, led by Metternich, cooperated to resist the threats of nationalism and liberalism

The Concert of Europe

This was the long period of cooperation on foreign policy matters amongst the great powers of Europe that lasted from the 1815 Congress of Vienna until the Revolutions of 1848

The Concert of Europe

In this 1801 agreement, Napoleon reconciled France with the papacy by agreeing to proclaim Roman Catholicism to be the religion of most Frenchmen (but NOT the official religion of France)

The Concordat of 1801

This 1801 agreement between Napoleon and the pope was an effort to reestablish peaceful relations between France and the Catholic Church following the rift that opened during the French Revolution -- Napoleon hoped it would increase support for his regime within France

The Concordat of 1801

This agreement between Napoleon and the pope, intended to increase the support of Catholics for Napoleon's regime, partially restored the authority of the Catholic Church within France -- It recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people (but not the official religion), gave the pope the right to depose bishops appointed by the state, and acknowledged that the church would not try to reclaim lands seized by the French government during the Revolution

The Concordat of 1801

At this famous conference at the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, the victorious powers agreed that no single state should be allowed to dominate Europe, and all were determined to see that France should be prevented from doing so again. The restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and a lenient peace settlement were designed to keep France calm and satisfied

The Congress of Vienna

The Napoleonic Wars were brought to an end at this peace conference presided over by Austrian foreign minister Klemens von Metternich

The Congress of Vienna

This peace conference from 1814-15 was held to establish a stable settlement for Europe following the Wars of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars

The Congress of Vienna

In November 1799 (18 Brumaire in the revolutionary calendar) Napoleon and his political allies narrowly succeeded in overthrowing the Directory and establishing a new government known as this, in which Napoleon enjoyed supreme power:

The Consulate

Established in 1806, this was an effort by Napoleon to force the British to make peace with France by preventing them from exporting any goods to the areas he controlled in Europe -- It failed because the British succeeded in smuggling goods into Europe and were able to sell their products in the Americas

The Continental System

This was a European embargo that Napoleon placed on the import of British goods beginning in 1806, after he realized that he lacked the resources to invade Britain -- Napoleon hoped to force the economic collapse of Britain by denying them access to European markets, but rampant smuggling and the British ability to trade elsewhere in the world ensured that this effort would fail

The Continental System

What is being described in the following passage?: "Put into effect between 1806 and 1807, it attempted to prevent European goods from reaching the European continent in order to weaken Britain economically and destroy its capacity to wage war"

The Continental System

This was the name of the legislature and executive body under the French republic established in 1792 -- Its most radical members, led by Robespierre, were dubbed "the Mountain" because they sat on the highest benches, while the moderates (or Girondins) sat on the lowest seats and were known as "the Plain"

The Convention

This was the name of the legislature that governed France from 1792-95, during the final, radical stage of the French Revolution when France was theoretically a republic

The Convention

These were introduced in Britain in 1815, following the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The reestablishment of peace in Europe allowed the resumption of the import of cheap grain into England from Eastern Europe, which would drive down the price of grain and benefit everyone except the landed aristocracy. The aristocrats responded by pushing these new unpopular tariffs through Parliament that ensured that the price of grain would remain high.

The Corn Laws

These were tariffs on imported grain in place in Britain from 1815-1846 -- They were intended to protect the wealth and power of the landed nobility, who feared competition from the importation of cheaper foreign grain

The Corn Laws

In this series of meetings in the late 16th century, the Catholic Church resolved not to make any changes in its doctrine in response to the Protestant Reformation

The Council of Trent

The primary purpose of this mid-16th-century series of meetings of Catholic Church leaders was to reinvigorate and strengthen the church following the Protestant Reformation

The Council of Trent

This body of Catholic clergymen met from 1545 to 1563 to consider the reform of the church -- It corrected a number of church abuses (indulgences could no longer be sold) and introduced better training for Catholic clergy, but refused to make any changes in Catholic doctrine

The Council of Trent

This series of meetings of leading Catholic clergymen from 1545-63 ultimately decided to reaffirm Catholic doctrine while introducing significant reforms in church practices

The Council of Trent

This series of meetings of the leaders of the Catholic Church made most of the decisions and reforms that are today referred to as "The Catholic Reformation"

The Council of Trent

By the end of this war, fought in Russia in the 1850s, the Concert of Europe had come to an end

The Crimean War

Following this war in the 1850s Austria and Russia became enemies because of Austria's refusal to provide aid to Russia, even though Russia had aided Austria during the Revolutions of 1848 -- The Concert of Europe was over!

The Crimean War

Great Britain was so disillusioned by this war, fought in the 1850s, that it largely withdrew from heavy involvement in the political affairs of the continent, adopting instead a policy of "splendid isolation"

The Crimean War

Russia was so humiliated in this conflict in the 1850s that it retreated from European affairs and began a series of reforms to modernize the country (e.g. the emancipation of the serfs)

The Crimean War

This conflict that broke out in 1854 is most significant for demonstrating that the Concert of Europe had come to an end:

The Crimean War

This war, fought in the 1850s, saw Russia opposed by the combined forces of France, England, and the Ottoman Empire -- Russia lost!

The Crimean War

During the Middle Ages many Europeans were exposed to the luxury goods of the Middle East as a result of these ultimately unsuccessful efforts to retake the Holy Land

The Crusades

This 1962 event seems to have brought the US and USSR to the brink of nuclear war -- It commenced when the US discovered Soviet missile bases in Cuba and ended with the withdrawal of these missiles and a US pledge to never invade the island

The Cuban Missile Crisis

In the final stage of the French Revolution, the radicals led by Robespierre unsuccessfully attempted to dechristianize the country and establish a new, deist religion known as this:

The Cult of the Supreme Being

In this 1864 war Prussia and Austria allied to prevent the Danish king from incorporating the provinces of Schleswig and Holstein into his kingdom -- After a quick victory over the Danes, Prussia would provoke disputes with Austria over their joint occupation of Schleswig and Holstein, leading to a second conflict

The Danish War

These were two Allied schemes developed in the 1920s to make it more possible for Germany to make its reparations payments -- They sought to reduce the reparations burden and provided American loans to better enable the Germans to make payments to France and Britain

The Dawes Plan and The Young Plan

Martin Luther's condemnation of this 1524-25 event demonstrated that he only sought religious change, not the overthrow of the existing political order

The German Peasants' Revolt

This failed 1825 attempt by Russian army officers to secure a constitution for their country arose amidst confusion over who was the rightful heir to the throne following the death of the tsar -- This revolt was suppressed by force and its leaders executed

The Decembrist Revolt

When Tsar Alexander I died in 1825, his younger brother Nicholas succeeded to the throne. For several days, however, there was uncertainty about the succession. In St Petersburg a group of younger army officers who had embraced liberal ideals staged a revolt known by this name, calling for such reforms as a constitution and the abolition of serfdom

The Decembrist Revolt

Charles II of England issued this edict in 1672 that granted freedom of worship to non-Anglican Protestants -- Parliament, however, suspected that he planned to do the same for Catholics and therefore forced him to withdraw it and soon after passed the Test Act

The Declaration of Indulgence

This document was approved by the French National Assembly in August 1789 as the basis for the new French constitution -- It stated the rights possessed by all men (e.g. liberty, property, freedom of speech) and declared that all men were equal (but not women)

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

The Thirty Years War began with this amusing event, in which Bohemian Calvinists threw Catholic members of the Bohemian royal council from a window and deposed King Ferdinand after he was elected Holy Roman Emperor

The Defenestration of Prague

At this 1521 meeting of the assembly of the Holy Roman Empire Martin Luther famously refused the demand of the Catholics that he recant his teachings

The Diet of Worms

At this 1521 meeting of the leadership of the Holy Roman Empire, Martin Luther refused to recant his writings that challenged the sale of indulgences and papal authority -- Luther departed unharmed, but was afterwards declared an outlaw and heretic by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V

The Diet of Worms

By 1799, when Napoleon returned to France from his Egyptian campaign, this government had become extremely unpopular for overturning election results and failing to solve the country's economic problems -- Some looked to the popular Napoleon to form a new government

The Directory

In October 1795 Napoleon's career was given a boost when he used artillery to suppress a royalist uprising in Paris against this unpopular French government

The Directory

This was the government of France between the Thermidorean Reaction and the establishment of the Consulate -- It was more conservative than Robespierre's regime and faced numerous problems, including war and a lack of popular support -- In 1799 it was overthrown by Napoleon

The Directory

This political scandal opened major divisions within French society in the late 19th and early 20th century -- It revolved around the wrongful conviction of a Jewish army captain for being a German spy

The Dreyfus Affair

This long, costly uprising against the rule of Spain occupied much of the energies of Philip II during his reign -- It was driven by the rebels' resentment of high Spanish taxes and Philip's efforts to suppress Calvinism -- Elizabeth I provided aid to the rebellion

The Dutch Revolt

This major revolt in the late 16th century was motivated by both excessive taxation by the Spanish and Philip II's brutal efforts to suppress Calvinism

The Dutch Revolt

William the Silent was the most important leader of this rebellion against the rule of Philip II and Spain

The Dutch Revolt

This phrase referred to the 19th-century dilemma amongst the great European powers of how to deal with the apparent impending collapse and disintegration of the Ottoman Empire -- Who would get what territories?

The Eastern Question

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

The Ecstasy of St Theresa (1645-52) Bernini Baroque (Italian)

Louis XIV issued this edict in 1685, revoking the religious freedoms granted to Huguenots by the 1598 Edict of Nantes -- It called for the destruction of Huguenot churches and the closing of their schools, prompting hundreds of thousands to emigrate from the country over the next few decades

The Edict of Fontainebleau

In 1598 Henry IV of France issued this edict offering limited religious toleration to the country's Huguenots

The Edict of Nantes

In this 1598 edict Henry IV declared Catholicism to be the official religion of France, but granted toleration and significant rights to France's Huguenot minority

The Edict of Nantes

This 1598 edict issued by Henry IV recognized the rights of France's Protestants

The Edict of Nantes

These German SS death squads operated in Poland and the USSR during WWII, carrying out mass killings of Jews and other perceived enemies and undesirables in Eastern Europe -- They killed over 1 million people and represented the first systematic German effort to exterminate the Jews

The Einsatzgruppen

In 1870 Otto von Bismarck carefully edited this document to make it appear as if Wilhelm I had insulted the French ambassador -- His purpose was to provoke the French into declaring war against Prussia, and he was successful!

The Ems Telegram

Otto von Bismarck claimed to have provoked the Franco-Prussian War in 1870 largely through his devious editing of this document

The Ems Telegram

Otto von Bismarck strategically edited this document to provoke the French into declaring war against Prussia in 1870

The Ems Telegram

This legislation passed by the German Reichstag in March 1933 following the Reichstag fire enabled Hitler to seize complete power over Germany -- It gave him the power to rule by decree, make treaties with other countries, and violate the constitution

The Enabling Act

Under this system established in Spain's New World colonies in the early 16th century, colonists were permitted control over a certain number of Native American laborers -- in return, the colonists were expected to protect them and instruct them in the Catholic faith

The Encomienda System

Under this system, Spanish settlers in the New World were permitted to use Native Americans as laborers and to collect tribute from them

The Encomienda System

This work, edited by Diderot and published between 1751-72, contained 71,818 articles, some by the leading philosophes -- It was a compilation of the learning of the Enlightenment and helped spread these ideas throughout Europe

The Encyclopedia

This traditional assembly of France's three social orders did not have the power to pass laws, but served only in an advisory capacity to the king -- When Louis XVI called it to Versailles in 1789 to address the kingdom's financial crisis, it had not met for 175 years

The Estates-General

This organization was established in 1952 by France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg to create a common market for coal and steel and prevent further war between France and Germany

The European Coal and Steel Community

After the success of the European Coal and Steel Community, in 1957 Europeans created this new insitution to further reduce tariffs, encourage the free flow of capital and labor, and boost the standard of living for European workers

The European Economic Community or The Common Market

This current organization of European states was strengthened by the Maastricht Treaty of 1992, which proposed the creation of a common currency, a common European citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policies

The European Union

In the early 1980s Margaret Thatcher was given a big political boost when she led her country in a successful war against Argentina after they tried to seize these Atlantic islands from the British

The Falkland Islands

In 1982 this brief conflict broke out between Britain and Argentina after the Argentinians invaded a group of British-owned islands off the coast of South America -- Margaret Thatcher's bold response and victory did much to boost her political standing at home

The Falklands War

The violent rebellion of Algeria against French rule in the 1950s eventually led to the establishment of this new government and the creation of strong presidency assumed by Charles de Gaulle.

The Fifth Republic

This refers to the 1942 plan developed by the German government to systematically kill all European Jews through a system of extermination camps

The Final Solution

This was an international organization established in 1864 that sought to unite the world's socialists, communists, anarchists, and trade unionists to better protect the interests of the working classes -- By 1876 it had disbanded because of in-fighting amongst its various factions

The First International

This war began in 1839 when the Chinese emperor tried to stop foreign trade after many of his countrymen became addicted to the drugs the British were importing to pay for Chinese luxury goods like tea and silk -- After a quick British victory the Chinese were forced to open a number of ports to British trade and grant Britain control over Hong Kong

The First Opium War

Beginning in 1928, as he sought to promote the rapid industrialization of the USSR, Stalin introduced these plans to set ambitious production objectives for each industry and factory -- The plans focused on heavy industry rather than consumer goods, and achieved remarkable growth in areas like coal, steel, oil, and electricity, making it possible for the Soviets to prevail against the Germans in WWII

The Five-Year Plans

In this June 1791 event, Louis XVI and his family donned disguises and attempted to flee Paris in a carriage and reach royalist supporters in the east -- After their capture and return to Paris, hostility to the monarchy increased tremendously

The Flight to Varennes

Late-19th-century thinker Thomas Malthus believed that population would always increase faster than this:

The Food Supply

By the end of this 1870-71 conflict, France's 2nd Empire had collapsed, Napoleon III had been forced into exile, and the Third Republic had been established

The Franco-Prussian War

This war broke out in 1870 in part became Otto von Bismarck edited the "Ems Telegram" to make it more insulting to the French

The Franco-Prussian War

This war in 1870-71 completed the unification of Germany and threatened to upset the continent's balance of power

The Franco-Prussian War

With the end of this war in 1871, the unification of Germany was complete -- It was now the strongest power on the continent and threatened to upset the balance of power

The Franco-Prussian War

In 1849 this assembly of the German states launched an unsuccessful effort to unify Germany under a Prussian constitutional monarchy -- It failed because of the divisions between the German bourgeoisie and working classes, and because the Prussian king refused to rule under the limits of the constitution they offered him

The Frankfurt Assembly

Philosophe Jean-Jacques Rousseau used this phrase to refer to the common good, or the best interests of the community as a whole

The General Will

This erroneous conception of the universe originated with the ancient Greeks -- It holds that the Earth is at the center of the solar system and that all other heavenly bodies (sun, planets, moon) revolve around it

The Geocentric System

During this revolt in the 1520s, Luther surprised many by urging the nobility to suppress it quickly and ruthlessly

The German Peasants' Revolt

This country suffered more deaths in World War II than any other, losing perhaps as many as 25 million people.

The Soviet Union

This 1524-25 uprising of peasants in the Holy Roman Empire was inspired by the Reformation -- The main peasant grievances were high taxes and the restrictions placed on their lives by serfdom -- Martin Luther, needing the support of the German nobility, condemned the uprising

The German Peasants' Revolt

This event was motivated by nobles' seizure of common lands, high rents on manorial lands, and unjust taxes demanded by the nobles, and was further aggravated by crop failures. The peasants believed that their demands were supported by the Bible, and that Martin Luther would help them prove that they did.

The German Peasants' Revolt

This socialist political party was founded in Germany in 1875 -- Its members supported legislation to aid the working classes, alarming Otto von Bismarck, who responded by seeking to repress the party and introducing his own extensive social welfare legislation -- By 1912 it was the single largest party in the country

The German Social Democratic Party (SPD)

This moderate political faction within the Jacobin Club dominated the early years of the revolution -- They supported war against Austria and Prussia as a means of exporting the revolution, but were concerned to preserve order and prevent mob rule -- Robespierre's faction eventually displaced them and had them executed after they opposed the execution of the king

The Girondins

This 1857 Millet painting of three women collecting fallen seeds from the ground after the harvest has been brought is a classic work from the Realist school of art.

The Gleaners

Following this 1688 event, the actual power of the English monarchy began a long decline, eventually assuming its present figurehead role with little actual authority to govern

The Glorious Revolution

This was the 1688 overthrow of James II and his replacement by William and Mary -- It derives its name from the fact that little blood was shed during this transfer of power, and that it seemed to firmly establish constitutional government in England

The Glorious Revolution

This event swept much of the French countryside in the summer of 1789. It saw the burning of chateaux, the destruction of records and documents, and the refusal to pay feudal dues. The peasants were determined to take possession of food supplies and land that they considered rightfully theirs

The Great Fear

This uprising of French peasants during the summer of 1789 was sparked by wild rumors of attacks by foreign troops and bandits -- Noblemen's manor houses were attacked in the uprising, and in response to the violence the National Assembly voted to abolish feudalism and all estate privileges

The Great Fear

In this conflict Russia acquired a warm-water port on the Baltic Sea and became a serious player in European affairs for the first time

The Great Northern War

In this conflict the Russians acquired the land on the Baltic Sea where Peter the Great would establish St. Petersburg

The Great Northern War

Peter the Great initiated this war in 1700 in order to bring an end to Swedish domination of the Baltic Sea

The Great Northern War

This 1832 legislation dramatically changed British politics by abolishing "rotten boroughs" and replacing them with new voting districts in the growing industrial towns and cities -- It also increased the number of voters and the make-up of the electorate by changing voting qualifications to allow more members of the bourgeoisie to vote

The Great Reform Bill of 1832

In the 1820s the British, French, and Russians all waged war against the Ottoman Empire in order to support a revolt by these people, who had been under the control of the Ottomans for 400 years. In 1830 they were declared to be a new, independent kingdom and a new royal dynasty was established.

The Greeks

This French noble family was opposed to any compromise with the Huguenots and exerted great influence over the sons of Catherine de Medici during their reigns -- They even hoped to take the throne for themselves

The Guise

This was a failed 1603 scheme by a group of English Catholics to kill James I and most of the members of Parliament in a massive explosion -- In its aftermath Englishmen were much less trusting and tolerant of Catholics

The Gunpowder Plot

This was completed in either 1455 or 1456, the first true book in the West produced from movable type

The Gutenberg Bible

During the Revolutions of 1848, this empire was most threatened by the nationalist aspirations of its subject peoples

The Habsburg Empire (Austria)

After 1438 this wealthy family based in Austria monopolized the position of Holy Roman Emperor and became a very important player in European affairs -- It used a series of marriage alliances to also acquire control of Burgundy, the Low Countries, and Spain

The Habsburgs

This family was based in the lands along the Danube River known today as Austria; its holdings were greatly expanded through marriage alliances, and members of this family were traditionally elected Holy Roman Emperor

The Habsburgs

Beginning in the 14th century, this commercial and political alliance of towns along the Baltic and North Seas came to control trade in northern Europe in such goods as grain and fish

The Hanseatic League

This alliance of towns along the Baltic and North Seas long dominated trade in northern Europe before beginning to decline in the 15th century

The Hanseatic League

The greatest medical contribution of 17th-century British scientist William Harvey was his work on the functioning of this human organ

The Heart

During the Scientific Revolution this model of the solar system, in which the sun is at the center and all planets revolve around it, was endorsed by scientists like Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo and eventually displaced the long-accepted earth-centered model of the solar system

The Heliocentric System

In 1415, this family began to rule as electors of Brandenburg in northern Germany. They gradually increased their holdings so that by the late 17th century their domains were second in size only to those of the Habsburgs among the states of the Holy Roman Empire

The Hohenzollerns

This dynasty long provided the electors, kings, and emperors who ruled Prussia and unified Germany until the end of World War I

The Hohenzollerns

This is the name for the genocidal Nazi campaign during WWII that killed approximately 6 million European Jews

The Holocaust

At the end of the Thirty Years' War this country, in which most of the war was fought, was so weakened that it really continued to exist in name only

The Holy Roman Empire

In 1806 Napoleon dissolved this empire and created in its place the Confederation of the Rhine, which excluded Austria and Prussia, was dominated by France, and was compelled to supply troops to fight for Napoleon

The Holy Roman Empire

In the early 1500s, the residents of this European state were particularly resentful of the Catholic Church because its relatively weak central government was less able to resist papal taxes and influence over its affairs than were kingdoms like France and Spain, which had strong monarchies

The Holy Roman Empire

This was the most powerful, dominant family in the Dutch Republic, and it provided many of the stadtholders who headed the executive branch of government, including the man who became King William III of England

The House of Orange

This refers to the brief period in 1815 when Napoleon reclaimed control over France after escaping from Elba -- It came to an end with the Battle of Waterloo

The Hundred Days

Although this 1337-1453 conflict between England and France left France desolated and depopulated, it also promoted a strong sense of nationalism that French kings used to centralize their control over the country

The Hundred Years' War

In the latter half of the 19th century, this new generation of painters broke with the artistic tradition of conveying messages with one's works; instead, they concentrated on capturing the effects of light and color; among the most famous were Degas, Renoir, and Monet

The Impressionists

In the 1530s this large and flourishing empire, based largely in modern-day Peru, was rapidly conquered by Spanish invaders equipped with steel weapons, gunpowder, horses, and disease

The Incas

In the 16th century Pizarro was the Spanish conqueror of this civilization based in modern Peru

The Incas

This list of publications that Catholics were prohibited from reading was introduced by the pope in 1559 during the Catholic Reformation -- It was intended to protect Catholics from immoral and heretical works

The Index of Forbidden Books

In 1633 Galileo was brought before this Catholic body and found guilty of endorsing the Copernican heliocentric system -- He was forced to recant his "errors" and spent the last years of his life under house arrest

The Inquisition

John Calvin wrote and published the first version of this book in 1535, a defense of his theology and the most influential, comprehensive book on Protestant thought produced during the Reformation

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

This document, the first written constitution England ever had, took effect in 1653 during the Commonwealth period and created the position of Lord Protector, an executive position to be held for life -- The first Lord Protector was Oliver Cromwell

The Instrument of Government

This economic "law" identified by David Ricardo in the early 19th century states that, over time, workers' wages always tend to fall to the minimum level necessary to keep them alive (the subsistence level)

The Iron Law of Wages

This was the largest political club in Paris during the French Revolution; it was dominated by Maximilien Robespierre and it came to support radical change, such as the creation of a republic in place of the monarchy

The Jacobin Club

This was the most popular political club established for discussion and debate of the issues of the French Revolution -- Although it was initially moderate, over time it came to be dominated by more radical revolutionaries like Robespierre and to support the extremism of the Reign of Terror

The Jacobins

This was the most important of the many new religious orders that arose during the Catholic Reformation -- The members of this order established many schools and seminaries, and worked as missionaries to combat the spread of Protestantism and carry the Catholic faith to the newly discovered portions of the world

The Jesuits (or Society of Jesus)

In 1492 Ferdinand and Isabella ordered the expulsion of this ethnic group from their countries, hoping to reduce the likelihood that conversos would secretly return to the faith of their ancestors

The Jews

In this 1830 event, French liberals responded to an attempt by King Charles X to restore complete control over the government to the monarch -- Following popular uprisings, Charles X fled France and was replaced as king by Louis Philippe of the House of Orléans

The July Revolution

These decrees were issued by the German states in 1819 at the urging of Metternich -- They dissolved the student organizations known as Burschenschaften and provided for university inspectors and tighter press censorship

The Karlsbad Decrees

This approach to German unification (The "Little German" approach), favored by Prussia, would unite all German-speaking peoples, EXCEPT the Austrians, in a single state -- It ultimately happened this way!

The Kleindeutsch Solution

This famous da Vinci fresco depicts exactly 13 people and actually began peeling and flaking during da Vinci's lifetime because of an experimental technique he used in its creation

The Last Supper

To see this painting you must go to Milan, where it may be found on a monastery wall. It is remarkable for accurately depicting the personalities of each of the disciples as Jesus informs them that one of them will betray him

The Last Supper

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

The Last Supper (1495-98) Leonardo da Vinci High Renaissance

In these 1929 agreements between Mussolini's Italy and the Vatican, Italy recognized the Vatican as a separate state and Catholicism as the official religion of Italy

The Lateran Accords

This law was passed at the insistence of the sans-culottes in September 1793, who were concerned to maintain regular access to cheap food -- It set limits on the prices of goods, esp. bread, and punished price-gouging

The Law of the General Maximum

At the end of World War I, Woodrow Wilson insisted that this organization be created in order to maintain world peace

The League of Nations

This international peacekeeping organization was created at the end of WWI, primarily at the urging of Woodrow Wilson -- Its effectiveness was undermined by the requirement that its decisions have unanimous consent, its lack of an armed force, the failure of the US to join, and the initial exclusion of Germany and the Soviet Union

The League of Nations

During the Commonwealth period this group of lower class Englishmen sought to increase the degree of democracy in England, calling for annual elections to Parliament, salaries for members of Parliament, and the vote for all male heads of households -- Oliver Cromwell rejected their demands

The Levellers

Machiavelli advised rulers that they needed to adopt the characteristics of both of these two wild beasts, one representing stealth and the other brute strength

The Lion and the Fox

This was an alliance formed between Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and Romania in 1920/21 in order to better defend themselves against Hungary and any efforts to restore the Habsburg Empire -- France would support this alliance by signing treaties w/ each of the member countries

The Little Entente

This session of Parliament was called by Charles I in 1640 when he needed funds to suppress a Scottish rebellion -- It would sit for 13 years, refusing to allow itself to be disbanded or to grant Charles the taxes he sought -- He eventually became so frustrated that he raised an army, starting the English Civil War in 1642

The Long Parliament

This was the system of fortifications built by the French along their eastern border in the interwar years to dissuade the Germans from launching a direct attack -- In defeating France in 1940 the Germans would largely bypass these fortifications by invading via the Low Countries

The Maginot Line

In the first half of the 19th century the threat to Habsburg control over its empire was greatest in Hungary, where nationalism developed among the leaders of this ethnic group. While some sought only the development of their culture and economy, others desired independence from Austria

The Magyars

This is the ethnic group of the Hungarians (this is how they refer to themselves)

The Magyars

At this famous 1529 meeting between Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, the two men were unable to agree on whether Christ was actually present in the communion bread and blood -- This point of disagreement prevented any union of their Protestant movements

The Marburg Colloquy

When Mussolini was legally appointed prime minister by the king of Italy in 1922 after threatening to seize Rome by force, he still insisted on continuing with this event to give the impression that he and his Fascist Party had achieved power in a coup d'etat

The March on Rome

In the late 1940s Joseph Stalin refused to allow the countries of Eastern Europe to accept any of the money offered to them under this American "plan," fearing that they would be drawn to the capitalist West

The Marshall Plan

This was an American program which provided $13 billion in grants to the countries of Western Europe starting in the late 1940s in order to help them rebuild following the devastation of WWII, restore economic prosperity, and reduce the appeal of communism

The Marshall Plan (or the European Recovery Act)

During the 15th century, beginning with Cosimo, this Florentine banking family emerged as the wealthiest in Europe and became great patrons of artists and intellectuals -- They dominated the government of Florence, and Cosimo's grandson Lorenzo supported men such as Michelangelo and Pico della Mirandola

The Medici Family

This famous map projection was of great value to explorers and sailors because, despite its great distortions of the size of the land masses, it accurately depicted the line of direction between points on the map

The Mercator Projection

This new system of weights and measures, believed to be more rational than its predecessors, was developed by France during the revolution and officially adopted in 1799

The Metric System

Many of the scholars of the Renaissance rejected this era as a period of darkness and ignorance, even though it had in fact preserved much of ancient Latin culture

The Middle Ages

This is the name given to the stage in the Triangular Trade in which approximately 20 million slaves were transported from Africa to the New World; mortality rates during the journey were incredibly high, and most of the survivors were destined for lives as plantation laborers

The Middle Passage

This term refers to the 1560-1660 increase in the size of Europe's armed forces and in the complexity of their weaponry and tactics, which necessitated more military training, tax dollars, and bureaucracy to support

The Military Revolution

Using the telescope in the early 17th century, which he improved but did not invent, Galileo was able to observe craters and mountains on this heavenly body, indicating that it was much like the earth and not a perfect, smooth sphere as the ancients believed

The Moon

When Galileo used his telescope in the early 17th century to demonstrate that this body had hills and valleys much like those on Earth, he did much to undermine Aristotle's accepted ideas about the universe

The Moon

Isabella and Ferdinand were not prepared to finance the voyage of Columbus until they had first completed the military conquest of the Iberian peninsula, which had been occupied by these African invaders for many centuries

The Moors

At this September 1938 meeting in Germany, the leaders of France and Britain agreed to German annexation of the Czech Sudetenland, after which Hitler pledged that he had no more territorial demands to make in Europe -- It is today regarded as a symbol of the failed policy of appeasement

The Munich Conference

In this set of laws compiled in the early 19th century, French women lost many of the gains they had made during the French Revolution. They were treated as dependents of their fathers or their husbands, and they could not sign contracts or even have bank accounts in their own names.

The Napoleonic Code

Napoleon was the driving force behind this project, which replaced France's 366 different law codes with a single set of laws that protected private property and restored the authority of men over their wives and children

The Napoleonic Code

This legal reform effort might have been Napoleon's greatest achievement -- This attempt to simplify France's chaotic legal system gave all men the same rights, protected property, and increased the power of men over their wives and children

The Napoleonic Code

Much of the energies of Philip II of Spain were expended attempting to suppress a long rebellion against his rule in this territory

The Netherlands

In the 1648 Peace of Westphalia ending the Thirty Years' War the signing powers recognized for the first time the independence of these two countries

The Netherlands Switzerland

During the 17th century this northern European republic was largely controlled by its wealthy merchant class

The Netherlands (The Dutch Republic)

During the 17th century, this country's dominance of shipping and trade made it Europe's greatest commercial power

The Netherlands (The Dutch Republic)

Philip II spent much of his energies during the late 16th century attempting to suppress a rebellion against his rule in this territory

The Netherlands (The Dutch Revolt)

During the 17th century this country developed the fastest, most efficient sailing vessels and therefore came to dominate world trade

The Netherlands (the Dutch)

During the 17th century this country took over most of the Portuguese spice trade routes between Asia and Europe

The Netherlands (the Dutch)

Following the death of Lenin, Leon Trotsky argued that this program, which permitted a limited degree of capitalism, should be discontinued, and that the Soviet Union should embark upon a program of rapid industrialization:

The New Economic Policy

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

The Night Watch (1642) Rembrandt Baroque (Dutch)

Members of this social class in 16th-century French society were most likely to convert to Protestantism during the Reformation

The Nobility

In response to the Russian Revolution of 1905, Nicholas II issued this document, a precursor to the first Russian constitution -- it granted civil rights such as freedom of speech and religion, granted the vote to all males, and promised to give the Russian legislature (the Duma) the power to approve all laws

The October Manifesto

In the late 19th century this declining empire was referred to by statesmen as "the sick man of Europe"

The Ottoman Empire

For two months in early 1871 this independent government controlled Paris following that city's uprising against the Third Republic, an uprising prompted by France's defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, worker discontent, and the desire for a democratic government -- It was ruthlessly suppressed by the government of the Third Republic

The Paris Commune

The principle of "cuius regio, eius religio" was FIRST established by this 1555 peace agreement

The Peace of Augsburg

This 1555 peace agreement ended the religious wars brought on by the Lutheran Reformation and gave each leader the right to decide the religion of his people

The Peace of Augsburg

This 1555 peace agreement ending the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation legitimized Protestantism for the first time in Europe

The Peace of Augsburg

This 1555 peace agreement established the compromise between Lutherans and Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire that allowed the rulers of the various territories to decide the religion within their realms

The Peace of Augsburg

This is the name of the armed force of approximately 1,000 men who, in 1860 under Giuseppe Garibaldi, liberated Sicily and southern Italy from their corrupt Bourbon ruler and ensured that they would be included in the unified kingdom of Italy proclaimed in 1861

The Red Shirts

During the Russian Civil War, this was the nickname for the Bolshevik forces and their supporters

The Reds

This 1832 British legislation eliminated 56 rotten boroughs and gave voting rights to 42 new towns and cities, thus providing more political representation to Britain's new industrial upper middle class. Property qualifications still prevented the great majority of Englishmen from voting

The Reform Act of 1832

This 1867 legislation lowered the property qualifications for voting in Britain, granting the franchise to shopkeepers, clerks, and urban workers, doubling the size of the electorate

The Reform Act of 1867

This February 1933 event was portrayed by the Nazis as part of a communist plot to seize power in Germany -- Following this event President Hindenburg granted Hitler emergency powers, suspending civil liberties and allowing Hitler to ban hostile publications and arrest thousands of communists, thus facilitating his assumption of complete power in Germany

The Reichstag Fire

This event in 1846 was regarded as a victory of Britain's new industrial class over the traditional landed nobility, and was praised by those who supported free trade -- It involved the removal of tariffs on imported grain that had been in place since 1815, and was largely motivated by the food shortages caused by the potato blight in Ireland

The Repeal of the Corn Laws

This series of revolts in the mid-19th century was driven primarily by the demands of liberals (representative government, civil rights, and free market reforms) and nationalists (esp. in the Habsburg Empire)

The Revolutions of 1848

The Treaty of Versailles specified that no German troops could ever enter this region in western Germany in order provide a buffer zone to protect France and the Low Countries from future aggression -- In 1935 Hitler nonetheless sent troops into this area, and the British and French only issued mild protests

The Rhineland

These opponents of the English king dominated London and southeastern England. They included lawyers and merchants, as well as the country gentry of the region. Many were Puritans, and they would eventually prevail in the English Civil War

The Roundheads

After the moderate members of Parliament who wished to preserve the life and throne of Charles I were removed by force in 1648, the remaining members who voted to execute the king were known collectively by this name

The Rump Parliament

This Russian conflict between the Bolshevik regime and its opponents lasted from 1917-23 -- The Bolsheviks would ultimately prevail over their many enemies, who included monarchists, Mensheviks, republicans, and foreign forces

The Russian Civil War

Russia's loss in this war helped to spark the Revolution of 1905

The Russo-Japanese War

The discontent caused by their humiliating loss in this war helped bring on the Revolution of 1905 in Russia

The Russo-Japanese War

In 1925 this special military unit was established within the Nazi Party as Hitler's personal bodyguard -- Following Hitler's establishment of his dictatorship its power and size would expand tremendously, and it would be responsible for most of the atrocities committed under his regime, including the Holocaust

The SS

Identify the Artwork, the Artist, & the School of Art

The School of Athens (1510-11) Raphael High Renaissance

This period in the 16th and 17th centuries, in which great advances were made in the fields of physics, astronomy, and biology, is said to have been sparked by Copernicus's work On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres -- It challenged and overturned many long-standing ancient and medieval ideas, and established that the world is governed by natural laws which man might discover

The Scientific Revolution

This was Poland's Parliament that severely limited the power of the Polish king -- the decisions it made had to be completely unanimous, making it very difficult to accomplish anything in the 17th and 18th centuries

The Sejm

At the end of this war in 1763 Great Britain received most of France's possessions in North America and the West Indies and became an undisputed world power

The Seven Years' War

In this conflict, waged from 1756-1763, the British achieved a worldwide military victory on an unprecedented scale -- Great Britain was now a world power, not just a European one

The Seven Years' War

The 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended this war granted Great Britain most of France's possessions in North America and the West Indies

The Seven Years' War

This 1762 work by Rousseau helped inspire the political reform efforts of the Enlightenment and of the American and French Revolutions -- It argues against the divine right of monarchs, stating that all authority derives from the people being governed, and that government must act to fulfill the "general will" of the people (that which is in the best interests of society as a whole)

The Social Contract

Peter the Great established this system to permit non-nobles in Russia to achieve noble status through service to the state

The Table of Ranks

This was a system, introduced by Peter the Great in 1722, that assigned status according to service to the state, not birth -- It divided the top military and government positions into a hierarchy of 14 levels, and anyone reaching the 8th highest level achieved hereditary nobility

The Table of Ranks

What is being described in the following passage?: "All civil offices were ranked according to fourteen levels; a parallel list of foreign grades was also created for all military offices. Every official was then required to begin at level one and work his way up the ranks. When a non-noble reached the eighth rank, he acquired noble status."

The Table of Ranks

This land tax paid by all members of the 3rd Estate in France prior to the Revolution was heavily resented by landowners

The Taille

In this act of defiance on June 20, 1789, the members of the National Assembly pledged not to disband until they had created a constitution for France -- This might be regarded as the opening act of the French Revolution, for it was the Third Estate's first open challenge to the authority of the king

The Tennis Court Oath

This legislation, passed by Parliament in 1673, sought to keep Catholics out of high positions by requiring all government and military officers to swear an oath that they did not believe in transubstantiation

The Test Act

This theory, developed by Albert Einstein in the early 20th century, revolutionized mechanics and astronomy by superceding Isaac Newton's laws of mechanics and demonstrating that time, space, and motion are not absolute for all observers

The Theory of Relativity

The execution of Robespierre in 1794 was the beginning of this period during which the most radical changes of the French Revolution were undone

The Thermidorean Reaction

This refers to the fall and execution of Maximilien Robespierre in July 1794 -- In its aftermath the Reign of Terror came to an end and France established the more conservative government of the Directory, which denied political power to the masses

The Thermidorean Reaction

At the end of this conflict, Calvinism was recognized as a legitimate religion within the Holy Roman Empire for the first time

The Thirty Years' War

The 1648 Peace of Westphalia ending this war granted so much autonomy to the individual German states that the Holy Roman Empire became virtually defunct

The Thirty Years' War

The Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus was an important leader of the Protesant forces during this war until he perished on the battlefield in 1632

The Thirty Years' War

This conflict from 1618 to 1648 began as a civil conflict between different religious faiths in the Holy Roman Empire - over the course of the war numerous outside powers would intervene in the conflict

The Thirty Years' War

This conflict, waged from 1618-1648, was in many ways a resumption of the Wars of the Lutheran Reformation that had ended in 1555

The Thirty Years' War

This mid-17th-century conflict is often called "the last of the religious wars" -- Hereafter, the countries of Europe would virtually never again go to war over matters of religious doctrine and practice

The Thirty Years' War

This mid-17th-century conflict left much of the German states devastated -- 1/3 of the population had died and much of the economy was in ruins

The Thirty Years' War

This war began with the "Defenestration of Prague," in which a number of Catholics were thrown from a window by Bohemian Calvinists

The Thirty Years' War

This war is remembered as the last of the religious wars, because hereafter the great countries of Europe would not enter conflicts over matters of religious doctrine or practice

The Thirty Years' War

When this conflict ended in 1648, the Holy Roman Empire was fragmented into numerous independent states, each with the power to make treaties and alliances, largely eroding the power of the Holy Roman Emperor

The Thirty Years' War

This legislation, passed by Parliament in 1689, granted freedom of worship to all non-Anglican Protestant groups in England -- Catholics did not receive this right, but in fact were allowed to worship privately

The Toleration Act

This conservative British political faction first emerged when it provided support for James II's right to succeed Charles II despite being Catholic -- By the 19th century, this party was providing support for a strong monarchy and Church of England, and opposing efforts at reform in England

The Tories

This March 1918 treaty between Germany and Bolshevik Russia brought an end to Russia'a participation in WWI -- Russia surrended a huge portion of its territory and 1/4 of its population and industry

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

This war was waged in the early 1700s because the states of Europe feared that if the Bourbons had control of France & Spain, they would be able to dominate the continent -- They therefore went to war to remove Philip V from the Spanish throne and preserve the balance of power

The War of the Spanish Succession

This military alliance was established in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy and lasted until the outbreak of World War I. Because the alliance only applied to situations in which one of the members was attacked, Italy declined to enter WWI on the side of the Germans and Austrians, as they were the aggressors.

The Triple Alliance

This 1907 agreement between Britain, France, and Russia created a counterweight to the Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy -- These three countries would become the core Allied powers who opposed the Central Powers at the outbreak of WWI.

The Triple Entente

This 1820 decree, issued jointly by Austria, Prussia, and Russia at the prompting of Metternich, proclaimed the right of the great powers to intervene militarily, if necessary, in countries that had experienced revolutions to restore order and stability

The Troppau Protocol

This dynasty was established in England in 1485 when Henry VII of the House of Lancaster defeated the last Yorkist king, Richard III, at Bosworth Field during the Wars of the Roses

The Tudor Dynasty

This was the name of the palace in central Paris in which the royal family was housed following the women's march of October 1789 that forced Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to abandon Versailles -- In August 1792 it was overrun by Parisian mobs, bringing an end to the monarchy

The Tuileries

This principle articulated by Werner Heisenberg in 1927, challenged Newton's version of the universe, in which everything can be calculated with great precision and certainty; it states that the most quantum scientists can hope for in observing the motion of miniscule particles are calculations of the probability about the positions and behavior of these objects

The Uncertainty Principle

During the 1960s Charles de Gaulle twice vetoed this country's efforts to join the European Economic Community, arguing that it was not fully committed to European integration and too closely tied to the United States

The United Kingdom

The decision of the United States to promote and join this international peacekeeping organization in 1945 signaled that the US had no intention of retreating into isolationism -- rather, it was committed to promoting recovery and stability, esp. in Europe

The United Nations

In post-WWII Europe, many Europeans became concerned that this country was having too great an impact on the popular culture of the continent via its movies, music, and language

The United States

These 19th-century thinkers sought to correct the problems of the Industrial Revolution by creating small-scale cooperative communities in which individuals shared all labor, decision-making, and wealth

The Utopian Socialists

This was the name of the conservative regime established in France following its conquest by the Germans in 1940

The Vichy Regime

In this war, fought from 1740-1748, Prussia acquired the territory of Silesia from the Habsburgs and consolidated its position as a powerful new state in Central Europe

The War of the Austrian Succession

The outbreak of what conflict is being described in the following passage?: "In December 1740, after being king of Prussia for less than seven months, Frederick II seized the Austrian province of Silesia in eastern Germany. The invasion shattered the provisions of the Pragmatic Sanction and upset the continental balance of power as established by the Treaty of Utrecht."

The War of the Austrian Succession

This war began in 1740 when Frederick II ("the Great") invaded Silesia, violating the Pragmatic Sanction

The War of the Austrian Succession

This war began in 1740 when Frederick II ("the Great") of Prussia seized Silesia from Maria Theresa's Habsburg Empire (Austria), violating the Pragmatic Sanction

The War of the Austrian Succession

At the end of this war in 1714, the Bourbon Philip V was allowed to remain king of Spain, but it was forbidden to ever unite the thrones of France and Spain

The War of the Spanish Succession

In this 1700-1714 conflict a "Grand Alliance" of European countries including England, the Netherlands, and the Holy Roman Empire united to prevent Louis XIV's grandson from inheriting the throne of Spain

The War of the Spanish Succession

This long war, fought in the early 1700s, helped to check the expansion of French power under Louis XIV and marked England's emergence as the strongest power in Europe

The War of the Spanish Succession

In this final conflict of the French Wars of Religion, the leaders of the Valois, Bourbon, and Guise families (all with the same first name) vied for control of the French throne -- The Bourbons would ultimately prevail

The War of the Three Henries

In response to the creation of NATO by the United States, the Soviet Union established this military alliance for the communist regimes of Eastern Europe

The Warsaw Pact

This mutual defense treaty signed by eight of the communist states of Eastern Europe was initiated by the USSR following West Germany's joining of NATO in 1955 -- Its primary purpose was to prevent another invasion of Russia from the west

The Warsaw Pact

This 1776 book by Adam Smith is the first great modern work on economics -- It argued that a free market economy with minimal government interference best promotes the prosperity and well-being of a state

The Wealth of Nations

The first constitution written during the French Revolution, the Constitution of 1791, established a constitutional monarchy in which political power was in effect transferred from the nobility to this group:

The Wealthy

Under this concept of government, which dates to the 19th century but was fully embraced by many European countries after WWII, the state assumes primary responsibility for ensuring the economic and social well-being of its citizens -- It relies upon heavy taxes to provide a wide range of services (e.g. free health care, education) and payments to those in need

The Welfare State

This British political faction first emerged in England in the 1680s, providing strong support for constitutional government and opposing absolutist monarchy -- In the 19th century they tended to favor further limits on the power of the monarch, support for the interests of the business classes, and some degree of political reform (like the elimination of rotten boroughs)

The Whigs

This famous 1899 poem was an expression of the European conviction in the late 19th century that they were destined to dominate the inferior peoples of Africa and Asia. The poet urged Westerners, despite their reluctance to do so, to "bind your sons to exile, to serve your captives' need." The poet's name was Rudyard Kipling.

The White Man's Burden

In this October 1789 event, thousands of women upset about the high price of bread in Paris travelled the twelve miles to the king's palace to demand an end to bread shortages -- They killed several of the king's guards and forced the royal family to return with them to Paris, where they would live for the remainder of the revolution in virtual captivity

The Women's March on Versailles

In 1834, because the German states were hampered by numerous tolls and tariffs that made the transport of goods very expensive and hindered trade, Prussia took the lead in establishing this customs union which abolished tariffs between the German states

The Zollverein

This German customs union was created in 1834, eliminating the tariff barriers between the German states (excluding Austria) -- It helped to promote the economic growth and interdependence of the German states and was an important step towards the eventual political unification of Germany

The Zollverein

This Prussian-led customs union was created in 1834 to create an enlarged trading area for the German states

The Zollverein

This scientist established his reputation with his 1628 book On the Motion of the Heart and Blood

William Harvey

Weaving

The invention of the "flying shuttle" in the 1730s allowed this process in textile manufacturing to be done much more quickly

Potatoes

These were introduced into Ireland in the late 16th century, originally as a response to population pressures. Once peasants began to cultivate them, many more people could be supported. A single acre planted with these could feed an Irish family of 6 for a year, and they could even thrive in boggy wastelands.

Edwin Chadwick

This English government official became convinced that a root cause of urban poverty was disease, and that disease could be reduced by improving sanitary conditions in English cities -- In response to a report he published in 1842, the English government began financing new water and sewage systems

James Watt

This Scottish engineer and inventor introduced important improvements to the Newcomen steam engine that made it much more powerful and efficient -- His version of the steam engine was the most critical single invention of the Industrial Revolution

Infanticide

This all-too-common practice, in which poor European women killed newborn children whom they could not afford to support, was punishable by death

The Crystal Palace

This attractive structure was built in London in 1851 to showcase the many achievements of the British Industrial Revolution

The Great Exhibition of 1851

This event, essentially the first World's Fair, was held in London in 1851 -- the countries of the world were invited together to share their industrial and cultural achievements

The Luddites

This group of skilled English craftsmen was so threatened by the machines of the Industrial Revolution that they began physically attacking them in 1812 in an effort to preserve their jobs

Jethro Tull

This important agricultural innovator of the 17th and 18th centuries advocated the use of horses for pulling plows and developed a seed drill to ensure that a higher percentage of seeds would successfully germinate

The Flying Shuttle

This manufacturing innovation, developed by John Kay in the 1730's, greatly sped up the weaving process by allowing the weaver to rapidly pass a thread back and forth on his loom with one hand

Factory System

This method of production emerged during the Industrial Revolution as machinery became more complex and expensive, and it made more economic sense to bring large numbers of workers together at the same location rather than continue to produce goods under the domestic system

Railroads

This new form of transportation which appeared in the 1830s and 40s was critical to industrialization because it was able to transport goods and services at speeds up to 50 miles per hour, reducing the price of products for the consumers

The Enclosure Movement

This process began during the 16th century. It involved the efforts of British landowning aristocrats and country gentry to surround common lands with fences, stone walls, and hedges, thereby ending the medieval practice of providing free access to grazing lands and woodlands

The Consumer Revolution

This refers to the increased demand, during the 17th and 18th centuries, by Europeans of all social classes for goods such as sugar, clothing, furniture, china, and cutlery; these products had previously only been available for purchase by the upper classes, but now became more accessible to all because of rising incomes and lower food prices

Open-field System

This system of land management dominated the countryside of Europe prior to the Agricultural Revolution. Under this system, even the largest landowners held their property in numerous long strips that were mixed in with their neighbors, and the village as a whole decided how land would be used. The village determined how many cattle villagers could graze on the common lands and how much wood they could take from the forest. This system, which froze the technology of farming at the level of the Middle Ages, would be gradually discontinued during the Agricultural Revolution.

The "Little Ice Age"

This term refers to a climate period from roughly 1300-1850, during which average temperatures declined and glaciers in the European Alps expanded considerably past their previous limits, destroying many farms and villages. Frequent cold winters and cool, wet summers led to crop failures and famines over much of northern and central Europe during this period.

Fallow

This term refers to a field that has been left unplanted in order to allow its nutrients to be replenished -- Innovations introduced during the Agricultural Revolution made this practice unnecessary and obsolete

The Enclosure Movement

This was the process during the Agricultural Revolution in which the farmland of England was consolidated into larger plots of land that could be fenced or hedged by its owners to deny the rest of the community access to it

This Archbishop of Canterbury helped build Henry VIII's case for breaking from the Catholic Church and annulling his marriage to Catherine of Aragon -- During the reign of Edward VI he introduced major Protestant reforms within the Church of England and wrote the Book of Common Prayer -- He would be executed during the reign of Mary I

Thomas Cranmer

This minister of King Henry VIII of England was largely responsible for convincing his king to break from the Catholic Church and made himself the head of the Church of England in order to secure an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon

Thomas Cromwell

This 17th-century English thinker argued that, in a social contract, it was best to give power to an absolute sovereign who was to maintain order & protect people from the chaotic state of nature -- People had no right to rebel against their sovereign, for that would simply return them to the state of nature

Thomas Hobbes

This 17th-century English thinker had a pessimistic view of mankind and argued that the state of nature is a "war of every man against every man"

Thomas Hobbes

These three "laws" defined by Isaac Newton in the first book of the Principia (1687) not only helped explain WHY the planets moved in the manner that they did, but applied to all moving objects on Earth as well

Three Laws of Motion

In Renaissance Italy, this was the primary responsibility of upper class women

To bear children

In 1793 the 24-year-old Napoleon Bonaparte was promoted to brigadier general after commanding the artillery in the siege that recaptured this important French naval base from the British

Toulon

In the late 18th century this self-educated slave, inspired by the thinkers of the Enlightenment and the events of the French Revolution, led a rebellion of the slaves on the colony of Saint Dominique (Haiti) against French rule; although eventually betrayed and captured by Napoleon, in 1803 Haiti won its independence, thanks largely to his efforts.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

This 1925 treaty sought to improve relations between the former Allied powers and Germany and boost the prospects for peace -- Germany, France, and Belgium pledged not to attack each other and to respect the new western boundaries established by the Treaty of Versailles

Treaty of Locarno

During the Age of Exploration, Pope Alexander VI helped negotiate this 1494 treaty that gave Spain the rights to all new lands found to the west of a line drawn through the Atlantic Ocean and Portugal everything to the east.

Treaty of Tordesillas

This 1494 agreement between the Spanish and the Portuguese divided the rights to all newly discovered lands according to a north-south demarcation line through the Atlantic Ocean -- the Portuguese were to control everything to the east of the line and the Spanish everything to the west

Treaty of Tordesillas

This was the system of trade routes established between Europe, Africa, and the New World following the Age of Exploration -- Manufactured goods from Europe were exchanged for slaves in Africa, which were transported to the New World and exchanged for raw materials

Triangular Trade

This emblem worn by supporters of the French Revolution was a combination of the colors of Paris (red and blue) with the color of the Bourbon monarchy (white)

Tricolor Cockade

In 1812 this Russian tsar decided to burn and abandon his capital (Moscow) rather than negotiate with Napoleon, for he feared that he would be deposed and killed by his people should he surrender to the French

Tsar Alexander I

This 1689 work by John Locke rejects rule by divine right and promotes the idea of government by the consent of the people -- It argues that all men are equal in the state of nature, but create a government in order to better protect their natural rights to life, liberty, & property

Two Treatises of Government

In 1529 Martin Luther met with this Swiss reformer in the town of Marburg in a failed attempt to unite the German and Swiss reformations

Ulrich Zwingli

This Swiss theologian launched his own reformation in Zurich at the same time that Martin Luther was challenging the pope's authority in Saxony -- His teachings closely matched those of Luther, except when it came to the presence of Christ in communion bread and wine

Ulrich Zwingli

In 1529 Philip of Hesse arranged a meeting between these two men in the town of Marburg in the hope of creating an alliance between the Swiss and German reformed churches

Ulrich Zwingli & Martin Luther

During World War I, in a desperate effort to starve the British into surrender, the Germans adopted this wartime strategy -- Its adoption was a major factor in the American decision to enter the war on the side of the Allies in April 1917

Unrestricted submarine warfare

The Bourgeoisie

Until the 19th century this term, literally meaning town-dwellers, referred to the middle class in general -- During the Industrial Revolution it came to mean those businessmen who controlled the "means of production" (factories, tools, raw materials, etc.)

This 19th-century political ideology, most associated with Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, holds that the ultimate assessment of a law or policy should be the amount of good it produces for society -- It provided a basis for reformers who wished to provide more government assistance to the working classes

Utilitarianism

This work by Sir Thomas More described a fictional island society in which all worked and there was no private ownership of property

Utopia

This work depicts an imaginary island in which there is communal ownership of all property and everyone works; in Greek it means "nowhere." It was written by Thomas More.

Utopia

In 1791 the French royal family was captured in this border town while attempting to escape the country and was returned to Paris

Varennes

In 1498 this Portuguese explorer became the first European to reach India by sea, opening up direct access to the profitable spice trade of Asia

Vasco da Gama

In 1498 this Portuguese explorer led the first expedition to reach India by sea

Vasco da Gama

This council of the Catholic Church met from 1962-65 in order to rejuvenate and broaden the appeal of the church -- It liberalized a number of church practices (e.g. it permitted Mass to be delivered in the vernacular) and sought to unite all Christians (including Protestants) in the ecumenical movement

Vatican II or The Second Vatican Council

In the Catholic faith, these are lesser sins, such as disrespect or petty theft, which do not rupture a Christian's relationship with God and condemn him/her to Hell -- Any of these sins which go unconfessed during one's lifetime must be cleansed after death in Purgatory before one may enter Heaven

Venial Sins

Before the Portuguese opened up the sea route to Asia, this Italian city largely controlled the importation of Asian spices into Europe

Venice

The most definitive piece of evidence Galileo's telescope generated to undermine the geocentric theory in the early 17th century was the observation of the phases of this planet

Venus

This term refers to the everyday language of the people (as opposed to a scholarly language like Latin) -- Christian humanists like Erasmus and reformers like Martin Luther agreed that the Bible should be made available in these languages, a policy opposed by the Catholic Church

Vernacular

Name the author and title of the 1543 book which contained the first systematic, detailed images of the human body based on dissections

Vesalius's On the Structure of the Human Body (De Humani Corporis Fabrica or Fabrica)

This authoritarian, reactionary government was established in France following its defeat by Nazi Germany in June 1940 -- It primarily ruled in the unoccupied southern "free zone" of France, and actively collaborated with the German forces in the northern part of the country

Vichy France

In 1861 this king of Piedmont became the first ruler of unified Italy

Victor Emmanuel II

On March 16, 1861, an Italian parliament proclaimed the establishment of the kingdom of Italy and proclaimed this man king

Victor Emmanuel II

This ruler of Piedmont became the first king of unified Italy in 1861

Victor Emmanuel II

A critical step in the unification of Italy was the meeting between these two men on September 18, 1860, when each rode out from their respective armies to greet and shake the hand of the other. One of these men greeted the other as the first king of unified Italy.

Victor Emmanuel II & Garibaldi

In 1683, the advance of the Ottoman Empire into central Europe was halted when it unsuccessfully laid seige to this city and was defeated by troops from the Holy Roman Empire and Poland:

Vienna

This was the name for the communist political movement and guerrilla army in South Vietnam that fought against the South Vietnamese and US forces from 1954-75 in an effort to unify North and South Vietnam under the North's communist government, ultimately achieving success in 1975

Vietcong

France fought long, bitter, unsuccessful wars in the postwar era to maintain control over these TWO colonies

Vietnam and Algeria

This 1792 book by Mary Wollstonecraft is regarded as one of the earliest feminist works -- it argues that women should receive the same educations provided to men of their social class, and that the two sexes are entitled to the same basic rights

Vindication of the Rights of Woman

This author of Candide (1759) advocated deism, according to which God created the world and the natural laws by which it operated, but no longer had direct involvement with it

Voltaire

This most beloved and celebrated of the philosophes was a prolific author of novels (such as Candide), plays, histories, letters, & pamphlets and a great admirer of English institutions and freedoms

Voltaire

When this strong 18th-century critic of organized religion famously stated "crush the infamous thing," he was referring to religious intolerance and persecution

Voltaire

This classic 1818 work of the Romantic school depicts a man standing on an outcropping of rock with his back to the viewer looking out over a dramatic mountainous landscape

Wanderer Above the Sea of Fog

The Steam Engine

What is being described in the following passage?: "Its use spread slowly because until 1800 the inventor retained the exclusive patent rights. The inventor was also reluctant to make further changes in the device that would allow it to operate more rapidly. Boulton eventually persuaded him to make modifications and improvements that allowed this invention to be used not only for pumping, but also for running cotton mills. By the early 19th century it had become the prime mover for all industry."

In 1871 this Hohenzollern monarch became the first emperor of unified Germany following Prussia's victory over France in the Franco-Prussian War

Wilhelm I

This British prime minister and leader of the Liberal party presided over many important reforms between 1868-74, such as the elimination of tariffs, civil service exams to ensure competent government, the secret ballot, and elementary education for all children

William Gladstone

In his 1628 work On the Motion of the Heart and Blood, this man provided a systematic, detailed description of the human circulatory system, stating that the heart acted as a pump that propelled blood through the body

William Harvey

This 17th-century English scientist is best remembered for discovering that the human heart was responsible for the circulation of the blood

William Harvey

Name the author and title of the 1628 book in which an image appeared demonstrating how veins collapsed when pressed on by one's finger

William Harvey's On the Motion of the Heart and Blood (De Motu Cordis)

This Dutchman was the most prominent leader of his country's revolt against Spanish rule in the late 16th century

William of Orange ("the Silent")

Shortly after the end of World War II, this man claimed that an "Iron Curtain" had descended across Europe

Winston Churchill

This British politician served as prime minister for most of World War II -- He refused to consider reaching a settlement with the Germans, inspiring his countrymen to continue their resistance even in the darkest days of the war when Britain stood alone -- In July 1945, after the surrender of Germany, his Conservative Party was defeated in elections

Winston Churchill

These were the "Big Three" leaders of the US, Britain, and USSR who cooperated in the defeat of the Axis powers during WWII

Winston Churchill Franklin Delano Roosevelt Joseph Stalin

At the end of this conflict, Germany was forced to accept Article 231, which stated that it was responsible for the outbreak of the war

World War I

European women won the vote in many European countries, including Britain and Germany, at the end of this conflict

World War I

Most European countries only began to grant women the right to vote in the years immediately following this major 20th-century event

World War I

At the end of this war Germany and Berlin were each divided by the Allies into four zones of occupation

World War II