AP Lang Grammar
Subordinate clause (dependent clause)
clause containing a subject (noun), and a predicate (verb phrase), but it functions within a sentence as an adjective, adverb, or a noun; It cannot stand alone
Independent clause
clause containing a subject (noun), and a predicate (verb phrase); It stands alone or can stand alone as a complete sentence
linking verb
connects the subject to a word or word group that identifies or describes the subject
Phrasal verbs
consist of two or more words;(to drop off)
Gerund Phrase
consists of a gerund and any modifiers or complements the gerund has and the entire phrase is used as a noun
participle phrase
consists of a participle and any modifiers or complements the participle has. (used as an adjective)
Infinitive phrase
consists of an infinitive and any modifiers or complements the infinitive has. the entire phrase can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb
Verb phrase
consists of one main verb and one or more helping verbs
Perfect Tense
distinguishes between two events that happened at different times
reciprocal pronouns
express a mutual or common relationship among people mentioned in the subject of the sentence. They are: each other (used for talking about two people), and one another (used for talking about at least three people).
action verb
expresses either physical or mental activity
Interrogative Pronoun
introduces a question (what)
Relative pronoun
introduces a subordinate clause (that)
Correlative conjunctions
join words of equal importance, but used in pairs (both...and, either...or, not only...but also)
Adjectives
modify nouns and pronouns; usually precede the nouns they modify, but may also follow linking verbs
Count nouns
nouns that can be counted; (a large number of people)
Mass nouns
nouns that cannot be counted; (a massive amount of water)
adverbs
one of the eight parts of speech; modifies/describes verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. Example: He is VERY hot.
Noun
person, place, thing, or idea
Passive voice
verbs are performed by someone/something other than the subject (Who/which is often unnamed); "The shot was heard around the world"
Active voice
verbs are performed by the subject of the sentence
Appositives
words that are added, set off by commas, which rename
Main verbs
words that identify the action of a sentence
Modifiers
words that modify other words; Adjectives and adverbs
Independent Clause
Expressed a complete thought
Pronouns
Function as nouns or adjectives, depending on the context in which they are used; Nine kinds of these: subject, object, possessive, Intensive, reflexive, Indefinite, Relative/Interrogative, Demonstrative, and Reciprocal
Helping verbs
Helps the main verb express an action or a state of being.
The five forms of a verb
Infinitive, past tense, past participle, present participle, -s form
Conjunctions
Join words or groups of words together (For, And, nor, but, or, yet, so)
Comma splice (sentence problem)
Occurs in a compound or compound-complex sentence. To fix this, you MUST DO ONE OF THE FOLLOWING: include on of the seven coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS) after the comma; replace the comma with a semicolon; or break up the two independent clauses to make two separate sentences
Simple sentence structure
One independent clause (a word group with at least 1 subject noun or pronoun, and 1 verb)
Correlative conjunctions
Pairs of conjunctions that link two grammatically equal things in a sentence.
Demonstrative Pronoun
Points out a person, a place, a thing, or an idea (those)
Relative Pronoun
Relates an adjective clause to the word or word group the clause modifies (Who, whom, whose, which, and that)
Compound sentence structure
Two independent clauses joined together using either a semicolon or comma, and a coordinating conjunction
Adverbs answer these questions:
When? Where? Why? How? Under what conditions? To what degree?
Adjectives answer these questions:
Which one? What kind of? How much? How many?
Verbs
Words that show action or a state of being. One of these is required in a sentence
Interjections
Words used to express surprise or emotion; Never used in formal academic writing
compound predicate
two or more simple predicates, or verbs, with the same subject
Conjunctive adverbs
used to indicate the relation between independent clauses
Subordinating conjunctions
used to introduce a subordinate clause; indicates its relation to the rest of the sentence
Misplaced modifiers
A modifier that isn't as close as possible to the word it modifies (I showed my tooth with a crack in it to the dentist)
Indefinite article
"a" or "an". "an" is used when followed by a word that begins with a vowel sound. More general/less specific than definite
-s form
"he walks"
Definite article
"the"; more specific than indefinite
Coordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS) for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Coordinating conjunctions
(FANBOYS): for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Common nouns
A person, place, or thing that is not specific; not capitalized
Prepositional Phrase
A preposition and its object (Into the store, for some bread)
past tense of a verb
A verb that happened before now. Regular form: V + -ed or -d → He ran behind the shed. → They were all present.
Complex sentence structure
Contains one independent clause with at least 1 subordinate clause
Compound-Complex
Contains two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause
Subordinate Clause
Does not express a complete thought
Past participle
VERB + -ED used as an adjective or a verb.
Linking verbs
Verbs that don't show action. They link the subject to words or groups of words that identify or describe the subject.
Appositive
a noun phrase that functions as an adjective to modify the subject of a sentence. Ex: Terrence, THE PRESIDENT OF THE BANK, presented the check.
Proper nouns
a specific noun; always capitalized (Donald Trump)
Participle
a verb form that can be used as an adjective
Gerund
a verb form that ends in -ing and that is used as a noun (stargazing)
Infinitive
a verb that cab be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb
Action verbs
a verb that expresses physical or mental action
Phrase
a word group lacking one or more elements (such as a subject or predicate) that would make it a complete sentence
Clause
a word group that features both a subject and a predicate
Prepositions
a word placed before a noun or pronoun to form a phrase modifying another word in the sentence
Article
a word that always functions as an adjective. There are two types: definite and indefinite
Abstract nouns
refer to qualities and ideas like justice, beauty, love (cannot be felt or seen)
Indefinite Pronouns
refers to a person, place, idea, or thing that may or may not be specifically named. (all, any, anybody, both, each, everyone, everything, few, many, more, neither, nobody, none)
Concrete nouns
sensory, experience, and physical objects; nouns that can literally be felt or sensed (can be seen/touched)
present tense
shows action that is happening now
Predicate
term used to identify the verb/its objects, complements, and modifiers in a sentence
Direct Object (DO)
the noun that is the receiver of a verb's action. Ex: "Nick threw the *glow stick*." *Glow stick* is the DO in this sentence.
Subject
the noun which the sentence is about; in declarative sentences, it appears before the verb
Infinitive form
to + verb