AP Euro Test Review 9 - The Emergence of Austria, Prussia and Russia

The Emergence of Austria

*Austrian Hapsburgs faced problems in consolidating their domains, as there were many different languages and traditions throughout their regions.* Austria was primarily Germans, while Bohemian was mostly Czechs. In Hungary, the land was populated by Magyars. Other groups within their territories included Slovaks, Croatian, Slovenes, Rumanians, Italians and Poles.

Joseph II's Reforms

*Eliminated internal tariffs* and encouraged *road building* and improvements in *river transportation* to promote trade. *Opposed serfdom because he believed that if peasants were free they would be more productive.* In the 1780's through a series of decrees, he freed the serfs in Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and Transylvania. In 1789 he *abolished the robot, which obliged peasants to perform services for landowning nobility.* This obligation was replaced with a tax only some of which went to the landowners, and the rest to the state. These *reforms created turmoil* given the lack of preparation before they were imposed. In many areas, *peasants actually rose up in revolt to defend their new rights and to claim others.* Likewise, the *nobility protested as the reforms hurt their interests.*

Frederick I (r. 1688-1713)

*Frederick I was a patron of the arts and learning* and focused his efforts on these rather than on the army and the government administration. He enjoyed a* luxurious lifestyle.* He is credited with *one major accomplishment,* during the War of Spanish Succession he *supported the Hapsburg Holy Roman Emperor, who then permitted Frederick to assume the title of King of Prussia.* This title passed to his son upon his death.

The Wars of Peter the Great

*Peter sought to gain territory on the Black Sea and Baltic *and fought *wars against both the Ottoman Empire and Sweden.* The Russians captured Azov on the Black Sea after war with the Turks, but the Turks were later able to regain the port. Peter was *more successful in his war with Sweden,* called the *Great Northern War.* Eventually, with the *Peace of Nystad of 1721* Russia acquired several *Swedish provinces on the Baltic. * During the course of the war, Peter *established his new capital of St. Petersburg* on the Gulf of Finland. It served as Russia's *window on the West, a symbol of Russia's new Western orientation."

The Wars of Catherine the Great

1769-1774 Russia fought a successful war against the Ottoman Empire. *Treaty of Kutchuk-Kainardji* in 1774, Russia *acquired most of the Ottoman lands on the northern coast of the Black Sea, as well as full access to the Turkish Straits which joined the Black and Aegean seas.* The treaty recognized the independence of *Crimea*, which Russia proceeded to annex in 1783. There was also a vague reference to Russia as the *protector of the Orthodox Christian subjects of the Ottoman sultan,* which the Russians used as an excuse for *later interventions in the Ottoman Empire.* In a second war against the Turks from 1787 to 1792, Russia pushed its southwestern frontier, acquiring the Turk's remaining lands along the *northern Black Sea coast.* *Catherine also participated* with the Prussians and Austrians in the *partitions of Poland.*

Catherine the Great and the Nobility

Following Peter the Great's death, *the nobility had escaped many of the restraints placed upon them by Peter.* Their obligations to the state had decreased while their control over the serfs increased. *Because Catherine owed her position to the nobility, she rewarded her supporters with grants of state land inhabited by serfs who now became the property of the nobles.* A great serf revolt occurred in 1773, led by *Emelian Pugachev, a Don Cossack.* He was then beheaded and *Catherine reorganized local government, creating 50 provinces in place of 20. The local nobility controlled these local governments. The *Charter of the Nobility* issued in 1785. formally recognized the *rights and privileges of the nobility, including exemption from taxes and military service and giving them total control over their estates and serfs.*

Frederick the Great (r. 1740-1786)

Frederick II, who became known as Frederick the Great, inherited the throne of Prussia from his father. *He established Prussia as a great European power.* He began the *War of Austrian Succession* by invading Silesia and during the *Seven Years' War* succeeded in retaining it. In 1772, he participated in the first *Partition of Poland.* Frederick the Great was a *successful enlightened despot.* A friend of Voltaire's, he *instituted reforms,* which were *primarily intended to increase the power of the Prussian monarchy.* In *modernizing the government*, he *created a number of new agencies,* including the bureau of commerce and industry, excise (excise is a tax on the sale or transfer of goods), tolls, mines and forestry. Using French experts, he reorganized the *system of indirect taxes* and was *able to provide the state with more revenue* than it received with the direct tax system. He also *codified Prussian law* and *abolished the use of torture in legal proceedings.* *Frederick actively promoted economic development.* He also imposed tariffs to protect Prussia's young industries while at the same time reducing internal barriers to trade. *The Bank of Berlin made credit available* and *new canals were built, swamps were drained for agriculture* and new crops (such as potatoes and turnips) were introduced. In *religious policies, he was tolerant* and he permitted Catholics to settle in areas that were mostly Lutheran and respected the rights of the majority Catholic population of Silesia.

Frederick William, the Great Elector (r. 1640-1688)

Frederick William, the Great Elector, began his rule when the Hohenzollern family's domains had been devastated by the Thirty Years' War, which ended in 1648. To create a modern state, the Great Elector reduced the autonomy of the *Junkers*, the name for the *nobility* and *the estates, the nobles' assemblies.* He established the *civil service* and the *army* as cornerstones of state power and *taxed the nobility* to pay for the army's support. He did *not interfere with the Junkers' control over the serfs*. The tax burden still fell the heaviest on the peasants and townspeople. By *recruiting members of the Junkers into the civil service and as army officers* these institutions came to be dominated by the nobility. Thus, the Hohenzollerns' power was based upon an alliance with the aristocracy (as opposed to France and Austria who tried to weaken it). In *religious affairs,* he practiced a policy of *tolerance, welcoming French Huguenots and Polish Jews fleeing persecution.*

Joseph II and the Catholic Church

He was a practicing Catholic but granted *limited religious tolerance* to other *Christian subjects* and removed some restrictions on the *Jews.* He *closed* several hundred *convents and monasteries,* taking the land and justifying it by *arguing that the church's use of the land was unproductive.* *Revenues* from these lands that had gone to the church *now went to the royal treasury* and the *clergy became employees of the state.* He also reduced the power of the papacy in Austria by *requiring all communications to and from Rome be forwarded through the government in Vienna.* *Bishops and other high ranking churchmen had to swear an allegiance* to the ruler.

Leopold I (r. 1657-1705)

Holy Roman Emperor Leopold I successfully resisted the Ottoman Empire and King Louis XIV of France. In the late 17th century, the *Turks laid seige* (a military operation in which enemy forces surround a town or building, cutting off essential supplies, with the aim of compelling the surrender of those inside) *to Vienna.* The Polish army led by *Poland's king John Sobieski* came to Vienna's aid and the Turks left. The Hapsburg army then attacked the Turks capturing Budapest, the capital of Hungary. Under the terms of the *Treaty of Karlowitz* Leopold acquired nearly all of *Hungary.*

The Emergence of Prussia

In 1415, the Hohenzollern family began to rule as the electors of Brandenburg in northern Germany. (An elector at this time was a German prince entitled to take part in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor.) By the late 17th century, the family had managed to increase their holdings such that their domains within the Holy Roman Empire were second in size to those of the Hapsburgs. The family was faced with the task of bringing their scattered states together to form a single unified state.

The Emergence of Russia

In 1613 the *boyars* (Russian nobility) elected *Michael Romanov (r. 1613-1654) as tsar. The Romanovs continued to rule Russia until the last tsar, Nicholas II, was overthrown in 1917. Michael Romanov and his successors reestablished stability following the turmoil of the *Time of Troubles* (1584-1613). Nevertheless the boyars and the *streltsi (the guards in the army in Moscow)* continued to challenge the tsar's authority.

The Emergence of Austria, Prussia and Russia - Overview and Themes*

In Central and Eastern Europe in the late 17th century and early 18th century, three major powers emerged -- Austria, Prussia and Russia. The *Holy Roman Empire*, controlled by the Hapsburg family, contained most of the German lands within its territory. But this empire was a *loose union of what was essentially over three hundred independent states.* The *Hapsburgs also possessed* their own personal lands, which included Austria, Bohemia, and Hungary.* Their power and influence was largely based upon their rule over these territories, rather than on the possession of the title of Holy Roman Emperor. In northern Germany in *Bradenberg*, a state within the Holy Roman Empire, the *Hohenzollern family began to build its own strong power base.* By the early 18th century, the Hohenzollerns had made *Prussia* into one of Europe's major powers. To the east in *Russia,* the *Romanov dynasty* came to power in 1613. Michael Romanov and his successors established a powerful monarchy and by the time of *Peter the Great* became one of Europe's great powers. Three monarchs of this time period, *Joseph II of Austria, Frederick the Great of Prussia and Catherine the Great of Russia* are often referred to as *enlightened despots,* meaning that they were absolute monarchs who used their power to carry out reforms to make their governments more modern and efficient. *Joseph II's reforms were progressive but failed to become permanent because of lack of support.* *Frederick the Great sought to modernize the structure of the government and to promote economic development and religious tolerance.* However, *his reforms were designed more to enhance his own power and that of the state* rather than to provide individual freedoms. *Catherine the Great, is the least deserving of this title.* While *expressing an interest in Enlightenment ideas, she heavily relied upon the nobility, who would not support such freedoms at their expense.* In the end, Peter the Great was much more enlightened.

Joseph II (r. 1765-1790)

Joseph II, Maria Theresa's son, was elected Holy Roman emperor when his father died in 1765. His personal rule of Austria did not begin until his mother died in 1780. He *sought to govern Austria as an enlightened despot*, initiating a far reaching program of reforms. Wanted to *modernize the government as part of a plan to increase the crown's authority over the diverse Hapsburg domains and to establish royal power more firmly over the church and the nobility.*

Leopold II (r. 1790-1792) and the End of Reform

Leopold II *repealed most of his brother Joseph's reforms* in an effort to calm the nobility. (As an aside, their sister was Marie Antoinette.) Thus, *serfdom and the robot remained in effect in the Hapsburg domains until 1848*. Leopold II was succeeded by *Francis II*, his eldest son, who continued his father's policies. Following Napoleon's abolition of the Holy Roman Empire, Francis ruled as Francis I of Austria.

Charles VI (r. 1711-1740) and the Pragmatic Sanction

Leopold was succeeded by *Joseph I* (r. 1705-1711) who continued with Leopold's policies. Prince Eugene continued winning victories. In 1711, *Charles VI* became Holy Roman Emperor and the ruler of Austria after the death of Joseph I, his brother. Charles failed to produce a male heir and to avoid a conflict over his succession sought the *Pragmatic Sanction of 1713*, which provided that the *Hapsburg holdings go to his daughter Maria Theresa.* However, after Charles IV's death *Frederick the Great of Prussia invaded Austrian Silesia, which began the War of Austrian Succession.*

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

Like her counterparts in Austria and Prussia, Catherine admired the *reform ideas of the Enlightenment.* She corresponded with Voltaire and other 18th century thinkers. However, she *did little to reform or modernize Russia.* She established a *Legislative Commission to propose reforms in the legal system with representatives from all classes except for the serfs.* The commission was *factionalized* with each faction promoting its own interest. Nothing significant was accomplished and it was ultimately dismissed. *Economically, she did continue the program of Peter the Great, reducing internal barriers to trade and increasing Russian exports of flax, furs and grain.*

Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780)

Maria Theresa successfully defended her right to inherit the throne and the Hapsburg domains during the War of Austrian Succession. Prussia did acquire Silesia. Her husband *Francis of Lorraine* received the title of Holy Roman Emperor becoming *Emperor Francis I* (r. 1745-1765). (Probably not important but Charles VII, who was Charles Albert the elector of Bavaria, held the position of emperor for two years in between.) *Maria Theresa remained in control* as her husband had little interest in government. War proved to her that she needed more control over her domains. While *not abolishing the regional diets, which were dominated by local nobility, she stripped them of their administrative functions, creating a centralized bureaucracy to control local affairs* (similar to the strategy of the monarchy in France). *German became the language* of the administration and *taxes were imposed on nobility and clergy* (in *contrast to France*). While a devout Catholic, s*he established the state's control over the Roman Catholic Church* (*similar to France*).

Peter the Great and the Boyars

One of the first step Peter the Great took towards westernization was to order the boyars to be *clean shaven and to adopt Western dress*. He *ended the traditional seclusion of upper-class Russian women and demanded that they participate in social functions with men.* He insisted that *boyars serve the state in either the civil service or the military.* In 1722 he issued the *Table of Ranks* which provided that *social position and privileges be based on an individual's rank in the bureaucracy or military rather than on his noble status.*

Peter the Great (r. 1682-1725)

Peter I, known as Peter the Great, became tsar at the age of 10 as co-ruler with his sickly half-brother Ivan V (r. 1682-1696). When Ivan died, Peter assumed full power. Peter was fascinated with Western Europe and was the first tsar to travel to the west, visiting Prussia, the Netherlands, and England. While abroad, he *studied military organizations, shipbuilding, commerce and finance.* During his absence, the *streltsi took advantage* and rebelled in 1698. Quickly returning to Russia, Peter brutally suppressed the revolt. ~1200 rebels were executed, *with their corpses being placed upon display* as a warning. His visits to Western Europe increased his *determination to westernize and modernize Russia.* He moved to *establish control over the boyars* and set out to *promote economic development, *strengthen Russia's armed forces, reorganize the central administration, and extend control over the Russian Orthodox Church.*

Peter the Great and the Administration

Peter followed Sweden's model in reorganizing the central government. *Government departments were headed by colleges of several individuals rather than a single minister.* He also established a *Senate of nine members to supervise the administration and direct operations in the tsar's absence.* In 1711, Peter took the title of *Emperor of All Russia.*

Peter the Great and Economic Development

Peter ordered the boyars to *send their sons to Western Europe to learn technical skills.* He also *encouraged Western European craftsmen and technicians to settle in Russia.* He *established schools and hospitals and founded the Russian Academy of Science.* State *subsidies were provided to private industry* and he *established state mines and factories to insure adequate supplies for his military operations.* These programs were expensive and he imposed *taxes* to support them, including a *tax on every male known as the soul tax.* He also collected *income from monopolies on many products, including caviar and salt.* While westernization help to modernize Russia, it *divided the Russian people, with a small semi-westernized upper class and the masses of peasants living in poverty and ignorance.*

The Succession to Peter the Great

Peter the Great had his son, Alexis, imprisoned in 1718 and died there under mysterious circumstances. Peter failed to designate a successor prior to his own death. The *army and nobility controlled the succession* but the *series of leaders following Peter's death were weak and ineffective.* In 1762, Peter III, a weak and incompetent ruler, became tsar. With the approval of *his wife Catherine, a German princess from Pomerania, he was murdered. Catherine then ascended to the throne.

Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740)

Replaced his father's extravagances with *austerity.* Imposed strict economies and sound management in an effort to maximize Prussia's limited resources. This increased the state's income. This allowed Frederick William, known as the *Sergeant King* to *double the size of the Prussian army.* The army officers became a privileged social class and the officer corps attracted the most talented sons of the Junkers.

Peter the Great and the Russian Orthodox Church

The Russian Orthodox Church was very *conservative in its theology and its attitude toward westernization.* In order to bring the church under more *secular control,* Peter *abolished the office of the patriarch.* In its place, he established an agency that became known as the *Holy Synod,* consisting of a committee of bishops headed by a layman, the procurator-general.*

Prince Eugene of Savoy

War against the Turks by the Hapsburgs, marked the emergence of the *Hapsburgs' most distinguished general,* Prince Eugene of Savoy. Played a role in the War of Spanish Succession by joining forces with England's Duke of Marlborough to win a victory over the French in the *Battle of Blenheim*. *This victory, just before Leopold's death, confirmed Austria's position as a great European power.*