AP Government Exam Review
Explain 5 shortcomings of polls.
1. Survey error (margin of error, sampling error) 2. Limited respondent options (full feelings not expressed) 3. Lack of information (poll takers may be uninformed) 4. Difficult measuring intensity of opinions 5. Lack of interest in political issues (apathetic public)
List the six "voting amendments"
15th, 17th, 19th, 23rd, 24th, and 26th
John Locke
1632-1704. English philosopher whose Treatises of Government espousing natural rights, consent of the governed, and social compacts greatly influenced the Founding Fathers
Constitutional Convention
1787 meeting at which the U.S. Constitution was created.
Great Compromise
1787; This compromise was between the large and small states of the colonies. The Great Compromise resolved that there would be representation by population in the House of Representatives, and equal representation would exist in the Senate. Each state, regardless of size, would have 2 senators. All tax bills and revenues would originate in the House. This compromise combined the needs of both large and small states and formed a fair and sensible resolution to their problems.
Three critical elections
1800 Election (a realigning election; formation of Democratic-Republicans), 1860 Election (Whig party dissolves, forms Republican party which wins the election); 1932 Election (the Great Depression causes people to favor the Democratic party over the Republican party)
Fifteenth Amendment
1870: Prohibited voting restrictions based on "race, color, or previous condition of servitude."
Nineteenth Amendment
1920: Gave women right to vote.
Twenty-Third Amendment
1961: Resident of D.C. could vote in Presidential elections.
Twenty-Fourth Amendment
1964: Outlawed poll tax "or any tax" as qualification for voting.
Twenty-Sixth Amendment
1971: Lowered voting age to 18.
United States V Lopez (1995)
1995 - The Commerce Clause of the Constitution does not give Congress the power to prohibit mere possession of a gun near a school, because gun possession by itself is not an economic activity that affects interstate commerce even indirectly.
Buckley v. Valeo (1976)
1st Amendment protects campaign spending; legislatures can limit contributions, but not how much one spends of his own money on campaigns.
Articles of Confederation
1st Constitution of the U.S. 1781-1788 (weaknesses-no executive, no judicial, no power to tax, no power to regulate trade)
First Amendment
5 freedoms: speech, press, religion, assembly, petition
Shays's Rebellion
A 1786 rebellion in which an army of 1,500 disgruntled and angry farmers led by Daniel Shays marched to Springfield, Massachusetts, and forcibly restrained the state court from foreclosing mortgages on their farms.
Shay's Rebellion
A Series of attacks on courthouses by a small band of farmers led by Revolutionary War captain Daniel Shays to block foreclosure proceedings. Led to the Constitutional convention
Amendment
A change to the Constitution
Federal Election Commission (FEC)
A commission created by the 1974 amendments to the Federal Election Campaign Act to administer election reform laws. It consists of six commissioners appointed by president and confirmed by the Senate. Its duties include overseeing disclosure of campaign finance information and public funding of presidential elections, and enforcing contribution limits.
Political Action Committee (PAC)
A committee set up by a corporation, labor union, or interest group that raises and spends campaign money from voluntary donations. Gives money to the parties/candidates they support.
political ideology
A consistent pattern of beliefs about political values and the role of government.
Sixth Amendment
A constitutional amendment designed to protect individuals accused of crimes. It includes the right to counsel, the right to confront witnesses, and the right to a speedy and public trial.
Fifth Amendment
A constitutional amendment designed to protect the rights of persons accused of crimes, including protection against double jeopardy, self-incrimination, and punishment without due process of law.
New Jersey Plan
A constitutional proposal that would have given each state one vote in a new congress
Hatch Act
A federal law prohibiting government employees from active participation in partisan politics.
Coercive Federalism 1970's present 1937-present
A form of federalism in which the federal government pressures the states to change their policies by using regulations, mandates, and conditions (often involving threats to withdraw federal funding).
Direct democracy
A form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives
Republic
A form of government in which the people select representatives to govern them and make laws.
Independent Regulatory Agency
A government agency responsible for some sector of the economy, making and enforcing rules supposedly to protect the public interest. It also judges disputes over these rules. The Interstate Commerce Commission, Federal Reserve Board, Securities Exchange Commission are examples.
Divided Government
A government in which one party controls the presidency while another controls congress. This pattern of divided government has dominated U.S politics since the early 1970's.
Governmental Corporations
A government organization that, like business corporations, provides a service that could be provided by the private sector and typically charges for its services. The U.S. Postal Service, Corporation for Public Radio, and Amtrak are examples.
Federal System
A government that divides the powers of government between the national government and state or provincial governments
Unitary System
A government that gives all key powers to the national or central government
Amicus Curiae Briefs
A group can submit this in attempt to change policy. It is submitted as a letter of opinion on a particular case that has recently risen.
Strict Scrutiny
A heightened standard of review used by the Supreme Court to determine the constitutional validity of a challenged practice.
Unalienable
A human right based on nature or God.
Koramatsu v. United States
A landmark United States Supreme Court case concerning the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066, which ordered Japanese Americans into internment camps during World War II regardless of citizenship.
Dredd Scott v. Sanford
A landmark decision by the U.S. Supreme Court in which the Court held that African Americans, whether enslaved or free, could not be American citizens and therefore had no standing to sue in federal court, and that the federal government had no power to regulate slavery in the federal territories acquired after the creation of the United States
Voting Rights Act 1965
A landmark piece of federal legislation in the United States that prohibits racial discrimination in voting.
Federal Election Campaign Act (1974)
A law passed for reforming campaign finance that created the FEC, provided public financing for primaries and general elections, limited presidential campaign spending, required disclosure, and attempted to limit contributions.
Ex post facto law
A law that makes an act criminal although the act was legal when it was committed
Ralph Nader
A leftist American politician who promotes the environment, fair consumerism, and social welfare programs. His book Unsafe at Any Speed brought attention to the lack of safety in American automobiles.
Bill of attainder
A legislative act finding a person guilty of treason or felony without a trial
Picket Fence Federalism
A more refined and realistic form of cooperative federalism in which policy makers within a particular policy area work together across the levels of government.
New Federalism 1969-present
A policy in 1969, that turned over powers and responsibilities of some U.S. federal programs to state and local governments and reduced the role of national government in domestic affairs (states are closer to the people and problems)
General Schedule Rating
A schedule for federal employees, ranging from GS 1 to GS 18, by which salaries can be keyed to rating and experience.
Smith v. Allwright (1944)
A supreme court case in 1944 that ruled that it was unconstitutional to deny membership in political parties to African Americans as a way of excluding them from voting in primaries.
Confederal System
A system consisting of a league of independent states, each having essentially sovereign powers. The central government created by such a league has only limited powers over the states.
Federalism
A system in which power is divided between the national and state governments
Dual Federalism (Layer Cake) 1789-1937
A system of government in which both the states and the national government remain supreme within their own spheres, each responsible for some policies.
Representative democracy
A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people.
Checks and Balances
A system that allows each branch of government to limit the powers of the other branches in order to prevent abuse of power
gender gap
A term that refers to the regular pattern by which women are more likely to support Democratic candidates. Women tend to be significantly less conservative than men and are more likely to support spending on social services and to oppose higher levels of military spending.
Faction
A term the founders used to refer to political parties and special interests or interest groups.
Pluralist theory
A theory of government and politics emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies
Social Contract
A voluntary agreement among individuals to secure their rights and welfare by creating a government and abiding by its rules.
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
ADA' Legislation passed in 1990 that prohibits discrimination against people with disabilities. Under this Act, discrimination against a disabled person is illegal in employment, transportation, public accommodations, communications and government activities.
Tenth Amendment
Amendment stating that the powers not delegated to the federal gov. are reserved to the states
Nineteenth Amendemnt
Amendment to the Constitution that guaranteed women the right to vote.
How does mass media affect political socialization/party identification?
Americans have turned away from "traditional" reliable news sources (cable TV, social media, and the internet are the biggest factors); media can often be biased news
Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974
An act designed to reform the congressional budgetary process. Its supporters hoped that it would also make Congress less dependent on the president's budget and better able to set and meet its own budgetary goals.
Appropriation
An act of Congress that actually funds programs within limits established by authorization bills. It usually covers one year.
Single Member District
An electoral district from which one person is chosen by the others for each elected office. This type of electoral system typically leads to legislatures dominated by two political parties.
Senior Executive Service
An elite cadre of about 11,000 federal government managers, established by the Civil Service Reform Act of 1978, who are mostly career officials but include some political appointees who do not require Senate confirmation.
Party Era
An historical period dominated by one political party
Habeas corpus
An order to produce an arrested person before a judge.
political culture
An overall set of values widely shared within a society
What is an interest group?
Any type of group that attempts to effect the government or policies.
Supremacy Clause
Article VI of the Constitution, which makes the Constitution, national laws, and treaties supreme over state laws when the national government is acting within its constitutional limits. Verified by McCullough V. Maryland (1819)
Endorsements
(Giving approval) political candidates usually include endorsements in their political ads to gain popularity with various groups.
Plessy v. Ferguson
(Separate But Equal) -Plessy challenged a Louisiana statue requiring that railroads provide separate accommodations for blacks and whites. The Court found that separate but equal accommodations did not violate the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Referendum
(The legislators REFER a bill to the people) the state legislature submits proposed legislation or state constitutional amendments to the voters for approval
Initiative
(The people have the INITIATIVE to come up with their own bill to give to the legislation) a process that allows citizens to propose legislation or state constitutional amendments by submitting them to the electorate for popular vote, provided the initiative supporters receive a certain number of signatures on petitions supporting the placement of the proposal on the ballot (24 states + DC)
Political Party Machines
(most prominent in Golden Age) a party organization that recruits voter loyalty w/tangible incentives (housing, employment, food, social events, social mobility) and is characterized by a high degree of control over member activity; generated intense loyalty + voter turnout SOFT MONEY
Coalition
(n.) a combination, union, or merger for some specific purpose
Citizens United vs. FEC 2010
-Hilary Clinton ran for President in 2008 -Citizens United funded a movie project called Hilary the Movie bashing her. -They were set to put it OnDemand for Direct TV customers -FEC said they were a bunch of cooperations and were spending on political activity which was not allowed -Citizens United was threatened with fines so they took it to court -The Supreme Court said FEC was right but if they ruled in favor of them it would violate the First Amendment.
Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act 2002
-Killed "soft money" -New limits on PACs -Individual- $2,700 p/e -To Nat. Political Party- $33,000 p/y - PAC- $5,000 p/e p/c - Nat. Political Party- $15,000 -Bundling- When a group of individuals bundle their contributions and give it as one.
Super Tuesday
Day when several states hold their presidential primaries (usually the second Tuesday in March)
Regents of the University of California v Bakke
Decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. It upheld affirmative action, allowing race to be one of several factors in college admission policy.
DCCC
Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee raise and distribute campaign funds for House and Senate seats, develop campaign strategies, recruit candidates, and conduct on-the-ground campaigns.
Recall
EX-In California: replaced incumbent Democratic Governor Gray Davis with Republican Arnold Schwarzenegger. definition: an election in which voters can remove an incumbent from office prior to the next scheduled election.
Critical/Realigning Election
Elections in which there are sharp changes in issues, party leaders, the regional and demographic basis of power of the two parties, structures or rules of election (like voter age/restrictions) resulting in a new political power structure. 60s & 70s vs.80's & 90's
Iron Triangles
Entities composed of bureaucratic agencies, interest groups, and congressional committees or subcommittees, which have dominated some areas of domestic policymaking. These are characterized by mutual dependency, in which each element provides key services, information, or policy for the others.
Businesses Influencing Policy
Example: AT&T cares about getting policies changed about placements for their cellphone towers.
Trade Associations & Unions Influencing Policy
Example: They changed child labor laws, workers safety, and work hours.
Federalists
Favored ratification of the constitution (Madison) A term used to describe supporters of the Constitution during ratification debates in state legislatures.
Equal Employment Opportunity Comission
Federal agency created to enforce the civil rights act of 1964, which forbids discrimination on the basis of race, creed, national origin, religion, or sex in hiring, promotion, or firing.
Block Grants
Federal grants given more or less automatically to states or communities to support broad programs in areas such as community development and social services
Categorical Grants
Federal grants that can be used only for specific purposes or "categories," of state and local spending. They come with strings attached, such as nondiscrimination provisions. Compare to block grants.
Expenditures
Federal spending of revenues. Major areas such as spending are social services and the military.
What distinguished the FIRST two political parties?
Federalist Party (dissolved in 1820) - stronger central government (favor Constitution) Democratic-Republicans - state sovereignty (favor govt under Articles of Confederation)
Iowa Caucus
First state to hold a caucus or primary, therefore giving Iowa much attention during the campaign season.
Office of Personnel Management
In charge of hiring for most federal agencies, director is appointed by the president and confirmed by the senate. It has elaborate rules about hiring, promotion, working conditions, and firing
Jacksonian Democracy
In early 1800s, removed requirements of property ownership and tax payments to vote.
McCullough V. Maryland (1819)
In establishing a national bank, Congress was legally exercising its enumerated powers not sepcifically mentioned in the Constitution. Established Implied Powers under the "Necessary and Proper Clause"
Where does the PAC money come from?
Individuals account for 2/3 of donations.
Linkage Institutions
Institutions that connect citizens to the government. ex- mass media interest groups political parties
Publicity/Mass Media
Interest groups use media (Tv, Social Media/ Internet, etc.) As a way of means to receive more publicity.
Campaign Contributions
Interest groups use this as almost a means of bribery but there are limitations set.
Where does PAC money go?
Given to incumbents- proven winner.
Grassroots Lobbying
Groups contact individual citizens and encourage them to contact their state representatives to attempt to change a policy.
Grutter v. Bollinger
Grutter v. Bollinger, 539 U.S. 306 (2003), was a landmark case in which the United States Supreme Court upheld the affirmative action admissions policy of the University of Michigan Law School.
Federalist #10
James Madison wrote his opinion about "factions" in the paper, where he described his belief in a large republic being best to control factions so none of them dominate due to the vast amount of them.
Election of 1800
Jefferson and Burr each received 73 votes in the Electoral College, so the House of Representatives had to decide the outcome. The House chose Jefferson as President and Burr as Vice President.
Election of 1824
John Quincy Adams won after Henry Clay gave his support to Adams, securing his Presidency. When Adams appointed Clay as his secretary of state, Jackson's supporters raged that a "corrupt bargain" had cheated Jackson of presidency.
Purposive/Moral Incentives
Joining a group for the cause.
Black Codes
Laws denying most legal rights to newly freed slaves; passed by southern sates following the Civil War.
Jim Crow Laws
Laws enacted by southern states that discriminated against blacks by creating "whites only" schools, theaters, hotels, and other public accommodations.
Civil Rights Act 1964
Legislation passed by Congress to outlaw segregation in public facilities and racial discrimination in employment, education, and voting; created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
How does income affect party identification?
Low-income - usually Democratic Middle class to high-income - usually Republican
Federalist # 10
Madisons Warning on Factions. Solution = larger republic
Soft Money
Money raised in unlimited amounts by political parties for party-building purposes. Now largely illegal except for limited contributions to state or local parties for voter registration and get-out-the-vote efforts.
Revolving Door
Movement of personnel between roles as legislators and regulators.
Are political parties found in the US Constitution?
NO!! they aren't mentioned in the document; emerged around the 1800s
Which US states give proportional Presidential electoral college votes to candidates?
Nebraska and Maine
Amending the Constitution
Needs approval of two-thirds of Congress and three-fourths of the states
Professional Associations and Influencing Policy
Not considered a labor union because no physical labor is occurring, but basically they have the same goals as Unions except in the case of professionals.
Age Factors in Voting
Older more likely to vote than younger until age 70; younger voters tend to vote Democratic.
Patronage
One of the key inducements used by machines. A patronage job, promotion, or contract is one that is given for political reasons rather than for merit or competence alone.
Fourteenth Amendment
One of the three Civil War amendments, guarantees equal protection and due process of the laws to all citizens.
Thirteenth Amendment
One of the three Civil War amendments; specifically bans slavery in the United Sates.
Antifederalists
Opponents of ratification of the Constitution and of a strong central government, generally.
Pendleton Civil Service Act
Passed in 1883, an Act that created a federal civil service so that hiring and promotion would be based on merit rather than patronage.
Free Riders (interest groups)
People who benefit from an interest group without making any contributions. (A problem for the interest groups)
Affirmative action
Policies designed to give special attention or compensatory treatment to members of a previously disadvantaged group.
Hard Money
Political contributions given to a party, candidate, or interest group that are limited in amount and fully disclosed.
527 Groups
Political groups organized under the tax code. If you meet the IRS' criteria to be a 527 group then you can spend an unlimited amount of funding on political activities without having to pay taxes.
Enumerated powers
Powers given to the national government alone
Reserved powers
Powers given to the state government alone
Concurrent powers
Powers held jointly by the national and state governments.
Implied Powers
Powers inferred from the express powers that allow Congress to carry out its functions. Justified via Necessary and Proper clause
Reserved Powers
Powers not specifically granted to the federal government or denied to the states belong to the states and the people
Delegated Powers
Powers specifically given to the federal government by the US Constitution, for example, the authority to print money, declare War or regulate commerce
Expressed Powers
Powers specifically granted to the federal government by the Constitution. (ex. the Constitution gives Congress the power to coin money.)
Testifying
Presenting before state legislature and/or Congress about policies.
Merit Systems Protection Board
Protects the integrity of the federal merit system and the rights of federal employees; in charge of hearing cases of wrongdoing, employee appeals, and disciplinary action
Religion Factors in Voting
Protestants tend to support Republican candidates; Jewish and Catholic voters tend to support Democratic candidates.
Title IX
Provisions of the Educational Amendments of 1972 that bars educational institutions relieving federal funds from discriminating against female students.
Election of 1876
Race for the presidency between Republican Rutherford B Hayes and Democrat Samuel J Tilden. The decision of the winner came down to congress but no one knew which house should vote because the Senate was Republican and the House of Reps was Democratic. Congress created a Special Electoral Commission consisting of 5 senators, 5 House Reps, and 5 justices from the Supreme court. Votes went 8-7 in favor of Hayes.
Defacto Discrimination
Racial discrimination that results from practice (such as housing patters or other social factors) rather than the law.
Dejure Discrimination
Racial segregation that is a direct result of law or official policy.
Separate but Equal
Racially segregated but ostensibly ensuring equal opportunities to all races.- Plessy v. Ferguson
Blanket Primary
Registered voters may vote for candidates from either party on the same primary ballot
Executive Orders
Regulations originating from the executive branch. Executive orders are one method presidents can use to control the bureaucracy; more often, though, presidents pass along their wishes through their aides.
Single Issue Groups
Represent a single issue.
Ideological Groups
Represent a whole group with the same perspective.
RCCC
Republican Congressional Campaign Committee raise and distribute campaign funds for House and Senate seats, develop campaign strategies, recruit candidates, and conduct on-the-ground campaigns.
Budget Sequestration
The automatic spending cuts to United States federal government spending in particular categories of outlays as an austerity fiscal policy as a result of Budget Control Act of 2011
Political Efficacy
The belief that one's political belief makes a difference.
Elite Theory
The belief that only a handful of groups have a real influence.
Incrementalism
The belief that the best predictor of this year's budget is the last year's budget, plus a little bit more.
Electorate
The body of eligible voters.
Great (or Connecticut) Compromise
The compromise reached at the constitutional convection that was established two houses of the congress the house of representatives, in which representation is based on a state's share of the U.S. population, and the senate, in which each state has two representatives.
Bush v. Gore (2000)
The court ruled that manual recounts of presidential ballots in the Nov. 2000 election could not proceed because inconsistent evaluation standards in different counties violated the equal protection clause, 14th Amendment. In effect, the ruling meant Bush would win the election.
Nullification
The doctrine that a state can declare null and void a federal law that, in the state's opinion, violates the Constitution.
Suffrage Movement
The drive for voting rights for women that took place in the United States from 1890 to 1920.
Segregation
The enforced separation of different racial groups in a country, community, or establishment.
Third Amendment
The government may not house soldiers in private homes without consent of the owner
Independent Executive Agency
The government not accounted for by cabinet departments, independent regulatory agencies, and government corporations. Its administrators are typically appointed by the president and serve at the president's pleasure. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration and General Services Administration are examples.
Civil Rights
The government-protected rights of individuals against arbitrary or discriminatory treatment by governments or individuals based on categories such as race, sex, national origin, age, religion, or sexual orientation.
Merit Principle
The idea that hiring should be based on entrance exams and promotion ratings to produce administration by people with talent and skill.
Lobbying
Seeking influence on an issue.
Hyperpluralist Theory
The idea that there are so many groups trying to get attention, that the government can't get anything done.
Corporative Federalism (Marble Cake)
State and National governments work together.
Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka KS
Supreme Court decision holding that school segregation is inherently unconstitutional because it violates the Fourteenth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection; marked the end of legal segregation in the United States.
Factions
Term James Madison used for Interest Groups.
Integration
The intermixing of people or groups previously segregated.
Whistle Blower Protection Act
The law that created the Office of Special Counsel, charged with investigating complaints from bureaucrats that were punished after reporting to Congress about waste, fraud, or abuse in their agencies.
Deregulation
The lifting of restrictions on business, industry, and professional activities for which government rules had been established and that bureaucracies had been created to administer.
Pluralist Theory
The most popular idea that there are so many groups, no single one can dominate.
Spoils System
The old system of giving government jobs to friends and political allies regardless of their qualifications
House Ways and Means Committee
The House of Representatives committee that, along with the Senate Finance Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.
Senate Finance Committee
The Senate committee that, along with the House Ways and Means Committee, writes the tax codes, subject to the approval of Congress as a whole.
Suffrage
The right to vote.
Discrimination
The unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people or things, especially on the grounds of race, age, or sex.
Mass Mailings
Bulk mail sent out at random through the postal service for interest groups to gain publicity.
Election of 2000
Bush v. Gore; Bush won although Gore won popular vote; controversy over the final vote count in Florida; settled by Supreme Court decision in favor of Bush.
PACs
Business money cannot be used, not funded by a corporation but represents a corporation, completely relys upon donations.
Education Factors in Voting
Typically, higher educated more likely to vote
Income Factors in Voting
Typically, people with higher income more likely to vote; lower income brackets support Democrats.
Marbury V. Madison (1803)
Under Chief Justice John Marshall, the Supreme Court of the United States held that ONLY the Supreme Court of the United States has the power to declare laws unconstitutional. Established judicial review.
Split-Ticket Voting
Voting for candidates of different parties for different offices in the same election. Recent elections have witnessed a significant increase in split-ticket voting as the number of voters who identify themselves as independents increases.
Protest
When a group has a large amount of people for their cause they can organize rallies or protests. Although it may not be affective, it still can convey an impression on the government that many people are unhappy.
Direct Lobbying
When a group hires an individual to go directly to members of Congress in attempt to change a policy.
Material Incentives
What you receive for joining.
Litigation
When one uses the court system in attempt to change government policy.
minority majority
When the combined minorities outnumber the majority.
Independent Expenditures
When you or a group spend money on political activity but you don't coordinate w/ a candidate or party, this makes it unlimited.
What issue split up the Whig party?
Whig party divided over the slavery issue - 1854, formed the new Republican party (anti-slavery activists)
race/ethnicity impact on voter turnout
Whites - more likely to vote African Americans, Hispanics, and other minorities - less likely to vote
Race Factors in Voting
Whites tend to have higher voter turnout than minority groups, unless comparing similar socioeconomic status; blacks tend to favor the most liberal of Democratic candidates.
How does race + ethnicity affect party identification?
Whites, Vietnamese Americans - usually Republican African Americans, Hispanics (though often split), and Chinese Americans - Democratic
Department of Veteran's Affairs
Cabinet Department - a federal agency that administers Benefits provided by law for veterans of the armed forces.
Department of Health and Human Services
Cabinet Department - administrative unit of the federal government with four major service divisions and many different sections. Includes the Public Health Services, CDC, NIH, FDA, Center for Medicare/Medicaid Services, and Health Resources Administration and oversees Obamacare
Department of Agriculture
Cabinet Department - began in 1862 under Lincoln. has jurisdiction over anything food related including food stamps program, school lunch programs, and meals on wheels.
Department of Defense
Cabinet Department - entrusted with formulating military policies and maintaining American military forces. Its top official is a civilian. It is headquartered in the Pentagon.
Department of Justice
Cabinet Department - federal department responsible for enforcing federal laws (includes FBI, Civil Rights Division, Antitrust Division, Drug Enforcement Administration...) - Attorney General
Department of Housing and Urban Development
Cabinet Department - increased federal aid to low-income apartment renters and built more federal housing projects. Part of Johnson's War on Poverty.
Department of Education
Cabinet Department - manages federal education programs, oversees educational grants to the states.
Department of Energy
Cabinet Department - plans energy policy and researches alternative power sources
Department of Treasury
Cabinet Department - prints and mints all paper currency and coins in circulation through the Bureau of Engraving and Printing and the United States Mint. The Department also collects all federal taxes through the Internal Revenue Service, and manages U.S. government debt instruments.
Department of the Interior
Cabinet Department - protects public land and natural resources and handles relations with Native Americans
Department of Labor
Cabinet Department - protects the rights of workers, safe working environments, OSHA, enforce minimum wage
Department of Commerce
Cabinet Department - provides assistance to American businesses, issues patents and trademarks, conducts the national census, and maintains official weighs and measures
Department of Transportation
Cabinet Department - regulates all aspects of American Transportation needs including airlines A department of the federal executive branch responsible for the national highways and for railroad and airline safety. It also manages Amtrak and the national railroad system.
Department of State
Cabinet Department - staffs embassies and handles foreign affairs
Department of Homeland Security
Cabinet Department -formed in 2002 from the combination of 22 departments and agencies, the Department works to improve the security of the United States. They cover the areas of customs, border, and immigration enforcement; emergency response to natural and man-made disasters; anti-terrorism work; and cyber-security.
Split Ticket Voting
Casting votes for candidates of one's own party and for candidates of opposing parties, e.g., voting for a Republican presidential candidate and a Democratic congressional candidate.
Suspect Classification
Category or class, such as race, that triggers the highest standard of scrutiny from the Supreme Court.
Issue Networks
Complex systems of relationships between groups that influence policy, including elected leaders, interest groups, specialists, consultants, and research institutes
Congressional v. Presidential elections
Congressional elections gain little national attention; nominees can be drastically different in terms of publicity (some well-known and famous, others obscure, local office holders)
Separation of powers
Constitutional division of powers among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches, with the legislative branch making law, the executive applying and enforcing the law, and the judiciary interpreting the law
Who does front-loading help?
benefits the front-runner candidate; opponents have little chance to turn the competition around once they fall behind
Importance of third parties
bring important ideas + controversial issues to the forefront; act as safety valves for dissident groups; promote actual change; way station for people en route to another party,etc
Caucus
a closed meeting of party activists in each state who selected the party's choice for presidential candidate.
Why did the framers chose the electoral college method?
a compromise between selection of president by Congress and those who favored selection by direct popular election
Gibson V. Ogden (1824)
a landmark decision in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that the power to regulate interstate commerce was granted to Congress by the Commerce Clause of the United States Constitution
Dealignment (political parties)
a large portion of the electorate abandons its previous partisan affiliation, without developing a new one to replace it
Random Sampling
a method of poll selection that gives each person in a group the same chance of being selected.
Statistical Modeling
a model that embodies a set of assumptions concerning the generation of some sample data, and similar data from a larger population.
National Convention
a party meeting held in the presidential election year for the purposes of nominating a presidential and vice presidential ticket and adopting a platform.
Primary
a preliminary election where delegates or nominees are chosen
Problems with the electoral college system.
a president selected received fewer votes than his opponent three times in the 19th century; margin of electoral college results needed is very small (i.e. 2000 election of Bush v. Gore - 271 votes v. 267 votes, respectively), Trump v. Clinton- 306, 232 respectively. In both cases the "loser" actually won the popular vote.
Open Primary
a primary in which any registered voter can vote (but must vote for candidates of only one party)
Open Primaries
a primary in which party members, independents, and sometimes members of the other party are allowed to participate.
Runoff Primary
a second primary election held when no candidate wins a majority of the votes in the first primary
Bill of Rights
a statement of fundamental rights and privileges (especially the first ten amendments to the United States Constitution)
Whistle-Stop Train Tours
a style of political campaigning where the politician makes a series of brief appearances or speeches at a number of small towns over a short period of time
Samples
a subset of the whole population selected to be questioned for the purposes of prediction or gauging opinion.
Stratified Sample
a variation of random sampling; the population is divided into subgroups and weighed based on demographic characteristics of the national population
Unfunded Mandate
actions imposed by the federal or state government on lower levels of government which are not accompanied by the money needed to fund the action required.
Gonzalez V. Reich (2005)
addressed the constitutionality of the federal Controlled Substances Act (CSA) as applied to individuals who grow marijuana for personal and medical use under California's Compassionate Use Act. According to the majority the CSA is aimed squarely at the interstate movement of controlled substances
Fourth Amendment
amendment that protects the rights of people from unreasonable search and seizure.
Critical Election
an election that signals a party realignment through voter polarization around new issues and personalities.
Midterm Election
an election that takes place in the middle of the presidential term
Position Issue
an issue about which the public is divided and rival candidates or political parties adopt different policy positions
Valence Issue
an issue about which the public is united and rival candidates or political parties adopt similar positions in hopes that each will be thought to best represent those widely shared beliefs
Political Party
an organized group with shared goals and ideals that joins together to run candidates for office and exercise political and electoral power
Evolution of the two-party political system
early period (1789-1792): only factions (Feds. v. Anti-feds) -> Federalists v. Democratic-Republicans (1796-1816) -> Era of Good Feelings (1817-1824) -> Whigs v. Jacksonian Democrats (1828-52) -> Democrats v. Republicans (1854-present)
General Election
election in which voters decide which candidates will actually fill elective public offices. a national or state election
Primary Elections
election in which voters decide which of the candidates within a party will represent the party in the general election.
How does age affect political socialization/party identification?
era born in affects our view of the proper role of government young adult voters - usually Democratic (liberal position on social issues) middle aged voters - usually Republican (low taxes) elderly voters - usually Democratic (social insurance, were alive during Great Depression)
Sampling Error
errors arising from the size or quality of the sample.
17th Amendment
established the popular election of United States Senators by the people of the states
How does ones job/occupation affect party identification?
executives, professionals, white collar workers (desk job), stay-at-home moms - usually Republican trial lawyers, educators, blue collar workers (factory/construction/labor jobs), labor union members - usually Democratic
23rd Amendment
extends the right to vote in the presidential election to citizens residing in the District of Columbia by granting the District three electors in the Electoral College, as if it were a state
Single-Issue Third Parties
focus on one public-policy issue (Know-Nothing, Prohibition, Green)
Splinter Third Parties
formed by a group breaking away from a major party (Bull Moose, Dixiecrats, American Independent Party)
Economic Third Parties
formed during times of economic discontent (Greenback, Populist)
Continuous Body
governing unit (e.g. the United States Senate) whose seats are never all up for election at the same time
19th Amendment
granted American women the right to vote
income impact on voter turnout
higher income - more likely to vote; thinks their financial status could be affected lower income - less likely to vote; alienated from politics, thinks nothing will change fro them
Incumbency Advantage
incumbents more likely to win reelection
Think Tanks
institutional collection of policy-oriented researchers and academics who are sources of policy ideas
What other people have increased in power as a result of weaker political parties?
interest groups and lobbyists
Public Opinion Polls
interviews or surveys with samples of citizens that are used to estimate the feelings and beliefs of the entire population.
How does ones political ideology affect party identification?
liberals tend to go Democratic, conservatives tend to go Republican
The Congressional Caucus Era
like parliamentary system; caucuses in Congress (meetings of polarized Congress members) nominated presidential candidates (lasted from 1800-1828)
Ideological third parties (name two)
longest-lived; different from typical majority mind-set (Libertarian, Green Party)
How do education levels affect party identification?
low levels of education - usually Democratic higher education - usually Republican (parallels w/income usually)
26th Amendment
lowered voting age from 21 to 18 ("Old enough to fight, old enough to vote")
Reinstating (political parties)
majority party voters who crossed party lines in the previous election (a deviating election) return to the party fold and vote the majority party candidate into office (the majority party is reinstated into control of the presidency)
National Committee
make arrangements for the national conventions (reevaluate policies and nominate a candidate for presidency) and coordinate subsequent presidential campaigns
6 ideas to increase voter turnout
make election day a holiday, enable early voting, permit mail + online voting, make registration easier, modernize the ballot, and strengthen parties
How does marital status affect party identification?
married - more republican single - more democratic widowed - more democratic divorced/separated - more democratic
YDA/YRNF (young democrats of America/ young republicans national federation)
members can be up to the age of 35; provides loyal and energetic foot soldiers for campaigns and voter mobilization
Grants in Aid
money given by the national government to the states
Why have many states switched to presidential primaries? How does it test a potential president?
more democratic - accessible not only to party activists but registered voters; similar to the general election - tests the candidate and a chance to display some of the skills needed to be a successful president
education impact on voter turnout
more educated - more likely to vote, informed about politics less educated - less likely to vote
interest in politics impact on voter turnout
only about 5% of the American population are identified as very politically active; only 10% of American adult population contribute time or money to a party or candidate during a campaign
6 reasons why people don't vote
other commitments (conflicting schedules), difficulty of registration (voluntary, a citizens' responsibility), number of elections (America frequently has elections, some people choose to not participate in all), voter attitudes (apathetic, alienated, or turned off by poor quality of elections), and weakened influence of political parties
United States V. Morrison (2000)
overturned the Violence Against Women Act of 1994; attacks against women are not interstate commerce, and hence Congress cannot constitutionally pass such a law
Crossover Voting
participation in the primary election of a party with which the voter is not affiliated.
What was unique about Monroe's presidency?
party competition nearly nonexistent (Era of Good Feelings; from 1817-1825)
How did the country change during the period 1820-1840 and how did this affect party organizations?
party organizations develop in the state level due to expansion westward (most states abolished property requirements for white male suffrage). Increase in the electorate.
What changes developed during the Golden Age (1860-1932) of political parties?
party stability + loyalty, dominance of party organizations in local + state govts., impact on millions of voters
How does political knowledge affect political socialization/party identification?
political knowledge + political participation have reciprocal effect on each other; women typically less involved than men
How do leaders/opinion makers affect political socialization/party identification?
political leaders, members of news media, and TV hosts easily affect public opinion president can often mold public opinion with use of bully pulpit
Candidate-Centered Politics
politics that focus on the candidates, their particular issues, and character rather than party affiliation
Exit Polls
polls conducted as voters leave selected polling places on Election day.
Push Polls
polls taken for the purpose of providing information on an opponent that would lead respondents to vote against that candidate.
Deviating (political parties)
presidential elections in which a portion of the majority party voters cross party lines (due to the influence of short term variables); causes the outcome of the election to swing in favor of the minority party candidate.
Maintaining (political parties)
presidential elections in which the majority party continues its control of the presidency
National Chairperson
primary spokesperson for the party during the 4 yrs between elections, keep party financially strong, damping down factionalism, negotiate candidate disputes, prepare machinery for the next presidential election
24th Amendment
prohibits any poll tax in elections for federal officials
15th Amendment
prohibits the federal and state governments from denying a citizen the right to vote based on that citizen's "race, color, or previous condition of servitude." (African Americans can vote)
Various Interest Groups
provide money, labor, or other forms of assistance to parties
Federal Matching Funds
public funding of presidential campaigns that is provided for by the Federal Election Campaign Act. Presidential candidates can become eligible for public funds by raising $5,000 in individual contributions of $250 or less in each of twenty states. Candidates who reach this threshold may apply for federal funds to match, on a dollar-for-dollar basis, all individual contributions of $250 or less that they receive. Third-party candidates are eligible for public funding only if they received at least 5 percent of the vote in the previous presidential race.
What is the electoral college? Why 538? Why is 270 important?
representatives of each state who cast the final ballots that actually elect a president: 538 electors representing the # of senators and representatives each state has + 3 electors for DC must win at least 270 electoral votes to win presidency
Delegates
representatives to the party conventions elected by citizens participating in primary elections and grassroots caucuses.
How do current political issues affect party identification?
respective judgement - "punish" the party in power during economic downturns + vice versa perspective judgement - vote based on what the candidate pledges to do if elected
Seventh Amendment
right to a trial by jury
Second Amendment
right to bear arms
How does religion affect political socialization/party identification?
shapes attitude towards political issues + American ideals Catholic (though split) and Jewish - usually Democratic Mormons and Protestants - usually Republican
Campaign Spots
short TV ads for candidates
Ninth Amendment
states that people's rights are not limited to just those listed in the Constitution.
How do peers affect political socialization/party identification?
strong influence on political perspective from age 5; i.e. Girl Scouts (encourage political participation)
State Central Committee
supervises the collection of local party organizations
Coattails
the alleged tendency of candidates to win more votes in an election because of the presence at the top of the ticket of a better-known candidate, such as the president
Winner-Take-All Primary
the candidate who wins the most votes in a state secures all of that state's delegates (Republicans prefer this process, Democrats opposed)
"Winner-Take-All" Primaries
the candidate who won the support of all delegates chosen at the primary
Public pinion
the distribution of the population's beliefs about politics and policy issues
Population
the entire group of people whose attitudes a researcher wishes to measure.
Secular Realignment (political parties)
the gradual realignment of party coalitions, based more on demographic shifts (i.e. increase in Hispanic proportion) than on shocks to the political system (opposed to party realignment)
Consent of the governed
the idea that government derives its authority by the sanction of the people
Prohibited Powers
the powers that are denied to the federal government, the state government, or both; also called restricted powers
White Primary
the practice of keeping blacks from voting in the southern states' primaries through arbitrary use of registration requirements and intimidation
Political Socialization
the process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and values
Precinct Committee Members
the smallest voting unit; usually takes in a few adjacent neighborhoods and is the fundamental building block of the party (the foot soldiers of a party)
Front-Loading
the tendency of states to choose an early date on the nomination calendar. (In hopes to influence other states after they cast their ballots first)
Clothespin Vote
the vote cast by a person who does not like either candidate and so votes for the less objectionable of the two, putting a clothespin over his nose to keep out the unpleasant stench
Plurality Election
the winning candidate is the person who recieves more votes than anyone else, but less than half the total.
age impact on voter turnout
those 30+ years old more likely to vote than those younger; those 70+ years old less likely to vote; only 50% of 18-29 year olds vote
Public Opinion
what the public thinks about a particular issue or set of issues at any point in time.
Goal of Political Parties
win office in order to influence public policy
How does gender affect party identification?
women - usually vote democratic men - usually vote republican
gender impact on voter turnout
women vote at a slightly higher rate than men (b/c majority of electorate)
Limitations
×Cannot have held a government office within previous 2 years. ×Limits on the type of gifts that can be bought for Congress ×How much can be donated to Campaigns and Elections
Criticisms of Interest Groups
▪Level of Influence ▪Cause Gridlock ▪Ignore Society's needs ▪To much money spent in campaigns and therefore, increasing prices of elections.
"Front-Loading" Nomination Process
campaigning heavily in the early primaries
Front-Loaded Campaign
campaigning heavily in the early primaries (usually if the candidate is relatively unknown)
After WWII, the party system weakened leading to _______________________________.
candidate-centered politics (parties have less control over issues + campaigns give candidates considerate power over how they conduct themselves)
Political Party vs Interest Groups
candidates are nominated to run under the political party label
Proportional Representation Primary
candidates who secure a threshold percentage of votes are awarded delegates in proportion to the number of popular votes won (Democrats favor this process)
How does family affect political socialization/party identification?
children during early stages usually associate with parents' political views (greatest influence until age 5)
How does school affect political socialization/party identification?
children taught to be patriotic in elementary school (i.e. learning the Pledge of Allegiance, taught respect for the flag)
Tracking Polls
continuous surveys that enable a campaign or news organization to chart a candidate's daily rise or fall in support.
527's
created to influence the nomination, election, appointment or defeat of candidates for public office - permitted to accept contributions in any amount from any source. No Limits. Tax-exempted
Incumbent
currently holding an office
Superdelegates
delegates to the Democratic Party's national convention whose vote at the convention is unpledged to a candidate; this position is reserved for a party official (called unpledged delegates for Republican party)
Why are Senatorial elections different than representative elections?
different scheduling (only 1/3 of seats come up for election every 2 years), well-known, well-funded candidates can fight political tides
Party Realignment (political parties)
dramatic shifts in partisan preferences that drastically alter the political landscape
What three fatal errors did Literary Digest make in 1936?
drew sample from telephone directories + lists of automobile owners (targeted one group: wealthy Republicans), bad timing (early September), and self-selection (only motivated, wealthier, better educated people responded)
Entitlements
Benefits to which every eligible person has a legal right and that the government cannot deny.
Equal Protection Clause
Section of the Fourteenth Amendment that guarantees that all citizens receive "equal protection of the laws."
Standard Operating Procedures
Better known as SOPs, these procedures are used by bureaucrats to bring uniformity to complex organizations. Uniformity improves fairness and makes personnel interchangeable.
Straight Ticket Voting
Voting for candidates all of the same party on the same ballot-creates the coattail effect
Virginia Plan
"Large state" proposal for the new constitution, calling for proportional representation in both houses of a bicameral Congress. The plan favored larger states and thus prompted smaller states to come back with their own plan for apportioning representation.
Party Polarization in the Modern Era
-liberals become increasingly Democratic, conservatives become increasingly Republican (rare conservative democrats + liberal republicans) -increasingly polarized Congress
Barriers to third party success
-major parties may steal best ideas from 3rd parties -single member districts -winner-take-all system for electoral college -rules for public financing (fund their own campaigns)+ debates (polling at 15% to be invited) -1.5 signatures required to appear on the ballot
reasons for incumbency advantage
-staff support (i.e. House members + Senators have permanent staff, non-permanent staff, and interns; helping a constituent gains approval), -visibility (more well-known to their district), -the scare-off effect (challengers may be intimidated by the incumbent's recognition, experience, and connections)
Natural Rights
... Life, Liberty, and Property
What are the 4 "Linkage Institutions?"
1) Voting 2) Interest Groups 3) Political Parties 4) Media
Bureaucracy
According to Max Weber, the hierarchical authority structure that uses task specialization, operates on the merit principle, and behaves with impersonality. Bureaucracies govern modern states. It is the term for the hundreds of agencies within the executive branch.
Congressional Budget Office (CBO)
Advises Congress on the probable consequences of its decisions, forecasts revenues, and is a counterweight to the president's OMB.
Foreign Policy Groups
Attempt to persuade American foreign policy. Example- AIPAC: They do not want the deal with Iran that Obama proposed.
Opposition Research
Attempts by a candidate's campaign or other groups of supporters to uncover embarrassing or politically damaging information about the candidate's opponent.
Solidary Incentives
Becoming part of a group to meet others who can benefit or help you.
Retrospective Voting
Holding incumbents, usually the president's party, responsible for their records on issues, such as the economy or foreign policy. A theory of voting in which voters essentially ask this simple question: "What have you done for me lately?"
Other Factors in Higher Voter Turnout
Married people, members of unions, people registered with a party, and people who are "settled" (own a home or have roots in a community) are more likely to vote.
Line-item veto
Presidential power to strike, or remove, specific items from a spending bill without vetoing the entire package; declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court.
Closed Primary
Primary election in which only persons registered in the party holding the primary may vote.
Bureaucratic Pathologies
Problems shared by all or most federal bureaus or agencies. They include bureaucratic red tape, mission conflict, mission duplication, agency imperialism, and bureaucratic waste.
Voting Rights Act of 1965
Prohibited any government from using voting procedures that denied a person the vote on the basis of race or color; abolished literacy tests; allowed federal registrars to protect African Americans' right to vote in Southern states and counties with histories of discrimination.
Eight Amendment
Prohibits cruel and unusual punishment and excessive bail or fines.
Poll Tax
Proof of tax payment, to be produced when voting; used to disenfranchise blacks.
Equal Rights Amendent
Proposed amendment that would ban discrimination against women by federal or state governments.
Grandfather Clause
Requirement that for an individual to automatically qualify to vote, his or her grandparents had to have voted (excluded former slaves and their descendants). so basically no black people could vote
Literacy Test
Requirement that voters be able to read; formerly used in the South to disenfranchise blacks.
Federal Election Campaign Act 1971
Requires full disclosure on campaign finances, put limitations on group and individual donations, created the Federal Election Commission (FEC) to monitor money going in and out of campaigns. (All referred to as hard money)
1993 Motor Voter Act
Requires state to permit people to register at the same time they apply for a drivers license.
Judicial review
Review by a court of law of actions of a government official or entity or of some other legally appointed person or body or the review by an appellate court of the decision of a trial court
Horse-Race Journalism
The tendency of the media to cover campaigns by emphasizing how candidates stand in the polls instead of where they stand on issues.
McConnell v. FEC (2003)
Upheld the constitutionality of most of the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002, but exempted non-profits that didn't coordinate with campaigns
Prospective Voting
Voting based on what a candidate pledges to do in the future about an issue if elected.
Gender Factors in Voting
Women vote at a higher turnout rate and tend to favor Democrats.
Public Interest Groups
Work for publics benefit. Example- American Heart Association
Can interest groups directly contribute?
Yes, except for corporations and labor unions.
What are three purposes of political conventions?
venue to formally nominate the parties' presidential candidate; increase voter's interest in the upcoming election; engage the faithful party members + energize them for the general election campaign
Straw Poll
unscientific survey used to gauge public opinion on a variety of issues and policies.
2 ideas to reform the electoral college + their advantages
use national popular vote to elect the president (more democratic) and the congressional district plan (can be adopted w/o constitutional amendment)
Influence Peddling
using personal friendships and inside information to get political advantage Illegal practice of using one's connections in government to obtain favors.
