AP Midterm- Main Ideas
15- what were the distinctive features of Russian and ottoman absolutism?
A favorite parlor game of 19th century intellectuals was debating whether Russia was a western European or non-western Asian society. This question was particularly fascinating because it was on answerable. To this day, Russia differs from the west in some fundamental ways, though its history has paralleled that of the west in other aspects. There was no question in the minds of Europeans, however, that Ottomans were outsiders. Even absolutist rulers disdained Ottoman sultans as cruel and tyrannical despots. Despite stereotypes, however, the Ottoman Empire was in many ways more tolerant than its Western counterparts, providing protection and security to other religions well steadfastly maintaining the Muslim faith. The Ottoman state combined the byzantine heritage of the territory it had conquered the Persian and Arab traditions. Flexibility and openness to other ideas and practices are sources of strength for the empire.
13- how did the political situation in Germany shape the course of the Reformation?
Although criticism of the church was widespread in Europe in the early 16th century, reform movements could be easily squelched by the strong central government's that evolved in Spain and France. England to have a strong monarchy, but the king broke from the Catholic Church for other reasons. The holy Roman empire, in contrast, included hundreds of largely independent states. Against this background of decentralization and strong local power, Martin Luther had launch a movement to reform the church. Two years after he published the 95 theses, the elect doors of the holy Roman empire chose as emperor a 19 year old Habsburg prince who ruled as Charles V. The course of the reformation was shaped by the selection by the political relationships surrounding it.
18- how did the practice of medicine evolved in the 18th century?
Although significant breakthroughs in medical science would not come until the middle and late 19 century, the enlightenment and hair optimism and is focused on improving he would like to understanding of the laws of nature produced a great deal of research and experimentation in the 1700s. Medical practitioners greatly increased in number, although their techniques did not differ much from those of previous generations. Care of the sickness arrow was the domain of several competing groups: traditional healers, apothecaries, positions, surgeons, and midwives. From the middle ages to the 17th century, both men and women were medical practitioners. However since women were generally denied admission to medical colleges and marked the diplomas necessary to practice, the range of medical activities open to them was restricted. In the 18 century women's traditional roses midwives and healers eroded even further.
17- why did the European population rise dramatically in the 18th century?
Another factor that affected the existing order of life and forth economic changes in the 18th century was the beginning of the population explosion. Explosive growth continued in Europe until the 20th century by which time it was affecting non-western areas the glow. In the section week same in the background and causes of the population growth; following section considers how the challenge of more mouse to feed a more hands to employ affected European economy.
20- how to countries outside of Britain respond to the challenge of industrialization?
As new technologies in new ways of employing labor begin to revolutionize production and Britain, other countries took notice and began to emulate it's example. But the end of the Napoleonic wars, the countries of the European continent quickly adopted British inventions and achieve their own pattern of technological innovation and economic growth. But the last decades of the 19th century, Western European countries as well as the United States and Japan had industrialize their economies into a considerable, albeit variable, degree. Outside of Western Europe industrialization proceeded more gradually, with an even jerks and national and regional very Asians. Scholars were still struggling to explain is very Asians as well as a dramatic gap that emerge for the first time in history between Western and non-western levels of economic production. His questions were especially important because they may offer a valuable lessons for poor countries that today are seeking to improve their material condition your dust realization and economic development. Latest findings in the 19 century experience or encouraging. They suggest that they were alternative past the industrial world that there was an is no need to follow a rigid, predetermined British model.
14- how and why did Europeans undertake ambitious voyages of expansion?
As we've seen, Europe was by no means isolated before the voyages of exploration and it's discovery of the New World. But because they did not produce many products desired by eastern elites, Europeans played only a small role in the Indian Ocean trading world. As Europe recovered after the black death, new European players entered the scene with novel technology, eager to spread Christianity and to undo Italian and ottoman domination of trade with the east. Sentry after the plague, Iberian explores began the overseas voyages that helped create the modern world, but staggering consequences for their own continent and the rest of the planet.
17- what important developments lead to increased agricultural production, and how did these changes affect peasants?
At the end of the 17th century the economy of Europe was agrarian. With the exception of the Dutch Republic and England at least 80% of the people of Western Europe drew their livelihoods from agriculture. In Eastern Europe the percentage was considerably higher. Men and women were tied to the land, plowing fields in sowing seed, reaping harvest and store and grain. Yeah even in a rich agricultural region of such as the Po valley in northern Italy, every bushel of wheat seed sown gilded on average only five or 6 bushels of green at harvest. By modern standards output was distressingly low. And most regions of Europe, climatic conditions produce poor or disastrous harvest every eight or nine years. And famine years the number of deaths sword far above normal. A third of the villages population might disappear in a year or two. But new developments in agricultural technology and math it's gradually brought an end to the ravages of hunger in Western Europe.
18- what changes occurred in marriage and the family in the course of the 18th century?
Basic unit of social organization is the family. Within the structure of the family human beings love, me, and reproduce. Is primarily the family that teaches the child, and parting values and customs that condition and individuals behavior for a lifetime. The family is also an institution blue bin into the web of its history. It involves and changes assuming different forms in different times and places. 18th century witnessed such an evolution, it's patterns of marriage shifted and individuals adopted and conform to the new and changing realities of the family unit.
18- how did increasing literacy in new patterns of consumption affect people's lives?
Because of new efforts in education, basic literacy was expanding mound the popular classes, who's reading habits center primarily on religious material, but who also began to incorporate more practical and entertaining literature. In addition to reading, people of all classes enjoyed a range of leisure activities including storytelling, berries, festivals, and sports. What are the most important developments in European society in the 18 century was the emergence of a fledgling consumer culture. Much of the expansion took place them on the upper and upper middle classes, but boom and cheap reproductions of factory items also open doors for people of modest means. From future events and from coal stove to umbrellas, the material world of city dwellers grew richer and more diverse. This consumer revolution, as it has been called, created new expectations for comfort hygiene and self-expression, dust dramatically changing European daily life in the 18 century.
13- what reforms did the Catholic Church make, and how did it respond to Protestant reform movements?
Between 1517 in 1547 Protestantism made remarkable advances. Nevertheless, the Roman Catholic Church made a significant come back.after about 1540 no new large areas of Europe, other than the Netherlands, and excepted protestant beliefs. Many historians see the developments within the Catholic Church after the Protestant Reformation as to interrelated movements: one a drive for internal perform linked to earlier reform effort's, the other a counterreformation that opposed Protestants intellectually, politically, militarily, and institutionally. In both movements, the papacy, new religious orders, and the Council of Trent that met from 1545 to 1563 were important agents.
14- how was the era of global contact shaped by new commodities, commercial empires, and forced migration's
Centuries - old Afro Eurasian trade world was forever changed by the European voyages of discovery and their aftermath. For the first time, I truly global economy emerged in the 16th and 17th centuries, net forge new links among far - fun peoples, cultures, And societies. The ancient civilizations of Europe, Africa, the Americas, and Asia confronted one another in a new and rapidly evolving ways. Those confrontations often lead to conquest and exploitation but they also contributed to cultural Exchange and renewal.
14- what was the Afro Eurasian trading world before Columbus?
Columbus did not sale west on a whim. To understand his and other Europeans explorations, we must first understand late medieval trade networks. Historians now recognize that a type of world economy, known as the Afro Eurasian trade world, linked the products and people of Asia, Africa, and Europe in the 15th century. The west was not the dominant player before Columbus, and the European voyages derived from a desire to share in and control the wealth coming from the Indian Ocean.
19-how did slaver ball on colonial Saint Domingue lead to the creation of the independent nation of Haiti in 1804?
Events that led to the creation of the independent nation of Haiti cost to the third, and perhaps the extraordinary, chapter the revolutionary era in the late 18th century. Prior to 1789 Saint the French colony that was to become Haiti, read huge profits through a ruthless system of Sleepys plantation agriculture. Who's revolution in France lit A power keg of contradictory aspirations among white planters, free people of color, and sleeves or revolutionary authorities to beaded how far to expand the rights of man on Saint first free people of color that enslaved people took matters into their own hands, resin up to play in their freedom. Massive favor favor bowl of 1791 ultimately succeeded in ending slavery winning independence from France, but invasion by the British in Spanish and Napoleon Bonaparte's bid to reimpose French control. In 1804 Haiti became the first nation in history to claim his freedom through slave revolt.
18- what were the patterns of popular religion, and how did they interact with the world view of the educated public and their Enlightenment deals?
Fill the critical spirit of the enlightenment made great inroads in the 18th century, that my Jordie of ordinary men and women, especially those in rural areas, retain strong religious faith. The church promise salvation, and I gave comfort in the face of sorrow and death. Religion also remain strong because it was invented in local traditions and every day social experience. If the popular religion of village Europe is also in mashed in a larger world of church hierarchy is the state power. These powerful outside forces such a regulate religious life at a local level. Your efforts created tensions that help set the scene for vigorous religious revivals and protestant Germany and England as well as in catholic France.
19- why did Napoleon Bonaparte assumed control of France in much of Europe, what factors led to his downfall?
For almost 15 years, from 1789 to 1814, France was in the hands of a king minded military dictator of exceptional ability. What histories most fascinating leaders, Napoleon realize that he need to put an end to civil strife in France in order to create unity and consolidate his role. And he did. But implants out himself as a man of destiny, and the glory of war in the dream of universal empire approved irresistible. For years he spiraled from victory to victory, but in the end she was destroyed by mighty cold ocean united in fear of his restless and vision.
20- how do you work evolve during the industrial revolution, and how did daily life change for working people?
Having first emerge in the British countryside in the late 18th century, factories in industrial labor begin migrating to cities by the early 19 century. As factories move from Burrell to urban areas, the workforce fault as well, from popper children to families to men and women upper from their traditional rural communities. Many women especially young single woman and poor women continue to work, as married women began to limit their participation in the workforce one possible. For some people the industrial revolution brought improvements, but living and working conditions for the poorest I needed or even deteriorated until around 1850, especially in overcrowded industrial cities.
15- what were the common crises and achievements of 17th - century European states?
Historians often referred to the 17th century as an age of crisis. After the economic and demographic growth of the 16th century, Europe faltered into stagnation and retrenchment. This was partially due to climate changes the on anyone's control, but it also resulted from bitter religious divides, increased governmental pressures, and war. These challenges overwhelmed the fragile balance of rural villages, leading to hunger and population loss. Overburdened peasants in city dwellers took action to defend themselves from high prices in over taxation, sometimes profiting from conflicts to obtain relief. In the long run, however, governments proved increasingly able to impose the power on the populace. With France under Louis X I V commanding European leadership, the period witnessed spectacular growth in army size as well as new forms of taxation, government bureaucracies, and increased state sovereignty.
16- what impact did new ways of thinking have on political developments and monarchical absolutism?
How did enlightenment influence political developments? To this important question there is no easy answer. Most enlightenment thinkers outside of England and the Netherlands, especially in Central and Eastern Europe, believed that political change could best come from above - from the ruler - rather than from below. Royal absolutism was a fact of life, in the monarchs of Europe sleeting states clearly had no intention of giving up the great power. Therefore, the philosophes and their sympathizers realistically concluded that a benevolent absolutism offer the best opportunities for improving society. Many government officials were interested in full so fickle ideas they were among the best - educated members of society, and their daily involvement in complexAffairs of state made them actually attracted to ideas for improving human society. Encouraged and instructed by these officials some absolutist rulers tried to reform the governments in accordance with Enlightenment ideals - what historians have called the enlightened absolutism the leader 18 century both Catholic and protestant Lance, rulers typically fused Enlightenment principles for the religion, drying support for their invitations from her form - minded religious thinkers. Most influential of the new style monarchs were in Prussia, Russia, and Austria, near sample illustrates both you the achievements and great limitations of enlightened absolutism. France experienced its own brand of enlightened absolutism in the contentious decades prior to the French revolution.
13- what were the causes and consequences of religious violence, including riots, wars, and witch hunts?
In 1559 France and Spain signed the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis, which ended the long conflict known as the Habsburg - Valois wars. Spain was the victor. France, exhausted by the struggle, had to acknowledge Spanish dominance in Italy, where much of the fighting had taken place. However, true peace was elusive, and over the next century religious differences led to riots, civil wars, and international conflicts. Especially in France and the Netherlands, Protestants and Catholics used violent actions as well as preaching and teaching against each other, for each side regarded the other as a poison in the community that would provoke the wrath of God. Catholics continue to believe the Calvinists and Lutherans could be re-converted; protestants persisted and thinking that the Roman church should be destroyed. Catholics and protestants a like feared people of other faiths, whom they saw as agents of Satan. Even more they feared those who explicitly identified as Satan: which is living in their minutes. This era was the time of the most virulent witch persecutions in European history, as both Protestants and Catholics tried to make their cities and states more godly.
17- how did colonial markets boost Europe's economic and social development, and what conflicts in adversity did world trade until question
In addition to agricultural improvement population pressure, growing cottage industry, the expansion of Europe in the 18 century was characterized by the increase of world trade. Adam Smith himself to clear that the discovery of America and that of the passage of the East Indies by the Cape of Good Hope, are the two greatest and most important events recorded in the history of mankind in the 18 century Spain and Portugal revitalize the empires and begin drawing more wealth from her new colonial development yet once again the countries of Northern Europe - the Dutch Republic, France, and above all great Britain- Benefited both. The Atlantic economy that these countries developed from 1650 to 1790 would prove crucial in the building of a global economy. Great Britain, which was formed in 1707 by the union of England and Scotland into a single kingdom, gradually became the leading Mary time power. That's the British played a critical role in building a fairly unified Atlantic economy that provide a remarkable opportunities for them and they're calling us. We also competed ruthlessly with France and the Netherlands for trade in territory in Asia.
20-how did the changes brought by the industrial revolution lead to new social classes, and how did people respond to the new structure?
In great Britain, industrial development lead to the creation of new social groups and intensified Boston problems between capital and labor. A new class a factory owners an industrial capitalist a rose. He's not in women and your family strength in the wealth the size of the middle class, which had previously been made of many merchants and professional people. The demands of modern industry regularly brought the interest of the middle class industrialist into conflicts with those of the people who worked for them - the working class. Individuals experience a growing sense of class consciousness or where in us of belonging to a distinct social and economic class his interest might conflict with those of other classes. New questions about social relationships emerged. Meanwhile in safe labor and European colonies contributed to the industrialization process in multiple ways.
13-what were the central ideas of the reformers, and why were they appealing to different social groups?
In the early 16th century Europe a wide range of people had grievances with the church. Educated lay people such as Christian humanists and urban residents, villagers and artisans, and church officials themselves called for reform. This widespread dissatisfaction helps explain why the ideas of Martin Luther, and obscure professor from a new and not very prestigious German university, found a ready audience. Within a decade of his first publishing his ideas using the new technology of the printing press, much of central Europe in Scandinavia had broken by the Catholic Church, even more radical concepts of the Christian message for being developed and linked to calls for social change
15- what factors led to the rise of French absolutist state under Louis X I V, and why did absolutist Spain experience decline in the same period?
In the middle ages jurist held that as a consequence of monarchs coronation and anointment with sacred oil, They ruled by the grace of God. Law was given by God; kings found the law and acknowledged that they must respect and obey it. Kings and absolutist states amplified these claims, asserting that they were responsible to God alone. They claimed exclusive power to make and enforce laws, denying any other institution or group the authority to check their power. In France the founder of the Bourbon monarchy, Henry IV, established foundations upon which his successors Louis X I I I and Louis X I V build a stronger, more centralized French state. Louis X I V is often seen as the a pitta me of an absolute monarch, with his endless wars, Increased taxes and economic regulation, and glorious palace at Versailles. In truth, his success relied on collaboration with nobles, and thus his example illustrates both the achievements and compromises of absolutist rule. As French power rose in the 17th century, the glory of Spain faded. Once the fabulous revenue from American silver declined, Spain economic stagnation could no longer be disguised, in the country faltered under week leadership.
19- why and how did American colonist forge a new, independent nation?
Increase taxes were crucial factor behind colonial per protest in the New World, where the era of liberal political revolution began. After revolting against their home country, the 13th mainland colonies of British North America succeeded in S Stabley Shang and new unified government. Participants and the revolution believe that they were demanding only the traditional rights of Englishmen and woman. The traditional Ratchford liberal rights, and in American contacts they had strong democratic and popular overtones. That's the American Revolution was fought in the name of ideas that were still quite radical for their time. In founding a government based on the borough principles, the American set an example that would have a forceful impact on France and its colonies.
19- how did the events of 1789 result in a constitutional monarchy in France, and what were the consequences?
No country felt the consequences of the American revolution more deeply than friends. Hundreds of French officer he served in America and were inspired by the experience. Most famous of these, the young and impressionable marquee day Lafayette, left home on a great aristocrat determined to fight Francis traditional photo, England. He returned with the love of liberty and firm republican convictions. French intellectuals and publicists engaged and passionate analysis of the federal Constitution as well as the constitutions of the very states of the new United States. The American revolution undeniably fueled the satisfaction with the old monarchical order in France. If the French revolution did not near the American example. It was more radical a more complex, more influential and more controversial, more love him or hate it. For Europeans and most of the rest of the world, it's the great revolution of the 18th century, the revolution to open the modern era and politics.
12-how did art reflect new renaissance ideals?
No feature of the renaissance evokes greater admiration then its artistic masterpieces. The 1400s in 1500s or witness to dazzling creativity in painting, architecture, and sculpture. In all the arts, the city of Florence lead the way. But Florence was not the only artistic center, for Rome and Venus also became important, and northern Europeans perfected their own styles.
18-what was life like for children, and how did attitudes toward childhood evolve?
On the whole, western European women married late, but then began bearing children rapidly. If a woman married before she was 30, and if both she and her husband live to 50, she would most likely give birth to six or more children. Infant mortality buried across Europe, but was very high by modern standards, many women died in childbirth due to limited medical knowledge. For those children who did survive, new enlightenment ideas in the latter half of the century stressed importance of parent toll nurturing. New world views also lead to an increase in elementary schools throughout Europe, but despite the efforts of absolutist and religious institutions, formal education reach only a minority of ordinary children.
17- what workouts, and why did they become controversial in the 18th century?
One consequence of the growth of the world industry was in undermining of the traditional guild system that protected urban artisans. Gilt continue to dominate production and towns and cities, providing their masters with economic privileges as well as a proud social identity, but increasingly struggled against competition from world workers. Meanwhile, those excluded from guild membership - woman, day laborers, Jews, and for nurse - worked on the margins of the urban economy. In the second half of the 18th century, critics attack the guilds as outmoded institutions that obstructed tactical progress and innovation. Until recently most historians repeated that view an ongoing reassessment of guilt now emphasizes their ability to adapt to changing economic circumstances.
15- what was the Baroque style in art and music and where was it popular
Pg. 498-499
13- How did protestant ideas and institutions spread beyond German speaking lands?
States within the holy Roman empire were the earliest territories to except the Protestant Reformation, but by the later 1520s and 1530s religious change came to Denmark - Norway, Sweden, England, France, and eastern Europe. In most of these areas,A second generation of reformers built on Lutheran and Zwinglian ideas to develop their own theology and plans for institutional change. The most important of the second generation reformers John Calvin, whose ideas could profoundly influence the social thought and attitudes of European peoples in there to send all over the world
12- What new ideas were associated with the renaissance?
The Renaissance was characterized by self-conscious conviction among educated Italians that they were living in a new era. Somewhat ironically, this idea rested on a deep interest in ancient Latin and Greek literature and philosophy. Through reflecting on the classics, Renaissance thinkers developed new notions of human nature, new plans for education, in new concepts of political rule. The advent of the printing press with movable type would greatly accelerate the spread of these ideas throughout Europe.
14- how did new ideas about race in the works of montane in Shakespeare affect the encounter with the new peoples and places?
The age of overseas expansion heightened Europeans contacts with the rest of the world. These contacts gave birth to new ideas about the inherent superiority or inferiority of different races, in part to justify European participation in the slave trade. Cultural and counters also inspired more positive reviews. The essays of Michael day Montaigne epitomized a new spirit of skepticism and cultural relativism, while the plays of William Shakespeare reflected the efforts of one great writer to come to terms with the cultural complexity of his day.
16-what intellectual and social changes occurred as a result of the scientific revolution?
The creation of a new science was not accomplished by handful of Brilliant astronomers working alone. Scholars in many fields - medicine, chemistry, and botany, among others - used new methods to seek answers to long standing problems, sharing the results in a community that spanned Europe. At the same time, monarchs and entrepreneurs launched explorations to uncover and understand the natural riches of newly conquered empires around the globe.
12- what were the key social hierarchies in Renaissance Europe?
The division between educated and uneducated people was only one of many social hierarchies evident in the renaissance. Every society has social hierarchies; in ancient Rome, for example, There were patricians and plebeians. Such hierarchies are to some degree descriptions of social reality but they are also idealizations - that is, they describe how people imagine their Society to be, without all the messy reality of social - climbing plebeians or groups that did not fit the standard categories. Social hierarchies in the Renaissance were built on those of the middle ages that divided nobles from commoners, but they also developed new concepts that contributed to modern social hierarchies, such as those of race, class, and gender.
14- What was the impact of European conquest on the peoples in ecologies of the New World?
The growing European presence in the New World transformed it's land and it's peoples forever. Violence and disease wrought devastating losses, while surviving peoples encountered new political, social, and economic organizations imposed by Europeans. The Columbian exchange brought infectious disease is to the Americas, but also gave new crops to the old world that altered consumption patterns in Europe and across the globe.
17- how and why did world industry intensify in the 18 century?
The growth of population increase the number of world workers with little or no land, and doesn't turn contributed to the development of industry and Burrell areas. The port in the countryside increasingly needed to supplement the agricultural earnings with other types of work, and urban Capitalists were eager to employ them, often that lower wages then urban workers received. Cottage industry, which consisted of manufacturing with handtools and peasant cottages and worksheds, good markedly in the 18th century and became a crucial feature of the European economy. To be sure, peasant communities toys made clothing, processed food, and constructed housing for their own use. But mid evil presence did not produce manufactured goods on it large scale for sale in the market. By the 18th century, however, the pressures of rural poverty but many poor villagers to seek additional work, and far-reaching changes for daily rural life were set in motion.
12- How did nation-states develop in this period?
The high middle ages had witnessed the origins of many of the basic institutions of the modern state. Sheriffs, inquests, juries, circuit judges, professional bureaucracies and representative assemblies all trace their origins to the 12th and 13th centuries. The linchpin for the development of states, however, was strong monarchy, and during the period of the hundred years war, no ruler and Western Europe was able to provide effective leadership. The resurgence power of feudal nobilities we can the centralizing work begun earlier. Beginning in the 15th century, however, rulers utilized aggressive methods to rebuild their governments. First in the regional states of Italy, then in the expanding monarchies of France, England, in Spain, rulers began to work of producing violence, curbing unruly nobles, and establishing the Mestic order. They attempted to secure their borders and enhanced methods of raising revenue. The monarchs of Western Europe emphasized to Royal Majesty and royal sovereignty and insisted on the respect of and loyalty of all subjects, including the nobility. In Central Europe the holy Roman Emperor's attempted to do the same, but they were not able to overcome the power of local interest to create a unified state.
12- How did politics and economics shape the renaissance?
The magnificent art in new ways of thinking in the renaissance rested on economic and political developments in the city states of northern Italy. Economic growth laid the material basis for the Italian Renaissance, and ambitious merchants gained political power to match their economic power. They then used their money and power to buy luxuries and hire talent in a system of patronage through which cities, groups, and individuals commissioned writers and artists to produce spexific works. Political leaders and Italian cities admired the traditions and power of ancient Rome and this esteem shaped their commissions. Thus economics, politics, and culture were interconnected.
19- what were the factors behind the revolutions of the late 18th century?
The origins of the late 18th century revolutions in British North America, France, and Haiti were complex. No one Cosley behind them, nor was revolution in evitable or four ordained. However, certain important factors help set the stage for form. Among them were fundamental social and economic changes in political crazy is that a road state authority. Another significant cause of revolutionary fervor was the impact of political ideas to read from the enlightenment. Even though intellectuals and the enlightenment were usually cautious about political reform themselves, their confidence in reason and progress helped inspire a new generation to fight for greater freedom from repressive governments. Perhaps most important, financial crises generated by work expenses brought European states to their knees and allowed abstract discussions of reform to become pressing realities.
15-what were the social conditions of eastern Europe, and how did the rulers of Austria and Prussia a transform their nations into powerful absolutist monarchies?
The rulers of eastern Europe also labored to build strong absolute estates in the 17th century but they built on social economic foundations far different from those in Western Europe, namely surf dumb and the strong nobility who benefited from it. The endless wars of the 17th century allowed monarchs to increase the power of building large armies, increasing taxation, and suppressing representative institutions. In exchange for their growing political authority, monarchs allowed nobles to remain as unchallenged masters of their peasants, a deal that appease both king and nobility, but left serfs at the mercy of the lords. The most successful states were Austria and Prussia, Which witnessed the rise of absolutism between 1620 and 1740.
16- what new ideas about society and human relations emerged in the enlightenment, and what new practices and institutions enabled these ideas to take hold?
The scientific revolution was a crucial factor in the creation of the new world view of the 18th century enlightenment. This world view, which is played a large role in shaping the modern mind, grew out of a rich mix of diverse and often conflicting ideas that were debated if international networks. Despite the diversity three central concept stand at the core of enlightenment thinking. The first and foremost idea was that the methods of natural science could and should be used to examine and understand all aspects of life. This was what intellectuals meant by reason, a favorite word of enlightenment thinkers. Nothing was to be excepted on faith; everything was to be submitted to rationalism, a secular, critical way of thinking. A second important enlightenment concept was at the scientific method was capable of discovering the laws of human society as well as those of nature. These tenants led to the third key idea, that the progress. Armed with the proper method of discovering the laws of human existence, enlightenment thinkers believed, it was at least possible for human beings to create better societies and better people.
20- what were the origins of the industrial revolution in Britain, and how did you develop between 1780 and 1850?
Then Destry of revolution began in Great Britain, the nation created in 1707 by the formal union of Scotland, Wales, and England. Transformation and industry with something new in history, and it was unplanned. With no miles to copy and no idea of what to expect, but in pioneer not only an industrial technology but also in social relations and urban living. Just as France was a trailblazer and political change, Britain was the leader and economic development, and it must therefore command special attention.
16- what revolutionary discoveries were made in the 16th and 17th centuries?
Until the middle of the 16th century, Europeans relied on an understanding of motion in matter drawn from the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle adapted to Christian theology. The rise of the University, along with the intellectual for vitality of the Renaissance and technological advancements, inspired scholars to make closer observations and seek better explanations. From the sun centered universe proposed by the Polish astronomer Nicholas Copernicus to the great synthesis of physics and astronomy accomplished by the English scientist Isaac newton, a revolutionary new understanding of the universe had emerged by the end of the 17th century. Hill today as pioneers of a modern world view, the major figures of the scientific revolution but for the most part devout Christians who saw their work as heralding the glory a creation and two combined older traditions of magic, astrology, and alchemy with their pathbreaking experimentation.
15- how and why did the constitutional state triumph the Dutch Republic and England?
Well France, Prussia, Russia, and Austria developed absolutist states, England and the Netherlands evolved toward constitutionalism, which is the limitation of government by law. Constitutionalism also implies A balance between the authority and power of the government, on one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subjects, on the other. By definition, all constitutionalist governments have a constitution, Biette written or unwritten. A nations constitution maybe embodied in one basic document and occasionally revised by amendment, like the constitution of the United States. Or it may be only partly formalized and include parliamentary statutes, judicial decisions, and a body of traditional procedures and practices like the English and Dutch constitutions. Despite their common commitment constitutional government, England and the Dutch Republic represented significantly different alternatives to absolute rule. After decades of Civil War in an experiment with republicanism, the English opted for a constitutional monarchy and 1688. This settlement, which has in endured to this day, retained a monarch as the titular head of government but vested sovereignty in an elected parliament. Upon gaining independence from Spain and 1648, the Dutch rejected monarchical rule, adopting a republican form of government in which elected estates health supreme power. Neither was democratic by any standard but to other Europeans they were shining examples of the restraint of arbitrary power and the rule of law.
19- find how did the French revolution take a radical turn in telling tear at home and war with European powers?
When Louis XVI excepted the national assemblies constitution in September 1791, a young provincial lawyer and delegate named Maximilian Robespierre concluded that the revolution is over. Rose here was right in the sense that most constructive in last uniforms room place. That he was wrong and suggesting that the turmoil had ended, for a much more radical stageplay head, one that would bring more with foreign powers, tour at home, and a transformation and France's government.