AP Psych Exam review

According to Carl Rogers, when we are in a good marriage, a close family, or an intimate friendship, we are free to be spontaneous without fearing the loss of others' esteem. What did he call this accepting attitude? A peak experience Unconditional positive regard Self-transcendence Humanistic psychology Our self-concept

Unconditional positive regard

Assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas

Music-color synesthesia

specific tones or songs associated with specific colors

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth

pitch

the highness or lowness of sound determined by its frequency of sound wave

Levels of Consciousness

-conscious -non conscious -preconscious -subconscious -unconscious

decibles

A unit used to measure the loudness of a sound -measures the height of the sound wave

Stage 4: concrete operational (7-11)

Child can reason more logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets

choice blindness

Failing to notice a change in a previously selected item

The more often the stimulus is presented, the weaker the response becomes. What do developmental researchers call this decrease in response intensity due to repeated stimulation? Stagnation Attachment Autonomy Imprinting Habituation

Habituation

Which of the following theories offers a special focus on the potential for healthy personal growth? Neo-Freudian Psychodynamic Humanistic Behavioral Functionalist

Humanistic

Which of the following is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience? Acquisition Stimulus Learning Habituation Response

Learning

moral action

doing the right thing

Cerebellum

Neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories created by classical conditioning Helps explain infantile amnesia: we recall no skills (explicitly) we learned during infancy

Which of the following would indicate that a child understood conservation? -- She would continue to seek a toy hidden under a blanket. She would "hide" in a game of hide-and-seek by covering her eyes with her hands. She would believe that a clay snake would have the same amount of clay as the clay ball that was used to make it. She would recognize that 7 + 3 involves the same mathematical relationship as 10 - 7. She would be able to comprehend the logic of if-then statements.

She would believe that a clay snake would have the same amount of clay as the clay ball that was used to make it.

Cultural norms related to when to leave home, get a job, or marry are referred to as what? Social clock Midlife crisis Critical period Life span Theory of mind

Social clock

outer ear

The part of the ear that collects sound waves; consists of the pinna, the ear canal, and the eardrum.

physical development (adulthood)

The peak of physical performance-muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output Occurs around 20 years of age, after which it declines imperceptibly for most of us

dark adaptation

The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.

Classical conditioning is the type of learning in which a person links two or more stimuli and forgets about them. lays them out in sequence. shuts down. anticipates events. receives a reward.

anticipates events

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

Negative correlation

as one variable increases, the other decreases

Which of the following phrases accurately describes top-down processing? a. The entry-level date captured by our various sensory systems b. The effect that our experiences and expectations have on perception c. Our tendency to scan a visual field from top to bottom d. Our inclination to follow a predetermined set of steps to process sound e. The fact that information is processed by the higher regions of the brain before it reaches the lower brain

b. The effect that our experiences and expectations have on perception

Which of the following carries the information necessary to activate withdrawal of the hand from a hot object? a. sensory neuron b. motor neuron c. interneuron d. receptor neuron e. reflex

b. motor neuron

ultradian rhythms

biological rhythms that occur more than once each day -90 min sleep cycles

motor neurons

carry info from CNS to muscles and glands

taste

chemical sense

id

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification basic and foundational - present at birth, the "animal" in you - is entirely stupid "I want it right now!"

Which division of the nervous system produces the startle response? a. parasympathetic b. central c. somatic d. sympathetic e. autonomic

d. sympathetic

bottom-up processing (pain)

damage to a portion of the body sends signals to the sensory cortex (parietal lobe) indicating a problem

CBT may be useful for

emotional disorders (regulation) OCD, anxiety, depression, anorexia

Types of skin

hairy and glabrous

benefits of group therapy

it saves the therapist's time and client's money. It offers a social laboratory for exploring social behaviors and developing social skills. It enables people to see that others share their problems. It provides feedback as clients try out new ways of behaving.

left hemisphere

language, math, logic

skin

largest organ of the body

imitation onset

learning by observation begins early in life

Dysthymic Disorder

lies b/t blue mood and major depressive disorder Characterized by daily depression lasting 2 years or more Down in the dumps mood - Chronic low energy, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, and sleep eat too little or too much

ALS

loss of motor neurons

Validity

measure what it was designed to measure

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

Unjustifiable

not easy to explain to most people (psych disorder)

Chunking

organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. ex) acronyms

threshold

point at which sensory info is strong enough to be noticed

neurons do what?

receive info, carry info, pass info to next neuron

retinal bipolar cells

receive messages from photoreceptors and transmit them to ganglion cells which are part of the optic nerve

sex

refers to the strictly biological traits that define male and female

testosterone and estrogen

t= primarily male hormone e= primarily female hormone males and females have both in their system

pain

tells the body that something has gone wrong -usually results from damage to the skin or other tissues

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

menarche

the first menstrual period

brightness constancy

the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change depends on relative luminance: the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings

hypnosis weakness

there's no reliable way to tell if a person is hypnotized

hippocampus

wraps around back of thalamus; memory relay station

What is the absolute threshold for hearing?

zero decibels

Which of the following is the primary purpose of the DSM? -- Diagnosis of mental disorders Selection of appropriate psychological therapies for mental disorders Placement of mental disorders in appropriate cultural context Selection of appropriate medicines to treat mental disorders Understanding the causes of mental disorders

Diagnosis of mental disorders

Middle Adulthood (post 40)

For women 35-39: aging means a gradual decline in fertility where they are half as likely to produce offspring Around age 50 women go through menopause the ending of the menstrual cycle Men experience no equivalent to menopause- no decrease in fertility drop in sex hormones but do experience a gradual decline in sperm count, speed of erection, and testosterone level

Most adolescents can ponder and debate human nature, good and evil, truth and justice. According to Piaget, this thinking ability is due to the emergence of which stage? Concrete operational Sensorimotor Preoperational Formal operational Accommodation

Formal operational

Which of the following reflects the notion that pitch is related to the number of impulses traveling up the auditory nerve in a unit of time? - Place theory - Frequency theory - Volley principle - Sound localization - Stereophonic hearing

Frequency theory

What developmental stages did Freud propose?

Freud believed children pass through five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital). Unresolved conflicts at any stage can leave a person's pleasure-seeking impulses fixated (stalled) at that stage.

Psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

the work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson fits best into which of psychology's perspectives? Humanism Gestalt psychology Trait theory Behaviorism Neuropsychology

Behaviorism

IQ (intelligence quotient)

a fixed and objectively real trait we commit to reasoning error called reification

Taijin-kyofusho

a form of social anxiety common in Japan involving a fear of offending or embarrassing others with one's odor, eye contact, or appearance.

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

phantom sounds

a ringing in the ears sensation known as tinnitus

rite of passage

a ritual that serves to mark the movement and transformation of an individual from one social position to another

Of the following, which term best describes the condition in which a person with limited mental ability excels at a specific skill such as computation? Savant syndrome g factor Creative intelligence Emotional intelligence Street smarts

Savant syndrome

A split from reality that shows itself in disorganized thinking, disturbed perceptions, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotions is associated with which psychological disorder? Schizophrenia Phobias Depression Bipolar disorder Anxiety

Schizophrenia

Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy?

Some studies have found a positive correlation between intelligence score and brain size and activity, especially in the frontal and parietal lobes. Ample gray matter and white matter enable efficient communication between brain circuits.

shape constancy

a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn

negative reinforcement

anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state - something the subject doesn't like is removed - will strengthen behavior Negative in psychology does not mean negative ex) aspirin relieves headaches and makes it more likely that aspirin will be taken in the future

temporal lobe

auditory info processing, differentiate between sounds

agonist

drug that mimics neurotransmitters effects

scientific theory

explanation of some aspect of natural world using scientific method; repeatedly tested

experimental group

exposed to independent variable

terminals

form junctions with other cells

The maturation of the brain's __________ lags behind the development of the limbic system, which may explain the impulsivity of teenagers compared with adults. frontal lobes temporal lobes occipital lobes parietal lobes corpus collosum

frontal lobes

fMRI

functional magnetic resonance imaging measures activity by detecting changes in blood flow active regions: blood flow increases show brain function and structure

color defects

genetically transmitted

LOC: Subconscious

information we aren't currently aware of, but we know must exist due to behavior ex) mere-exposure effect

handedness

inherited 90% of people are right handed

social anxiety disorder

intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such. (Formerly called social phobia.)

Francis Galton

interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement

taste receptor cells

located primarily in the tongue and mouth

Brainstem

located where spinal cord swells and brain just begins responsible for automatic survival functions

intelligence

mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

relative height

method of determining depth by noting that distant objects appear higher in your field of vision than do closer objects

relative clarity

method of determining depth by noting that distant objects are less clear than nearby objects Tends to work outdoors where distant objects have a bluish, hazy appearance due to moisture in the air

Undifferentiated Schizophrenia

mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria for any one type of schizophrenia

Modern psychologists contend that all behavior, whether it is called normal or disordered, arises from the interaction of genetics and physiology. children and parents. experience and wisdom. inborn tendencies and drives. nature and nurture.

nature and nurture.

antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior unfortunately, Bandura's studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood, or TV) may have antisocial effects

naturalistic observation

observe subject in natural environment -not controlled

paul costa

psychologist associated with the five-factor model of personality, worked with Robert McCrae

Structuralism

psychology = a science uses introspection to reveal the mind's structure

2 categories of therapy

psychotherapy & biomedical therapy

Context Effects

putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval ex) scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land

Reinforcement vs. Punishment

reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases behavior

Nocieptors

sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals

kinds of neurons:

sensory, motor, interneurons

How does sleep affect memory?

sleep helps us process and consolidate new memories rebuilds fading memories

LOC: Non Conscious

body processes controlled by your mind, usually not aware (heart beat, respiration...)

intersex

born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female physical features.

pituitary gland

controls other endocrine glands size of pea, aka "master gland" release sex hormones influencing brain and behavior located at base of brain and controlled by hypothalamus

somatic system

controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

longitudinal fissure

crevices that separates the two hemispheres

bias

current knowledge and beliefs distort our memories of the past

cerebral cortex

4 parts; wrinkled outer surface of the brain; control and info processing center each brain hemisphere ÷ into 4 lobes: frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal

DSM-5

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.

Visual Encoding

the encoding of picture images

Acoustic Encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

conception

the moment at which a female becomes pregnant fertilization creates a zygote

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

relative size

using the perceived size of a familiar object to determine depth -The larger the object appears, the closer the object is to the viewer

Which is true of social relations during the teen years? -- As teens distance themselves from parents, peer relationships become more important. High school girls who have the poorest relationships with their mothers have the most intense friendships with peers. Parental influence peaks during mid to late adolescence. Most adolescents have serious disagreements with parents, leading to great social stress. Teens are generally more concerned with family relationships than peer relationships.

As teens distance themselves from parents, peer relationships become more important.

Boez is a 2-year-old boy who is in the process of potty training. When Boez urinates in the potty, he has a sense of pride. If Boez urinates in his pants, he runs and hides. According to Erikson, in which psychosocial stage is Boez? Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Competence versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation

Autonomy versus shame and doubt

One of principal differences between the ethical guidelines for human and animal research is A) human participants can be deceived for experimental purposes and animals cannot. B) Animals can be placed at much greater physical risk than human C) Human participants must be chosen much more carefully than animal subjects D) if humans might physically suffer because of the study, the suffering must be minimum, in contrast to animal studies where any amount of suffering is ethical if it helps to further a clear scientific purpose E) environmental conditions for human studies must be monitored much more closely than they are in an animal study

B) Animals can be placed at much greater physical risk than human

Emma scores a perfect 100 on a test that everyone else fails. If we were to graph this distribution it would be A) Symmetrical B) Normal C) Positively skewed D) Negatively skewed E) Straight line

C) Positively skewed

difference threshold

"just noticeable difference" the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time size of a difference in a stimulus property needed to notice a CHANGE has occurred 50% of the time

Amphetamines

"speeder uppers" - drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes - includes Meth - suppress appetite and were once prescribed as diet pills - Increase concentration and reduce fatigue, can increase anxiety and irritability

anal

(18-36 months or 1-3 years) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control of bodily wastes

emerging adulthood

18-25 for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood - during this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work - On avg. emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties

Positive correlation

A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.

Cognitive Approach

An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.

Phenotype

An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits -observable characteristics -characteristics may change over time or modified by environmental factors ex) born blonde but hair turns brown

What do mental health professionals call a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior? An interaction of nature and nurture A physiological state A genetic predisposition A psychological factor A psychological disorder

A psychological disorder

double-blind procedure

A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. -they cannot affect the outcome of the research

What are the four components of emotional intelligence?

Emotional intelligence, which is an aspect of social intelligence, is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. Emotionally intelligent people achieve greater personal and professional success. Some critics question whether calling these abilities "intelligence" stretches that concept too far.

Temperament refers to what aspect of an infant's development? Susceptibility to infection and disease Emotional reactivity General intelligence Level of optimism Ability to learn from situations

Emotional reactivity

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. With Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.

What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?

Erikson theorized that each life stage has its own psychosocial task, and that a chief task of adolescence is solidifying one's sense of self—one's identity. This often means "trying on" a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a person's group memberships.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families

What's an example of how emotion can influence our perception?

Hearing sad rather than happy music can predispose people to perceive a sad meaning in spoken homophonic words—mourning rather than morning, die rather than dye, pain rather than pane

Amplitude

Height of a wave determines the brightness of light (taller=brighter)

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

How is heritability defined?

Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability trait can vary depending on populations and environments.

Which of the following is one of the ways humanistic therapies differ from psychoanalytic therapies? -- Humanist therapies believe the past is more important than the present and future. Humanist therapies boost self-fulfillment by decreasing self-acceptance. Humanist therapies believe the path to growth is found by uncovering hidden determinants. Humanist therapies believe that unconscious thoughts are more important than conscious thoughts. Humanist therapies focus on promoting growth, not curing illness.

Humanist therapies focus on promoting growth, not curing illness.

Which of the following states of consciousness occurs when one person suggests to another that certain thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur? - Dreaming - Hypnosis - Daydreaming - Hallucination - Waking awareness

Hypnosis

How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?

In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation

unconditioned response

In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

What is observational learning, and how do some scientists believe it is enabled by mirror neurons?

In observational learning, as we observe and imitate others we learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences, because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words), as when we observe someone else performing those actions.

Sensory abilities (adult)

After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina After 80 neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks

How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?

In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences). In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli—events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus).

How did Sigmund Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?

In treating patients whose disorders had no clear physical explanation, Freud concluded that these problems reflected unacceptable thoughts and feelings, hidden away in the unconscious mind. To explore this hidden part of a patient's mind, Freud used free association and dream analysis.

Baby Blues

Maternity (baby) blues: mild depression that lasts for one to two days after childbirth Marked by crying, fitful sleep, tension, anger, and irritability Brief and not too severe

What do we call a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior? Incentive Refractory period Emotion Motivation Instinct

Motivation

A test-developer defines uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. Which of the following best describes this process? Reliability testing Validation Content validation Standardization Predictive validity

Reliability testing

How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?

Some rejected any standardized assessments and relied on interviews and conversations. Rogers sometimes used questionnaires in which people described their ideal and actual selves, which he later used to judge progress during therapy.

How do we locate sounds?

Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. The brain analyzes the minute differences in the sounds received by the two ears and computes the sound's source. As the placement of our eyes allows us to sense visual depth, so the placement of our two ears allows us to enjoy stereophonic ("three-dimensional") hearing.

What are standardization and the normal curve?

Standardization establishes a basis for meaningful score comparisons by giving a test to a representative sample of future test-takers. The distribution of test scores often forms a normal (bell-shaped) curve around the central average score, with fewer and fewer scores at the extremes.

social behavior

We aim to increase our feelings of belonging Gain acceptance we generally conform to group standards We monitor behavior, spend money on clothes... to gain acceptance Feelings of love activate brain's rewards and safety systems

Explain the current research regarding learning while we sleep.

We do not remember recorded information played while we are soundly asleep. Anything that happens during the 5 minutes just before we fall asleep is typically lost from memory.

Genders & emotion

Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men When shown sad, happy, and scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

schema

an organized body of knowledge. They are not part of the inborn knowledge structures of children. - Once we develop schema, we spend a lot of time fitting new experiences into existing schema or assimilation - need to both accommodate and assimilate throughout life * Schemas developed through experience * Process of developing schemas is called accommodation

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information processing focuses on raw material entering through the ears, eyes....

sleep deprivation

any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability as well as memory failures

positive reinforcement

anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state- strengthens the behavior

Which of the following is most likely to influence our memory of a painful event? a. The overall length of the event b. The intensity of pain at the end of the event c. The reason for the pain d. The amount of rest you've had in the 24 hours preceding the event e. The scientific part of the body that experiences the pain

b. The intensity of pain at the end of the event

Interneurons are said to a. send messages from specific body parts to the brain b. transmit and process information within the brain and spinal cord c. act as connectors, supporting other neurons in the brain d. send messages from the brain to body parts e. influence the pituitary gland

b. transmit and process information within the brain and spinal cord

Dr. Welle tries to help her clients by teaching them to modify the things they do when under stress or experiencing symptoms. This means that Dr. Welle engages in _________ therapy. behavior cognitive group rational-emotive behavior client-centered

behavior

John B. Watson

behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat

Provide an example of how hypnosis is believed to be a dissociated state of consciousness.

being hypnotized to be able to withstand pain without showing any outward signs of discomfort, however, when asked to signal if some part of his consciousness is aware of the pain, he raises his hand

Eysenck Personality Questionnaire

believed to be genetically influenced, categorized by 4 over arching traits extraversion-introversion & emotional stability-instability

approach-avoidance conflict

both options have their benefits and drawbacks. ex) telling your wife that her hair looks bad. The good is she'll fix it. The bad is she might be mad at you for a few hours.

anonymity/confidentiality

both protect privacy anonymity- no data that allows researchers to match the data with the person confidentiality- the source of any data will not be revealed

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord; brain: info processing, spine: road to or from the brain

Which of the following describes a perception process that the Gestalt psychologists would have been interested in? a. Depth perception and how it allows us to survive in the world b. Why we see an object near us as closer rather than larger c. How an organized whole is formed out of its component pieces d. What the smallest units of perception are e. The similarities between shape constancy and size constancy

c. How an organized whole is formed out of its component pieces

auditory nerve

bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear carries neural impulses from the inner ear (via the thalamus) to the brain's temporal lobe, resulting in the perception of sound

major depressive disorder

a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.

mania

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.

somatic symptom disorder

a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause.

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

Learning

a relatively durable change in an organism's behavior due to experience

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

continuous reinforcement

a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response; the most useful way to est. a behavior; the behavior will extinguish quickly once reinforcement stops ex) vending machines; teacher giving extra credit to students who participate

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings -instances of snoring/sleep apnea are much more frequent when sleeping on back -gravity forces base of tongue to collapse into the airway which obstructs breathing and creates extremely loud snoring

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.

Factor Analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test, used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score Enables researchers to identify clusters of test items that measure a common ability

which of the following best describes genetic mutation a) random errors in gene replication b) the study of mind's evolution c) the study of behavioral evolution d) passing on successful, inherited traits e) survival of the genetically successful

a) random errors in gene replication

Allowing people to discover, in a social context, that others have problems similar to their own is a unique benefit of what kind of therapy? Psychodynamic Psychopharmacological Group Cognitive Humanistic

Group

Which of the following is true about daydreaming? - It occurs spontaneously. - It is physiologically induced. - It is psychologically induced. - It is considered the same as waking awareness. - It is more like meditation than it is like dreaming.

It occurs spontaneously.

David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel

Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the visual system of the brain

What are the three major categories of drugs? - Hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants - Stimulants, barbiturates, and hallucinogens - Amphetamines, barbiturates, and opiates - MDMA, LSD, and THC - Alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine

Hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants

Hypochondriasis

Now called Illness Anxiety Disorder Has frequent physical complaints for which medical doctors are unable to locate the cause Usually believe the minor issues (headache, upset stomach) are indicative are more severe illnesses Not faking sickness to get attention but actually believe that they are sick w/an illness that hasn't been diagnosed

Biomedical therapy: psychosurgery

PRESUMED PROBLEM: Brain malfunction AIM: Relieve severe disorders. TECHNIQUE: Remove or destroy brain tissue.

Discuss the evidence refuting some of the commonly held false beliefs about hypnosis.

Hypnosis cannot recall forgotten events because we do not record or store everything that occurs around us in our brain. We cannot retrieve memories that are not stored. Through a research study where the control group pretended to be hypnotized, the researchers found that hypnosis cannot force people to act against their will.

Therapy: Group and family

Presumed Problem: Stressful relationships Therapy Aim: Heal relationships. Therapy Technique: Develop an understanding of family and other social systems, explore roles, and improve communication.

How and why do racial and ethnic groups differ in mental ability scores?

Racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores. The evidence suggests that environmental differences are largely, perhaps entirely, responsible for these group differences. 64-3

pancreatic gland

regulates level of blood sugar in the blood

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a correct response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement -includes following types (fixed interval and variable interval, fixed ratio and variable ratio) ex) lottery tickets: people don't expect to win every time they buy a ticket, therefore they continue to buy them

randomized clinical trials

researchers randomly assign people on a waiting list to therapy or no therapy and later evaluate everyone, using tests and the reports of people who don't know whether therapy was given

experimenter bias

researchers treat members of experimental/control groups differently to increase chance of confirming hypothesis

ecology of eating

social facilitation: eat more in presence of others unit bias: when the portion size is larger, people will eat more food variety: when foods are abundant and varied, we tend to eat more

According to Erikson, you develop your __________, a part of who you are, from your group memberships. self-interest social identity social self self-esteem self-consciousness

social identity

Situational context

social situation, behavioral setting, or general circumstances in which an action takes place

How do culture, gender, and values influence the therapist-client relationship?

Therapists differ in the values that influence their goals in therapy and their views of progress. These differences may create problems if therapists and clients differ in their cultural, gender, or religious perspectives.

Mary Ainsworth

studied attachment differences by observing mother-infant pairs during their first 6 months Found that sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who exhibited secure attachment Insensitive, unresponsive mothers had infants who often became insecurely attached During studies, she developed a procedure for observing/assessing the quality of attachment in relationships between caregiver and mother

psychopharmacology

study of drug effects on mind and behavior

stress inoculation training

teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations "Relax. The test may be hard, but it will be hard for everyone else, too. I studied harder than most people. Besides, I don't need a perfect score to get a good grade in this class." After being trained to dispute their negative thoughts, depression--prone children, teens, and college students exhibit a greatly reduced rate of future depression

Alternate form reliability

testing the same individual twice but giving a different version on retake date

cerebellum

the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem coordinates voluntary mvmts like balancing controls memories for knowing how to use body like walking if damaged: people can perform basic movements but lose fine coordination

social identity

the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions perceive: recognize in faces, music, and stories understanding: to predict them and how they change and blend use: to enable adaptive or creative thinking

relative luminance

the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.

psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control behavior is explained through unconscious motivation and unresolved inner conflicts

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

What are the goals and techniques of cognitive therapy and of cognitive-behavioral therapy?

The cognitive therapies, such as Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy for depression, assume that our thinking influences our feelings, and that the therapist's role is to change clients' self-defeating thinking by training them to view themselves in more positive ways. Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a confrontational cognitive therapy that actively challenges irrational beliefs. The widely researched and practiced cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive therapy and behavior therapy by helping clients regularly act out their new ways of thinking and talking in their everyday life.

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month

Neurogenesis

the development of new neurons promoted by increased serotonin

How does the difference threshold change with the stimulus?

the difference threshold increases with the size of the stimulus. ex. if you add 1 ounce to a 10-ounce weight, you will detect the difference; add 1 ounce to a 100-ounce weight and you probably will not.

cognitive perspective

how we take in, process, store, and retrieve information behavior is explained by how a person interprets the situation

hypo and hyper thyroidism

hypo: under-active thyroid (too little) hyper: overactive thyroid (make too much)

All or none principle

if a neuron fires, it will ALWAYS fire at the same intensity; it doesn't matter if there is a strong or weak stimulation at dendrites

encoding failure

the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory we cannot remember what we do not encode because the info never enters long-term memory We selectively attend to a few sights and sounds continually occurring around us Some info gets automatically encoded and some take effort

interaction

the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)

suggestibility

the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections implanted memories that never occurred

Adela regularly interprets ordinary physical symptoms like stomach cramps and headaches as serious medical problems. Her doctor is unable to convince her that her problems are not serious. Adela suffers from illness anxiety disorder. conversion disorder. fugue state. dissociative identity disorder. anorexia nervosa.

illness anxiety disorder.

confounding variable

in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

self

in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions

model

in observational learning, the person whose behavior the subject watches and imitates

discriminative stimulus

in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Texture Gradient

method of determining depth by noting that distant objects have a smoother texture than nearby objects - The closer you get to these items, the more detail or texture you notice they have

Iconic memory

momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Rorschach test

most widely used projective test. Set of 10 inkblots was designed by Hermann Rorschach. Seeks to identify people's inner feeling by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

Aron Ralston

motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down

In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers a response. is a naturally occurring response. is initially irrelevant, and then comes to trigger a response. objectively studies psychology. is Pavlovian.

naturally triggers a response

Somatic Symptom Disorder

occur when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom Symptoms take a "somatic" (bodily) form w/o physical causes 2 main types: hypochondriasis & conversion disorder

Opiates

opium and its derivatives (such as morphine and heroin) depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety - HIGHLY addictive user's pupils constrict, breathing slows, pleasurable feeling replaces pain and anxiety -short term pleasure --> long-term cravings, need for larger doses, extreme discomfort of withdrawal -artificial opiate overuse --> brain stops producing natural endorphins

autonomic nervous system

controls breathing, blood pressure, and digestive processes, glands/muscles of internal organs divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems

Expressed emotion

people's expressive behavior reveals their emotion Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice

The process by which rods and cones change electromagnetic energy into neural messages is called what? a. Adaption b. Accommodation c. Parallel processing d. Transduction e. Perceptual setting

d. Transduction

According to Freud, which of the following defense mechanisms underlies all of the others? -- Repression Reaction formation Displacement Projection Regression

Repression

According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following defense mechanisms buries threatening or upsetting events in the unconscious? Regression Displacement Repression Projection Rationalization

Repression

In general, damage to ________ disrupts speaking, while damage to ________ disrupts understanding of language. a. the frontal lobe; the occipital lobe b. the temporal lobe; the occipital lobe c. the occipital lobe; the temporal lobe d. Wernicke's area; Broca's area e. Broca's area; Wernicke's area

e. Broca's area; Wernicke's area

Bulimia Nervosa

eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating Usually overeat high calorie foods Overeating is followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise

Anorexia Nervosa

eating disorder in which normal weight people suffer delusions of being overweight - May put themselves on self-starvation diet and exercise regimens - My become dangerously underweight - Usually in adolescent females

Which of the following is an example of a primary sex characteristic? Nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls Facial hair in boys Deepened voice in boys Pubic and underarm hair in both sexes Reproductive organs in both sexes

Reproductive organs in both sexes

Humanism

emphasizes the unique qualities of humans and their potential for human growth carl rogers, Maslow

operant conditioning

enable therapists to use behavior modification in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are un-rewarded/punished

stages of memory

encoding --> storage --> retrieval * similar to cell phone

Why do we forget?

encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure Forgetting can occur at any memory stage We filter, alter or lose much information during these stages

Semantic encoding

encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

Shallow

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

Deep

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words-yields the best retention

what can affect epigenetic molecules?

environmental factors such as diet, drugs, stress

Maladaptive

everyday life difficult, interferes with ability to lead normal life (psych disorder)

inferiority complex

exaggerated feelings of weakness and inadequacy

Seasonal Affective Disorder

experience depression during the winter months Based not on temperature but on amount of sunlight Treated w/light therapy

General intelligence

factor according to Spearman and others that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test Proposed g factor is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis ex) athleticism, like intelligence, is many things

STAGE 1:

falling to sleep "transition stage" -lasts between 1-5 min (2-5% of the night) -eyes begin to roll slightly -consists mostly of THETA waves (high amp, low frequency), brief periods of alpha waves-similar to those present while awake

delusions

false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.

hallucination

false sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Learning perspective of anxiety

fear conditioning leads to anxiety Anxiety then becomes w/other objects or events and is reinforced Investigators believe that dear responses are inculcated through observational learning

Karen Horney

felt that sex and aggression were not the primary constituents for determining personality Considered founder of humanistic psychoanalysis and feminist psychology

Bryanna and Charles are in a dancing competition. It is easy for spectators to see them against the dance floor because of - the visual cliff. - the phi phenomenon. - color constancy. - sensory restriction. - figure-ground relationships.

figure-ground relationships

In what two ways do people learn to cope with personal problems?

We use problem-focused coping to change the stressor or the way we interact with it. We use emotion-focused coping to avoid or ignore stressors and attend to emotional needs related to stress reactions.

empiricism

the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test

Flynn effect

the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years

gate-control theory

theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain Melzak/Wall proposed that our spinal cord contains neurological gates that either block pain or allow it to be sensed through the brain

cognitive therapy

therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions Behavioral therapy treat specific and problem behaviors - Cognitive therapy helps deal w/things like depression and anxiety that are clearly defined problems Focus on teaching patients new ways of thinking

Family therapy

therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members We live and grow in relation to others, especially our families. We struggle to differentiate ourselves from our families, but we also need to connect with them emotionally. Some of our problem behaviors arise from the tension between these two tendencies, which can create family stress. therapists work with multiple family members to heal relationships and to mobilize family resources. They tend to view the family as a system in which each person's actions trigger reactions from others, and they help family members discover their role within their family's social system

what is the significance of the trichromatic and opponent process theories of color?

they are both needed to explain color

parts of the mind

think of an iceberg conscious, preconscious, unconscious conscious: what you're currently aware of preconscious: info not in conscious but is able to be retrieved when needed unconscious: massive amount hidden from view (irrational fears, thoughts...)

Egocentrism

thinking characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint If you ask a pre-operational boy whether his brother has a brother, he'll probably say no if they only have 2 boys in the family. He's unable to view brotherhood from his brother's perspective. Three mountain problem

A teacher used distortion goggles, which shifted the wearer's gaze 20 degrees, to demonstrate an altered perception. A student wearing the goggles initially bumped into numerous desks and chairs while walking around, but chose to wear the goggles for a half hour. After 30 minutes, the student was able to smoothly avoid obstacles, illustrating the concept of - perceptual adaptation. - visual interpretation. - sensory restriction. - perceptual constancy. - binocular cues.

perceptual adaptation

Dichromat

person who has trouble seeing one of the primary colors (red, blue, or green); caused by a form of color deficiency have 1 malfunctioning cone system; various colors won't be perceived, the inability to see blue is the rarest

projective tests

personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to) R: May diagnose a normal person as having a disorder V: Even trained raters evaluating the same patient can come up with different interpretations ex) Rorschach & TAT tests

Synesthesia

phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic experiences in a second sensory pathway; up to 1 in 23 people experience this almost any 2 senses can be linked via synesthesia

Social Phobia

phobias which produce fear in social situations Fear of speaking in public ex) grocery store, public restrooms, eating in front of others

fetal alchohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features

James Lange Theory

physiological activity precedes the emotional experience William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common sense view ex) sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) → pounding heart (arousal) → fear (emotion)

The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that emotional response occurs before cognition. physiological response occurs before emotional response. emotional response occurs before physiological response. cognition occurs before emotional response. physiological response and emotion occur independently and simultaneously.

physiological response and emotion occur independently and simultaneously.

Sex

physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values Sex is a need and a desire

social cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.

subliminal threshold

when stimuli are below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness -some people respond to stimuli below absolute threshold (people have different thresholds at different levels)

State-dependent memory

when we learn in one state (joy, sad, drunk, sober) and is more easily recalled when we are again in that state

The purpose of Alfred Binet's early intelligence test was to -- predict how children would do in school. identify differences among ethnic and racial groups. help French graduates find the occupation in which they were most likely to succeed. establish the scientific definition of intelligence. facilitate "genetic breeding" experiments.

predict how children would do in schoo

Aptitude test

predicts one's ability to learn a new skill

conservation

principle that things stay the same no matter if the form changes.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Leads to durable and accessible memories

cognitive behavior therapy

aims to alter way people act and alter the way they think Successful for treating anxiety, mood disorders, OCD, depression, and eating disorders

excessive optimism

can blind us to real risks

acoustical transduction

conversion of sound waves into neural impulses in the hair cells of the inner ear

What methods did Sigmund Freud use for his studies?

free association and dream analysis to explore the unconscious (controversal)

What does individual pain sensitivity depend on?

genes, physiology, experience, attention, and surrounding culture

biopsychosocial method

gives more complete photo of behavior and mental processes and utilizes all 7 approaches

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs, stating that some needs take priority over others known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"

social influence theory

hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role- motivated to demonstrate hypnotic behavior

The 3 levels of awareness are divided into what 3 components?

id, ego, and superego id is entirely unconscious but the ego and superego operate at all 3 levels of awareness

Psychodynamic Conflicts

id, ego, superego have different agendas (constant give and take) sometimes reasonable outcomes-sometimes neurotic ones

Discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal a US

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

defense mechanisms & examples

in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality repression: little boy reverts to oral comfort of thumb sucking i the car on the way to his first day at school reaction formation: repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness projection: the thief thinks everyone else is a thief rationalization: a habitual drinker says she drinks with her friends just to be sociable displacement: a little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room sublimation: a man with aggressive urges becomes a surgeon denial: a partner denies evidence of his loved one's affair

consciousness

independent awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environment conscious experiences are constantly shifting and changing

vicarious learning

learning by seeing the consequences of another person's behavior

secure self-esteem

less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation

The growth of __________ around axons speeds neurotransmission, enabling better communication between the frontal lobe and other brain regions. neurons the cell body dendrites myelin synapses

neurons

mirror neurons are

neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action

inferential statistics

numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population

crystallized intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

aaron beck

pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression. sought to reverse clients' catastrophizing beliefs about themselves, their situations, and their futures Gentle questioning seeks to reveal irrational thinking, and then to persuade people to remove the dark glasses through which they view life

Alfred Binet

pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)

Leptin

protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep -most common sleep disorder -NOT just once in a while, having trouble falling asleep b/c you have a big test -NOT defined by # of hours you sleep

Self Reference Effect

relating learned material to yourself helps to remember the information

enforphins

released in response to pain or vigorous exercise "runner's high"

manifest content of dreams

remembered STORYLINE of a dream

Discuss the behavioral and emotional effects of sleep loss.

sleep can make us sleepy, and drain us of energy and feelings of well-being. Sleep loss cannot be repaid by one long sleep.

physiological influences on drug use

stress, psychological disorders can bring need to medicate through drugs in an attempt to reduce the impact

Gestalt psychologists

stressed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts By breaking experiences into their basic parts, something important is lost

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from before the age of 3

dual processing

the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

Richard Lazarus

theorized that our brains process and react to information without our conscious awareness and that some emotional responses don't require conscious thinking

perceptual organization

the process by which stimuli are organized into meaningful units when vision competes w/other senses, vision usually wins

Epigenetics

the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without a DNA change

behavior geneticists

the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior

blocking

the temporary inability to remember something

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

Behaviorism

theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior

psychodynamic therapy

therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight

ringing in the ears

tinnitus ringing after exposure to loud music/machinery indicates we've been bad to our hair cells. As pain alerts us to possible bodily harm, ringing of the ears alerts us to possible hearing damage. It is hearing's equivalent of bleeding.

angular gyrus

translates writing into speech near superior edge of temporal lobe involved in recognition of visual symbols; not found in non-human species

psychotherapy

treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth

family therapy

treats family as a system Guides members toward positive relationships and improve communication

Sound comes from

vibrations

occipital lobe

visual processing

space (memory)

visualizing the location of something (i.e. where a certain piece of info is in your notes) to recall the info

Anger and its causes

People generally become angry with friends and loved ones who commit wrongdoings, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable People are also angered by foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, and aches/pains

Dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

theory

a system of interrelated ideas used to EXPLAIN a set of observations; must be TESTABLE, support/fail to support hypothesis

antagonist

drug that blocks neurotransmitter effects

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

agonist and antagonist

drugs that affect neurotransmitters

Albert Bandura proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which -- explains the nature-nurture debate. predicts human behavior. focuses on how our environment controls us. explains human motivation. emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations.

emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations

pain is a

product of both bottom-up and top-down processing

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

What does detecting a weak stimulus depend on?

signal strength our psychological state (our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness)

negative after image

colors you see are inverted from original image

reliable

can be replicated, consistent

psychokinesis

"mind over matter," such as levitating a table or influencing the roll of a die

antidepressant drugs

(prozac, zoloft and paxil) selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that improve the mood by elevating levels of serotonin by inhibiting reuptake Used to treat: depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD

ostracism

exclusion from a group

As telomeres shorten, aging cells may die without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas. This process is slowed by smoking. obesity. stress. aging. exercise.

exercise

Mary Cover Jones helped a little boy named Peter overcome his fear of rabbits by gradually moving a rabbit closer to him each day while he was eating his snack. This was one of the first applications of group therapy. virtual reality exposure therapy. aversive therapy. exposure therapy. cognitive therapy.

exposure therapy.

Which parent determines the sex of the child?

father

Aaron Beck

father of cognitive therapy, believed changing people's thinking could change functioning Sought to reverse client's beliefs about themselves

insecure avoidant attachment

feeling such discomfort over getting close to others that they employ avoidant strategies to maintain their distance

Neo-Freudians

followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories

Experimental research

gathering primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling related factors, and checking for differences in group responses -CAUSE AND EFFECT

socio-cultural perspective

how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures behavior is influenced by other people

variation

how similar or diverse the scores are

sensory memory

immediate brief recording of sensory information in the memory system - iconic and echoic

embodied cognition

in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments

nervous system

includes peripheral and central systems

Why does synesthesia occur?

increased communication between specialized parts of the brain

Placebo

inert substance that takes the place of the independent variable in a control group (identical substance)

Achievement test

intended to reflect what you have already learned

Why is the pituitary gland referred to the as the master gland?

it is the most influential gland. It regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

Cultural relativity

judgements are made relevant to one's culture

electromagnetic energy

light energy transmitted through space in the form of electromagnetic waves. light enters the eye as waves of electromagnetic energy, a small portion of the varying wave ranges that produces light humans can see

measures of central tendency

mean, median, mode

echoic memory

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Howard Gardner

multiple intelligences Supports the idea that intelligence comes in different packages Brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others Different abilities enabled our ancestors to cope with different environmental changes Argues that we don't have AN intelligence but instead have multiple intelligences, each independent of each other 8 intelligences

control group

not exposed to independent variable/treatment

Interposition

objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be perceived as closer, aka overlap

superego

part of the personality that acts as a moral center - the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. internalized rules of society and parents Terribly stupid according to Freud "Stop! You're disgusting, you should be ashamed of yourself!" or "good people don't think about those things."

phantom limb sensation

patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations such as itching, pressure, tingling, or pain as if the limb were still there

Happiness

people who are happy perceive the world as being safer Make decisions easier, are more cooperative, live healthier, energized

skinner

people's characteristic response tendencies are shaped by reinforcers and other consequences that follow behavior ex) if your joking around leads to attention and compliments, your tendency to be witty and humorous will be strengthened

case study

person or situation observed in depth - difficult to generalize - highly subjective

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Reasons for sleep

preservation restoration memory creative thinking supports growth

the sense of touch is a mix of what 4 distinct skin senses?

pressure, warmth, cold, pain -w/in the skin are different types of specialized nerve endings -only pressure has identifiable receptors -all other skin sensations are variations of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain

reuptake

process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action

accomodation

process relies on the notion that we develop a series of schemas to ease adaptation process adapting our current understandings (schema) to incorporate new info

stratified sampling

process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria (different races, genders, etc.)

mood disorders

psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder. come in two principal forms: (1) major depressive disorder, with its prolonged hopelessness and lethargy, and (2) bipolar disorder (formerly called manic-depressive disorder), in which a person alternates between depression and mania, an overexcited, hyperactive state.

Behaviorism

psychology should be an objective science that studies observable behavior without reference to mental processes

Korsakoff's Syndrome

related to alcohol consumption over a number of years Alcohol doesn't cause disease directly; lack of vitamin B leads to disorder Those with alcohol dependence tend to have poor eating habits → vitamin deficiency Patients tend to confabulate (make up info that fill in memory gaps )

roger sperry

scientist who won a Nobel Prize for work with split brain patients

Orexin

secreted by the hypothalamus; triggers hunger

olfactory cells

sensitive nerve cells in nasal passages. alert the brain through their axon fibers

thalamus

sits atop brainstem "relay station" brain's sensory switchboard: incoming fibers of all senses except smell funnel into thalamus which distributes info to regions of brain for processing

glabrous skin

skin that does not contain hair; found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet the receptors in glabrous skin are more sensitive

subliminal

stimuli below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness stimuli is too weak for you to notice them

Nerman Ebbinghaus

studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables (TUV YOF GEK XOZ)

self-help groups

studies show that self-help groups focus on stigmatized or hard to discuss illness ex) AIDS patients are more likely to be in a group than hypertension patients Alcoholics anonymous (AA) has more than 2 mil. Members worldwide

Psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

What are the 5 taste sensations?

sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (savory)

germinal stage

the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception zygote is created through fertilization. within 36 hours, rapid cell division begins - becomes microscopic mass of multiplying cells - many zygotes are rejected at this point placenta

Intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

medical model

the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need - the physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis

self-actualization

the process by which people achieve their full potential

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.

size constancy

the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance

similarity

the tendency to place items that look similar into a group. ex) shapes

Generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses

Xavier, who has a negative explanatory style, is most likely to get depressed after failing a math test if he believes that he failed because -- he is not good at math and never will be. his teacher made it impossible to learn the material. he was sick on the day he took the test. his parents have been putting too much pressure on him and he panicked on the test. the testing room was very hot and stuffy.

the testing room was very hot and stuffy.

behavior modification

the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior reinforcing desired behaviors, and withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors

Behavior therapy

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

light exposure therapy

therapy that involves a timed daily dose of intense light; used for SAD

psychosurgery

used as a last resort in alleviating psychological disturbances Irreversible Removal of brain tissue changes the mind Although used sparingly today, 200 such operations to take place in US alone

mood-stabilizing drugs

used to treat mood instability and bipolar disorders; an example is lithium after suffering mood swings for years, about 7 in 10 people with bipolar disorder benefit from a long-term daily dose of this cheap salt, which helps prevent or ease manic episodes and, to a lesser extent, lifts depression (Solomon et al., 1995). It also protects neural health, thus reducing bipolar patients' vulnerability to significant cognitive decline. Lithium also reduces bipolar patients' risk of suicide

humanistic theorists

view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth carl rogers & abraham maslow

Spillover Effect

when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up

avoidance-avoidance conflict

you must choose between 2 equally unattractive options

Developing self motivation

- Associate your high achievement with positive emotions - Connect your achievement with your effort - Raise your expectations

5 major views of function of dreams:

- Freud's wish-fulfillment: Dreams provide a psychic "safety valve," with manifest content (story line) acting as a censored version of latent content (underlying meaning that gratifies our unconscious wishes). - Information-processing: Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate them in memory. - Physiological function: Regular brain stimulation may help develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain. - Neural activation: The brain attempts to make sense of neural static by weaving it into a story line. - Cognitive development: Dreams reflect the dreamer's level of development. Most sleep theorists agree that REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation in humans and other species.

How many chromosomes does each parent contribute?

23

full term

37-40 weeks - fingernails/toenails -skull is fully developed - once birth occurs, neural development slows -pruning

Retinal Disparity

A binocular depth cue resulting from slightly different images produced by the separation of the retinas in the left and right eye -It is most effective when the item is quite close to the person

hippocampus (memory)

A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. - Damage to left hemisphere: trouble remembering verbal info, but they have no trouble recalling visual designs and locations - Damage to right hemisphere: trouble recalling visual designs and locations, no trouble with verbal info - Active during slow-wave sleep, as memories are processed and filed for later retrieval - Serves as "loading dock" for storing memories and eventually they get filed and stored elsewhere

What should a person look for when selecting a therapist?

A person seeking therapy may want to ask about the therapist's treatment approach, values, credentials, and fees. An important consideration is whether the therapy seeker feels comfortable and able to establish a bond with the therapist.

Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?

A person's average traits persist over time and are predictable over many different situations. But traits cannot predict behavior in any one particular situation.

explanatory style

A person's characteristic way of explaining his experiences. Consistently attributing bad experiences to internal, global, and stable causes may increase vulnerability to depression.

Which of the following illustrates generalization? A rabbit that has been conditioned to blink to a tone also blinks when a similar tone is sounded. A dog salivates to a tone but not to a buzzer. A light is turned on repeatedly until a rat stops flexing its paw when it's turned on. A pigeon whose disk-pecking response has been extinguished is placed in a Skinner box three hours later and begins pecking the disk again. A child is startled when the doorbell rings.

A rabbit that has been conditioned to blink to a tone also blinks when a similar tone is sounded.

Functionalism

A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.

cognitive revolution

A shift in psychology, beginning in the 1950s, from the behaviorist approach to an approach in which the main thrust was to explain behavior in terms of the mind. One of the outcomes of the cognitive revolution was the introduction of the information-processing approach to studying the mind.

What are the 5 critical terms that make up classical conditioning?

Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination

Which of the following is a feature of client-centered therapy? Free association Active listening Resistance Freudian interpretation Medical/biological treatment

Active listening

inferiority complex

Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences

rational-emotive behavior therapy

Albert ellis: many problems arise from irrational thinking REBT: confrontational cognitive therapy that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes -stated therapy could challenge illogical thinking and enable healthier ind. Thought stopping (hear irrational thought, therapist yells, "stop!", reframing (look at situation at positive angle), etc. CBT v. REBT: c= common r = rough (yelling etc.)

Albert Bandura

American psychologist who has done major studies in observational learning Known for his social learning theory Studies the consequence a model has on subjects

Give an example of agonist and describe how it functions in the nervous system.

An example of an agonist is opioids . Agonist molecules bind to its receptor and mimic its effects (stimulate a response). Opioids produce a temporary "high" by amplifying the feelings of pleasure.

Give an example of antagonist and describe how it functions in the nervous system.

An example of antagonist is botox or botulin. It causes paralysis by blocking ACh release. Antagonist bind to receptors and block a neurotransmitter's functioning.

Which personality disorder is associated with a lack of regret over violating others' rights? Antisocial personality disorder Avoidant personality disorder Schizoid personality disorder Histrionic personality disorder Narcissistic personality disorder

Antisocial personality disorder

General Anxiety Disorder (GAD)

Anxiety and worry that is excessive and difficult to control and that occurs more days than not for a period of at least 6 months Includes symptoms of fatigue, restlessness, irritability, sleep disturbances, decreased concentration and memory, and muscle tension

Sigmund Freud

Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.

Which of the following is an example random sampling I. picking out a hat to sign each of the three classes to an experimental condition II. Having a computer generate a random list of 100 high school students III. Approaching any 50 students during 6 period lunch A) I only B) II only C) III only D) I and II E) I, II, and III

B) II only

Talia collects survey data that indicates that students who spend more time preparing for the AP test to score better than other students. Talia can now conclude that A) Studying improves exam grades B) a relationship exists between studying and exam grades C) a scientific correlation exists between studying and exam grades D) Anyone who does not said he will do poorly on the exam E) Better students tend to study more

B) a relationship exists between studying and exam grades

In an effort to help a child overcome a fear of dogs, a therapist pairs a trigger stimulus (something associated with dogs) with a new stimulus that causes a response that is incompatible with fear (for example, an appealing snack or toy). Which clinical orientation is this therapist using? Psychodynamic Behavioral Biomedical Client-centered Humanistic

Behavioral

clinical decision making

Careful reasoning so that the best options are chosen for the best outcomes

collective unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history

object permanence

Child recognizes that objects exist even when they are no longer visible. lack of object permanence is why babies love the game peekaboo.

Deprivation of Attachment

Children become: withdrawn, frightened, unable to develop speech

Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2-7)

Children gradually improve their use of mental images child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. - Have not yet mastered principle of conservation: awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance Inability to understand this is caused by basic flaws in pre-operational thinking. - These flaws include centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism

What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?

Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.

Does psychotherapy work? Who decides?

Clients' and therapists' positive testimonials cannot prove that therapy is actually effective, and the placebo effect and regression toward the mean (the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average) make it difficult to judge whether improvement occurred because of the treatment. Using meta-analyses to statistically combine the results of hundreds of randomized psychotherapy outcome studies, researchers have found that those not undergoing treatment often improve, but those undergoing psychotherapy are more likely to improve more quickly, and with less chance of relapse.

Which of the following does the text's author call psychology's most powerful tool for sorting reality from wishful thinking? ESP or "psychic powers" Regression toward the mean Client perception Control group Placebo effect

Control group

Which level of moral reasoning includes a focus on upholding laws in order to gain social approval? Collectivist Preconventional Conventional Postconventional Formal operational

Conventional

What do we call the transparent, protective layer that light passes through as it enters the eye? - Pupil - Iris - Cornea - Lens - Fovea

Cornea

Olivia, a nursery school student, hypothesizes that boys have fights with the finger paint more than girls do. She test is her hypothesis by casually watching the finger painting table for 3 Days of Nursery School. What method is she using? A) Field experiment B) Informal survey C) Case study D) Naturalistic observation E) Ethnography

D) Naturalistic observation

Some patients whose depression resists drugs have benefited from which experimental treatment? Transference Meta-analysis Antipsychotic drugs Deep-brain stimulation Resistance

Deep-brain stimulation

Which of the following is seen as an effective treatment for severe depression that does not respond to drug therapy? Lobotomy Token economy ECT Crisis debriefing EMDR therapy

ECT

Psychologists who study the brain's activity during sleep are most likely to use which of these technologies? - MRI - CT scan - PET scan - EEG - EKG

EEG

Max Wertheimer

Gestalt psychologist who believed that consciousness is best understood by observing the whole experience

Which of the following explains reversed-color afterimages? - Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory - The blind spot - Hering's opponent-process theory - Feature detectors - Parallel processing

Hering's opponent-process theory

List ways in which hypnosis is used today in therapy and for pain reduction.

Hypnotherapists use posthypnotic suggestions to help alleviate headaches, asthma, and stress-related disorders. These types of suggestions are used to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. Although hypnosis has been proven to help with obesity, it has not been able to alleviate drug, alcohol, or smoking addictions. Hypnosis can help relieve pain because it inhibits pain-related brain activity. In surgical experiments, hypnotized patients required less medication, recovered sooner, and left the hospital earlier than unhypnotized control patients.

What would happen if we stopped our eyes from moving?

Imagine that we have fitted a volunteer, Mary, with one of these instruments—a miniature projector mounted on a contact lens When Mary's eye moves, the image from the projector moves as well. So everywhere that Mary looks, the scene is sure to go. At first, she will see the complete image. But within a few seconds, as her sensory system begins to fatigue, things get weird. Bit by bit, the image vanishes, only to reappear and then disappear—often in fragments.

1st stage: Sensorimotor (0-2 years)

Infants are developing the ability to coordinate their sensory input with their motor actions Major development during: gradual appearance of symbolic thought Beginning of stage: child's behavior is dominated by innate reflexes End of stage: child can use mental symbols to represent objects (mental image of a toy) * Key to this transition is the acquisition of the concept of object permanence

What is the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in sleep? - It induces REM sleep approximately every 90 minutes during sleep. - It causes the pineal gland to increase the production of melatonin. - It causes the pituitary gland to increase the release of human growth hormone. - It causes the pituitary gland to decrease the release of human growth hormone. - It causes the pineal gland to decrease the production of melatonin.

It causes the pineal gland to decrease the production of melatonin.

Hans Eysenck

Launching a spirited debate, he summarized studies showing that two-thirds of those receiving psychotherapy for nonpsychotic disorders improved markedly. To this day, no one disputes that optimistic estimate. Eysenck also reported similar improvement among untreated persons, such as those who were on waiting lists. With or without psychotherapy, he said, roughly two-thirds improved noticeably. Time was a great healer.

Brain scans and EEG recordings indicate that positive emotions are associated with high levels of activity in which brain section? right temporal lobe Cerebellum Left frontal lobe Left temporal lobe Right parietal lobe

Left frontal lobe

Social Development (adult)

Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive abilities, but may instead be based on life events associated with family, relationships, and work

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs begins at the base with physiological needs, and the proceeds through safety needs to psychological needs Higher-level needs won't become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied

Clinical psychologists

Most are psychologists with a Ph.D. (includes research training) or Psy.D. (focuses on therapy) supplemented by a supervised internship and, often, postdoctoral training. About half work in agencies and institutions, half in private practice.

Explain how age and experience alter our circadian rhythms.

Most teens and young adults are energized at night and their performance improves as the day goes on. They are considered night owls. Older adults are generally early-birds, and experience performance decline as the day goes on.

Pitch depends on which of the following? - Amplitude of a sound wave - Number of hair cells stimulated - Strength of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve - Number of sound waves that reach the ear in a given time - Decibels of a sound wave

Number of sound waves that reach the ear in a given time

Biomedical therapy: drug therapies

PRESUMED PROBLEM: Neurotransmitter malfunction AIM: Control symptoms of psychological disorders. TECHNIQUE: Alter brain chemistry through drugs.

Therapy: Psychodynamic

Presumed Problem: Unconscious conflicts from childhood experiences Therapy Aim: Reduce anxiety through self-insight. Therapy Technique: Interpret patients' memories and feelings.

STAGE 5:

REM, most active stage of sleep -20-25% of the night -vivid dreams occur -breathing, heart rate, and brain waves quicken, decrease in muscle tone/control (impossible to sleep walk) From REM, you go back to stage 2

Which of the following is not recommended by therapists as a way to help prevent or get over depression? Recovered-memory therapies Aerobic exercise Light exposure Increased social connections Antirumination strategies

Recovered-memory therapies

Color processing occurs in two stages

Retina's red, green, and blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli, as the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory suggested. Cones' responses are then processed by opponent-process cells, as Hering's theory proposed.

Susto (Latin America)

Severe anxiety, rapid heartbeat, and fear of black magic - Supernatural beings, strangers

Which of the following best describes a discriminative stimulus? Something that elicits a response after association with a reinforcer An innately reinforcing stimulus Something that when removed increases the likelihood of the behavior An event that decreases the behavior it follows An amplified stimulus feeding back information to responses

Something that elicits a response after association with a reinforcer

What is the pineal gland's role in sleep? - Activating the suprachiasmatic nucleus - The production of melatonin - The location of hypnagogic images - Remembering dreams upon waking - Emitting alpha waves

The production of melatonin

What is emerging adulthood?

The transition from adolescence to adulthood is now taking longer. Emerging adulthood is the period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent. But critics note that this stage is found mostly in today's Western cultures.

How does the endocrine system's release of hormones influence us?

They influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression.

humanistic therapies

Treatments, unique in their emphasis on people's self-healing capacities, that encourage clients to understand themselves and to grow personally.

Which of the following statements is true? We eat less dessert when there are three different desserts available. Serving sizes in France are generally larger than in the United States. Offered a super-sized portion, most of us consume fewer calories. We eat more when we're around others. Food variety generally decreases appetite.

We eat more when we're around others.

How does an infant's developing brain begin processing memories?

We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3½, in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.

How much information do we consciously attend to at once?

We selectively attend to, and process, a very limited portion of incoming information, blocking out much and often shifting the spotlight of our attention from one thing to another. Focused intently on one task, we often display inattentional blindness (including change blindness) to other events and changes around us.

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. thus, a child who does well as the avg. 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8.

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression

schizophrenia

a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression.

skewed distribution

a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

statistical significance

a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

activation-synthesis theory

a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories dreams may be a way to make sense of neural activity -Hobson and McCarley: dreams are side effects of the neural activation seen during REM sleep -when we dream, our brain is as active as while we're awake -we experience sensations.... that we synthesize into a dream

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. dependent on 4 factors: signal (target stimulation), noise, sensitivity, response criterion

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. - a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows the behavior - reinforcer/punisher -frequency will increase if consequence is reinforcing the subject -will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject

subliminal persuasion

a type of persuasion that occurs when stimuli are presented at a very rapid and unconscious level may produce a fleeting, subtle, but not powerful, enduring effect on behavior

quasi-experiment

a type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs

technique: take appropriate responsibility

aim: change beliefs therapists' directives: Challenge total self-blame and negative thinking, noting aspects for which you may be truly responsible, as well as aspects that aren't your responsibility.

technique: resist extremes

aim: change beliefs therapists' directives: Develop new ways of thinking and feeling to replace maladaptive habits. For example, change from thinking "I am a total failure" to "I got a failing grade on that paper, and I can make these changes to succeed next time."

applied research

aims to solve practical problems and provide solutions

The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) begins with resistance. appraisal. exhaustion. alarm. challenge.

alarm

Panic Disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking and other frightening sensations

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

virtual reality exposure therapy

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

teratogens

any external agents, such as drugs or viruses, that can harm an embryo or fetus. can cause malfunction of fetus. monster-maker agents

psychological disorders

any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.

What is descriptive research?

any research you can observe and record; AKA "statistical research"

retroactive interference

backward-acting; the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information ex) learning new students' names typically interferes with a teacher's recall of the names of previous students Retroactive interference can be minimized by reducing the number of interfering events shortly after learning new info (take a walk, nap) Sleep prevents retroactive interference - hour before a night's sleep is a good time to commit info to memory

exposure therapy

behavioral techniques such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality, that treat anxieties by exposing patients to things they fear and avoid Through repeated exposures anxiety lessons because they habituate to the things feared Suggested by joseph wolpe

what are the 3 main levels of behavior and mental processes?

biological, psychological, and social-cultural

Alzheimer's disease

brain disease that causes a slow decline in memory, thinking and reasoning skills. Cell death leads to loss of functioning Lack of neurotransmitter acetylcholine

Signal detection theory is most closely associated with which perception process? a. Vision b. Sensory adaption c. Absolute thresholds d. Smell e. Context effects

c. Absolute thresholds

sensory neurons

carry info from sense receptors to CNS

SSRI

class of drugs used to relieve anxiety by limiting reuptake of a neurotransmitter

evaluating psychotherapies

cognitive therapies are most widely used, followed by psychoanalytic and family/group therapies

Joseph Wolpe

described use of systematic desensitization to treat phobias

antianxiety drugs

(xanax and ativan) depress the central nervous system and reduce anxiety and tension by elevating the levels of the Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter Usually used w/psychological therapy Can be addicting and lead to severe withdrawal symptoms

Piage's stages of development

1. sensorimotor period 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

Atkinson-Schiffrin three-stage model of memory

1. sensory memory 2. short-term memory 3. long-term memory Sensory input from external events→ sensory memory → encoding (attention to important info)→ short-term → retrieving → long-term memory

How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?

At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. Infants form attachments not simply because parents gratify biological needs but, more important, because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Ducks and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period.

problem-focused coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. If our impatience leads to a family fight, we may go directly to that family member to work things out. We tend to use problem-focused strategies when we feel a sense of control over a situation and think we can change the circumstances, or at least change ourselves to deal with the circumstances more capably.

Psychologists generally prefer the experimental method to other research methods because: A) Experiments are more likely to support psychologist hypothesis B) Experiment can show cause-effect relationships it is easier to obtain a random sample for an experiment C) Double-blind designs are unnecessary in an D) Experiments are more likely to result in statistically significant findings

B) Experiment can show cause-effect relationships it is easier to obtain a random sample for an experiment

Some psychologists consider Stanley Milgram's obedience studies to be unethical because of which ethical consideration? A) Improper sampling procedure B) Risk of long-term harm C) Clear scientific purpose D) Debriefing E) Anonymity

B) Risk of long-term harm

atypical antipsychotic

Clozapine (clozaril): blocks receptors for dopamine and serotonin to remove the negative symptoms of schizophrenia

A psychotherapist states, "Getting people to change what they say to themselves is an effective way to change their thinking." This statement best exemplifies which kind of therapeutic approach? Behavioral Psychodynamic Biomedical Cognitive Active listening

Cognitive

What aspect of development did Jean Piaget's development theory focus on? Social Moral Cognitive Physical Ego

Cognitive

How do alternative therapies fare under scientific scrutiny?

Controlled research has found some benefits of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy for PTSD, though possibly for reasons unrelated to eye movements. Light exposure therapy does seem to relieve depression symptoms for those with a seasonal pattern of major depressive disorder by activating a brain region that influences arousal and hormones.

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech -damage can cause person to have trouble speaking.

Sleep deprivation can lead to weight gain, reduced muscle strength, suppression of the cells that fight common colds, and most likely which of the following? - Increased productivity - Depression - Decreased mistakes on homework - Increased feeling of well-being - Sleep apnea

Depression

How do we use binocular and monocular cues to perceive the world in three dimensions and perceive motion?

Depth perception is our ability to see objects in three dimensions and judge distance. The visual cliff and other research demonstrate that many species perceive the world in three dimensions at, or very soon after, birth. Binocular cues, such as retinal disparity, are depth cues that rely on information from both eyes. Monocular cues (such as relative size, interposition, relative height, relative motion, linear perspective, and light and shadow) let us judge depth using information transmitted by only one eye. As objects move, we assume that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching. A quick succession of images on the retina can create an illusion of movement, as in stroboscopic movement or the phi phenomenon.

Which of the following is the term most closely associated with the split in consciousness that allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others? - Consciousness - Hypnosis - Hallucination - Dissociation - Meditation

Dissociation

What are some gender similarities and differences in aggression, social power, and social connectedness?

Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines "male" and "female." We are more alike than different, thanks to our similar genetic makeup—we see, hear, learn, and remember similarly. Males and females do differ in body fat, muscle, height, age of onset of puberty, life expectancy, and vulnerability to certain disorders. Men admit to more aggression than women do, and they are more likely to be physically aggressive. Women's aggression is more likely to be relational. In most societies, men have more social power, and their leadership style tends to be directive, whereas women's is more democratic. Women focus more on social connectedness, and they "tend and befriend."

According to Charles Spearman and others, which of the following underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test? Savant syndrome General intelligence (g) Factor analysis Intelligence Emotional intelligence

General intelligence (g)

students are accustomed to a bell ringing to indicate the end of a class period. The principal decides to substitute popular music for the bell to indicate the end of each class period. Students quickly respond to the music in the same way they did to the bell. What principle does this illustrate? Acquisition Habituation Generalization Functional fixedness Stimulus

Generalization

Which of the following drugs is classified as an opiate? - Nicotine - Marijuana - Heroin - Methamphetamine - Cocaine

Heroin

How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?

Humanistic psychology helped renew interest in the concept of self. Critics have said that humanistic psychology's concepts were vague and subjective, its values self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic.

Which of the following is true of suicide? -- Marijuana use is related to suicide, but alcohol use is not. Women are more likely to end their lives than men. Suicide is a bigger problem among the poor than the rich. In the United States, suicide is more common among Whites than Blacks. Married individuals are more likely to commit suicide than single people.

In the United States, suicide is more common among Whites than Blacks.

What would be true of a thermometer that always reads three degrees off? -- It is valid but not reliable. It is both reliable and valid. It is neither reliable nor valid. It is not valid, but you cannot determine if it is reliable from the information given. It is reliable but not valid.

It is reliable but not valid.

According to Freud, which of the following is true of the ego? -- It focuses on how we ought to behave. It is the source of guilt. It is the part of the personality present at birth. It strives to satisfy basic drives. It operates under the reality principle.

It operates under the reality principle.

Which of the following is an example of unconditional positive regard? -- Mr. and Mrs. Prohaska, who have been married for 37 years, credit the success of their marriage to the fact that each has been able to accept the faults of the other without criticism. Seven-year-old Michaela gets her allowance each week whether she does her chores or not. Ms. Lopez, a second grade teacher, puts a smiley face sticker on her students' papers when they have done a good job. John got a promotion and a raise at work after filling in for a sick manager one day and doing a better job than the manager had done previously. Chen's parents usually praise him when he does well and ignore him when he engages in minor misbehavior.

Mr. and Mrs. Prohaska, who have been married for 37 years, credit the success of their marriage to the fact that each has been able to accept the faults of the other without criticism.

Explain how night terrors differ from nightmares

Night terrors usually occur during the first few hours of NREM-3 while nightmares (like other dreams) occur during early morning REM sleep.

Which of the following is a current belief of researchers that differs from Piaget's original theories? -- Infants simply have less information about the world than older children and adults. Object permanence develops earlier than Piaget believed. Infants learn more by verbal explanations than Piaget believed. Accommodation is a process that doesn't occur in young children. Schemas don't form until later than Piaget believed.

Object permanence develops earlier than Piaget believed.

What do we call the kind of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer? Operant conditioning Respondent behavior Classical conditioning Shaping Punishment

Operant conditioning

Explain how the brain's dual processing incorporates sensory stimuli into the dream

Our mind monitors our environment while we sleep. Sensory stimuli such as a particular odor or a phone's ringing may be instantly woven into the dream story. In an experiment, researchers lightly sprayed cold water on dreamers' faces. Compared with sleepers who didn't get the cold-water treatment, these people were more likely to dream about a waterfall, leaky roof, or about being sprayed by someone.

What three steps are basic to all our sensory systems?

Our senses (1) receive sensory stimulation (often using specialized receptor cells); (2) transform that stimulation into neural impulses; and (3) deliver the neural information to the brain. Transduction is the process of converting one form of energy into another. Researchers in psychophysics study the relationships between stimuli's physical characteristics and our psychological experience of them.

How do our senses interact?

Our senses can influence one another. This sensory interaction occurs, for example, when the smell of a favorite food amplifies its taste. Embodied cognition is the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.

Biomedical therapy: Brain stimulation

PRESUMED PROBLEM: Severe, "treatment-resistant" depression AIM: Alleviate depression that is unresponsive to drug therapy. TECHNIQUE: Stimulate brain through electroconvulsive shock, magnetic impulses, or deep-brain stimulation.

Jarod's muscles are relaxed, his body is basically paralyzed, and he is hard to awaken. Which sleep state is Jarod probably experiencing? - Sleep apnea - Hypnagogic - Paradoxical - Delta - Sleep deprivation

Paradoxical

What are three parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them?

Parenting styles—authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative—reflect varying degrees of control. Children with high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect in this relationship is not clear.

A loved one's death triggers what range of reactions?

People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed. Strong expressions of emotion may not purge grief, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Erikson viewed the late-adulthood psychosocial task as developing a sense of integrity (versus despair).

Discuss the difference in sleep patterns and the need for sleep among humans.

People require different amounts of sleep. Some people can work with less than 6 hours of sleep, while other people require at least 9. Newborns tend to sleep ⅔ of the day while some adults sleep no more than ⅓ of the day.

What are reliability and validity?

Reliability is the extent to which a test yields consistent results (on two halves of the test, or when people are retested). Validity is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. - A test has content validity if it samples the pertinent behavior (as a driving test measures driving ability). - It has predictive validity if it predicts a behavior it was designed to predict. (Aptitude tests have predictive ability if they can predict future achievements.)

Explain the correlation between sleep and learning.

Rober Stickgold states, "If you don't get enough good sleep and enough sleep after you learn new stuff, you won't integrate it effectively into your memories." This explains why high school students with high grades have averaged 25 min. More sleep a night than their lower-achieving classmates.

What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound, and how does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages?

Sound waves are bands of compressed and expanded air. Our ears detect these changes in air pressure and transform them into neural impulses, which the brain decodes as sound. Sound waves vary in amplitude, which we perceive as differing loudness, and in frequency, which we experience as differing pitch. The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear. The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. Through a mechanical chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause tiny vibrations in the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear (the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) amplify the vibrations and relay them to the fluid-filled cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear fluid, causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via the thalamus) to the auditory cortex in the brain. Sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness) results from damage to the cochlea's hair cells or their associated nerves. Conduction hearing loss results from damage to the mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Cochlear implants can restore hearing for some people.

What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?

The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote. The zygote's inner cells become the embryo, and in the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function. By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placental screen and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.

heritability

The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.

What effects does the release of endorphins have on the body?

The release of endorphins can create runner's high. Endorphins can ease pain and lead to feelings of pleasure. They are natural opiates.

fetal stage

The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from weeks 9-36 9-12: fetal head/half of fetal body - eyelids, upper limbs --> normal proportions -male/female genitalia recognizable by 12 weeks 13-16: rapid fetal growth - fetus doubles in size 17-23: fetal growth slows - heartbeat 24-27: skin growth is rapid. eyes open. viable at 27 weeks 28-36: weight gain is steady. has good chance of survival

Mental retardation

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound mild: 50-70, moderate: 35-50, severe: 20-35, profound: below 20

Down Syndrome

a condition of retardation and associated psychical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup, 47 instead of 46

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake - Has an edge over extrinsic motivation in some areas - Results in higher achievement

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining results of many different research studies

A split-brain patient has a picture of a dog flashed to his right hemisphere and a cat to his left hemisphere. He will be able to identify the a. cat using his right hand b. dog using his right hand c. dog using either hand d. cat using either hand e. cat using his left hand

a. cat using his right hand

forensic psychologist

applies psychological concepts to legal issues

Ebinghaus retention curve

as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases

Psychoanalytic theory

attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior resumes that healthier, less anxious living becomes possible when people release the energy they had previously devoted to id-ego-superego conflicts Freud's therapy aimed to bring patients' repressed or disowned feelings into conscious awareness. - By helping them reclaim their unconscious thoughts and feelings and giving them insight into the origins of their disorders, he aimed to help them reduce growth-impeding inner conflicts.

Source Amnesia

attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (aka source misattribution) The heart of many false memories Authors and songwriters sometimes suffer from source amnesia as they think an idea came from their own imagination when in fact they were un-intentionally plagiarizing something they read or heard earlier

one reason that identical twins might show slight differences at birth is a) they did not develop from a single fertilized egg b) one twin's placenta may have provided slightly better nourishment c) the develop from different sperm d) one twin gestated much longer in the uterus than the other e) their relative positions in the uterus

b) one twin's placenta may have provided slightly better nourishment

exposure therapies

behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid

Edward Thorndike

behaviorism Author of Law of Effect: behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently; Behaviors w/unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently created puzzle boxes for research on cats

B. F. Skinner

behaviorism; developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world -Designed the Skinner Box or operant chamber to study operant conditioning Operant chamber: comes w/bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer Also invented the "baby tender"

The key difference between obsessions and compulsions is that compulsions involve repetitive thoughts. experiences. behaviors. memories. concerns.

behaviors

Which of the following might result from a disruption of you vestibular sense? a. Inability to detect the position of your arm without looking at it b. Lost of ability to detect bitter taste c. Dizziness and a loss of balance d. An inability to detect pain e. Loss of color vision

c. Dizziness and a loss of balance

sona

cell body that maintains the health of the neuron

Wernicke's area

controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe -damage can cause person to speak meaningless words

right hemisphere

controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial

Transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. when appropriate stimulus reaches sense organ, it activates receptors

Ebinghaus forgetting curve

course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time

Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon

created test for french school children to test their "mental age" theorized mental aptitude is a general capacity that shows up in various ways. identified items that would predict how well French children would handle their schoolwork. purpose: identify French schoolchildren needing special attention.

Which of the following best represents an absolute threshold? a. A guitar player knows that his D string has just gone out of tune b. A photographer can tell that the natural light available for a photograph has just faded slightly c. Your friend amazes you by correctly identifying unlabeled glasses of Coke and Pepsi d. A cook can just barely taste the salt she has added to her soup

d. A cook can just barely taste the salt she has added to her soup

Phrenology has been discredited, but which of the following ideas has its origins in phrenology? a. Brain lateralization b. Brain cavities contributing to sense of humor c. Bumps in the left hemisphere leading to emotional responses d. Brain function localization e. Belief that the mind pumps warmth and vitality into the body

d. Brain function localization

Neurons that fire in response to specific edges, lines, angles, and movements are called what? a. Rods b. Cones c. Ganglion cells d. Feature detectors e. Bipolar cells

d. Feature detectors

Which perception process are the hammer, anvil, and stirrup involved in? a. Processing intense colors b. Processing information related to our sense of balance c. Supporting a structural frame to hold the eardrum d. Transmitting sound waves to the cochlea e. Holding hair cells that enable hearing

d. Transmitting sound waves to the cochlea

rejection

disguise threatening impulses and attributing them to others Involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people .works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety. ex) Want to break up with a boyfriend but accuse them of wanting to break up with you

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).

The hypothalamus is a(n) ______ center for the brain. a. positioning b. aggression c. balance d. memory e. reward

e. reward

Subjective discomfort

feelings of anxiety, depression, and emotional distress

PTSD

following a person's involvement in or observation of an extremely stressful event Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute PTSD: - Haunting memories/flashbacks - Nightmares - Social withdrawal - Jumpy anxiety - Sleep problems

transcience

forgetting over time

learning by observation

higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others Mirror neurons (frontal lobe adjacent to motor cortex) provide a neural basis for observational learning

Catatonic Schizophrenia

immobility or excessive purposeless movement Flat affect, negativism, parrot like repeating of another's speech/mvmts

mood-stabilizing medications

lithium carbonate, a common salt, has been used to stabilize manic episodes in bipolar disorders Moderates the levels of norepinephrine and glutamate neurotransmitters

larernal fissure

marks upper limits of temporal lobes and bottom limits of frontal lobe

The three small bones of the ear are located in the - cochlea. - outer ear. - inner ear. - middle ear. - auditory nerve.

middle ear

Phobic Disorder

occurs when a phobia- an irrational fear of an object or situation- becomes so disruptive that it interferes w/normal functioning Most people have some form of phobia, but it does not interfere w/their lives to a large degree

Normal Distribution

of scores form symmetrical bell-shaped curves in which the mean, median, and mode are equal, 68% in 1 std. Deviation, 95% in 2 std. Deviation, and 98% in 3 std. Deviations

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

LOC: Unconscious

psychoanalytic psychologists believe some events and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed *psychologists object this concept b/c its difficult to prove

Applications of Operant Conditioning

school, sports, work, home, self-improvement

reality principle

seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found make your way in the world and satisfy your pleasures or how to give up on them entirely

Colorblind people

simply lack cone receptor cells for one or more of these primarily colors (red, blue, green)

Sleep: restoration

sleep allows us to recuperate from the wear and tear of the day

primary reinforcer

something that is naturally reinforcing (food, warmth, water...) The item is reinforcing in and of itself

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos end of phallic stage Children cope with the threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent - if you can't beat them, join them approach

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Requirements: attention, retention, ability to reproduce the behavior, motivation

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously the brain divides the visual scene into subdivisions such as color, depth, form, and movement

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina focus incoming light rays into an image on the retina

According to the text, many research psychologists think of _____________ as an information processor that works without our awareness. the TAT the id repression defense mechanisms the unconscious

the unconscious

electra complex

the unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win their father's romantic love

latent content of dreams

the underlying MEANING of a dream

Double blind procedures

to test effectiveness of a drug, patients are tested w/the drug and a placebo 2 groups of patients and health professionals are unaware of who's taking the drug and who's taking the placebo

Catharsis

venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release Expressing anger can be temporarily calming if it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious - Often times, expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming

approach-approach conflict

when we have 2 desirable things to choose from

Serial Position Effect

when your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items

indivualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

The Flynn effect refers to the -- superiority of certain racial and ethnic groups on intelligence tests. extreme scores (very high and very low scores) that are more common for males than females on math tests. stereotype threat that might cause some Black students to underperform on standardized tests. predictive ability of intelligence tests. gradual improvement in intelligence test scores over the last several decades.

gradual improvement in intelligence test scores over the last several decades.

Bringing order and form to stimuli, which illustrates how the whole differs from the sum of its parts, is called - grouping. - monocular cue. - binocular cue. - disparity. - motion.

grouping

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement found in the occipital lobe's visual cortex; receive information from individual ganglion cells in the retina; pass info to other cortical areas where teams of cells (supercluster) respond to more complex patterns

reticular formation

nerve network that extends up and down the spinal cord to the brain controls level of alertness/arousal damage can lead to coma

excitatory effect

neurotransmitter effect that makes it more likely that receiving neuron will generate action potential

sorotonin

neurotransmitter involved with mood regulation and is linked to depression

working memory

newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information and of information retrieved from long term memory - fades unless we use it - we actively associate new and old info and solve problems

Athletes who often privately credit their victories to their own abilities, and their losses to bad breaks, lousy officiating, or the other team's exceptional performance, are exhibiting which psychological concept? A low self-esteem The self-serving bias Pessimism The spotlight effect Incompetence

The self-serving bias

evidence-based practice

clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences

nearsightedness

close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry

Limits on Classical Conditioning

conditioning relevant to natural selection are more easily learned, associations irrelevant to ecology are harder to learn

interneurons

connect 2 neurons and make reflexes happen

Disorganized Schizophrenia

disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion

audition

the sense or act of hearing

What's an example of inattentional blindness?

video of basketball players and the gorilla

Reification

viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing

Homozygous

2 genes in pair are the same

Ghrelin

A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

Which of the following is the best term or phrase for the body's resting rate of energy expenditure? Hunger Set point Basal metabolic rate Body chemistry Settling point

Basal metabolic rate

Which of the following is an aroused motivational state created by a physiological need? Drive Instinct Incentive Reflex Motive

Drive

Which theory explains that physiological needs create an aroused state that motivates an organism to reduce the need? Instinct theory Drive-reduction theory Achievement motivation Arousal theory Hierarchy of needs

Drive-reduction theory

Humanistic Perspective

How healthy people strive to reach their full potential

Abraham Maslow

Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization" - humanistic theory - actualizing tendency - conditions of worth - deficiency orientation - growth orientation - peak experiences

Biological basis of hunger

Hunger does not come from our stomach; it comes from our brain (hypothalamus)

The effect of facial expression

If facial expressions are manipulated, like furrowing brows, people feel sad while looking at sad pictures Expressions not only communicate emotion, but also amplify and regulate it The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals by Darwin contended that "the free expression of outward signs of an emotion intensifies it..." He who gives way to violent gestures will increase rage.

How is intelligence defined?

Intelligence is a mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. An intelligence test aims to assess these qualities and compare them with those of others, using a numerical score.

hypnotic pain relief

It can-tends to lessen pain. For some, can deeply hypnotize so to as avoid anesthesia during major surgery.

Which of the following is the defining characteristic of antisocial personality disorder? Violence Lack of conscience Mood swings Unexplained physical symptoms Committing serial murders

Lack of conscience

What is lateralization, and why is it important in the way our brain functions.

Lateralization means that the 2 brain hemispheres each have different functions.

How and why do the genders differ in mental ability scores?

Males and females tend to have the same average intelligence test scores. They differ in some specific abilities. Girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. Boys outperform girls at spatial ability and related mathematics, though girls outperform boys in math computation. Boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities. Psychologists debate evolutionary, brain-based, and cultural explanations of such gender differences.

Detecting and Computing Emotion

Most people find it difficult to detect deceiving emotions Even trained professionals like police officers, psychiatrists, judges, and polygraphists detected deceiving emotions only 54% of the time.

In which stage of sleep are you likely to experience hypnagogic sensations of falling? - Alpha sleep - NREM-1 - NREM-2 - NREM-3 - REM

NREM-1

Which of the following can be used to demonstrate that only about 2 percent of the population scores are at least two standard deviations above the mean on an intelligence test? Reliability test Aptitude test Predictive validity test Test-retest procedure Normal curve

Normal curve

Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment is most closely associated with which of the following? Latent learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive maps Observational learning

Observational learning

cognitive processes of operant conditioning

Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.

Biomedical therapy: therapeutic lifestyle change

PRESUMED PROBLEM: Stress and unhealthy lifestyle AIM: Restore healthy biological state. TECHNIQUE: Alter lifestyle through adequate exercise, sleep, and other changes.

Which of the following is one of Robert Sternberg's types of intelligence? Naturalistic intelligence General intelligence Practical intelligence Savant intelligence Kinesthetic intelligence

Practical intelligence

Carol Gilligan

Presented feminist critique of Kohlberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse. primary focus: moral development in girls

Therapy: client-centered

Presumed Problem: Barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance Therapy Aim: Enable growth via unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Therapy Technique: Listen actively and reflect clients' feelings.

Two factor theory

Proposed a theory which suggests our physiology and cognitions create emotions Emotions have 2 factors: physical arousal and cognitive label Presumed our experience of emotion grows from our awareness of the body's arousal and the emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of the arousal

talk therapies

Psychotherapies that focus on communicating and verbalizing emotions and motives to understand their problems.

According to research, which of the following are we most likely to experience after sleep deprivation? - Night terrors - Sleep apnea - Manifest content dreams - Narcolepsy - REM rebound

REM rebound

Although some psychological disorders are culture-bound, others are universal. Which of the following disorders is found in every known culture? Bulimia nervosa Anorexia nervosa Susto Schizophrenia Taijin-kyofusho

Schizophrenia

What did Abraham Maslow call the process of fulfilling our potential? Love needs Self-esteem Self-actualization Self-transcendence Hierarchy of needs

Self-actualization

What do we call the process of fulfilling our potential? Free association Self-transcendence Unconditional positive regard Self-concept Self-actualization

Self-actualization

Which term is defined as all the thoughts and feelings we have in response to the question, "Who am I?" Self-concept Ideal self Self-esteem Empathy Self-acceptance

Self-concept

What do we call the sleep disorder that causes you to stop breathing and awaken in order to take a breath? - Narcolepsy - Insomnia - Sleep apnea - Nightmares - Night terrors

Sleep apnea

Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: student performance in school

Sleep deprivation can cause difficulty studying, diminished productivity, tendency to make mistakes, irritability, and fatigue.

How do social-cognitive researchers explore behavior, and what criticism have they faced?

Social-cognitive researchers tend to believe that the best way to predict someone's behavior in a given situation is to observe that person's behavior in similar situations. They have been faulted for underemphasizing the importance of unconscious dynamics, emotions, and inner traits. Their response is that the social-cognitive perspective builds on psychology's well-established concepts of learning and cognition and reminds us of the power of situations.

Problems with Atkinson-Schiffrin's three-stage model

Some info skips first 2 stages and enters long-term memory automatically We cannot focus all the sensory info in the environment, we select info (through attention) that is important to us The nature of short-term memory is more complex

Reflecting real personalities

Some people are not being truthful online in profiles, websites, social media ect. Portraying perfect life instead of real life

What is the Popout Effect?

Some stimuli are strikingly distinct causing us to feel popout. We don't choose to attend to those stimuli; they draw our eye and demand our attention.

Chromosones

Strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information.

Neuroscientific Perspective

Studies how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences. To understand behavior, the psychological underpinnings must be understood

overjustification effect

Studies show that if you externally reward someone (excessively) for something they love doing, they will lose their intrinsic desire for doing it.

Stage 5: Formal Operational stage (11 through adulthood)

The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways

In general, what are the functions of the brainstem structures?

The brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

What role does the corpus callosum play in relation to the two hemispheres?

The corpus callosum connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them.

What do we call an optimal window of opportunity for proper development? Attachment The critical period The social period Imprinting Mere exposure

The critical period

What are some examples of Weber's law?

The exact proportion varies, depending on the stimulus. Two lights, for example, must differ in intensity by 8 percent. Two objects must differ in weight by 2 percent. And two tones must differ in frequency by only 0.3 percent For example, to be perceptibly different, a 50-ounce weight must differ from another by about an ounce, a 100-ounce weight by about 2 ounces.

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

What are the four lobes of the cortex and what basic function does each serve?

The four lobes are frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. The parietal lobe receives sensory input for touch and body position. The occipital lobe processes visual information. The temporal lobe processes auditory information.

hair cells

The hairlike sensory receptors for sound, which are embedded in the basilar membrane of the cochlea.

Discuss the function of dreams according to the information-processing perspective.

The information-processing perspective proposes that dreams may help sift, sort, and fix the day's experiences in our memory.

acquisition

The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating an NS with a US so that the NS comes to elicit a CR, thus becoming the CS.

In general, what are the functions of the limbic system structures?

The limbic system regulates memory, aggression, fear, hunger, and thirst. It is associated with emotions and drives.

Death and Dying

There is no normal reaction or series of grief stages after the death of a loved one Grief is more sudden if death occurs unexpectedly People who reach a sense of integrity in life see life as meaningful and worthwhile

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

What determines our perceptual set?

Through experience we form concepts, or schemas, that organize and allow us to interpret unfamiliar information Preexisting schemas influence top-down processing of ambiguous sensation interpretation, including gender stereotypes (blue=boy, pink=girl, an infant named David=bigger/stronger than an infant named Diana).

Which of the following was the purpose of lobotomies? -- To alleviate depression To minimize delusions and hallucinations To "erase" troubling memories To recover repressed memories To separate the reasoning centers of the brain from the emotional centers

To separate the reasoning centers of the brain from the emotional centers

What term describes the brain's adaptation to a drug's chemistry, requiring larger and larger doses to experience the same effect? - Withdrawal - Tolerance - Addiction - Substance use disorder - Disinhibiting

Tolerance

Are there genetic influences on schizophrenia? What factors may be early warning signs of schizophrenia in children?

Twin and adoption studies indicate that the predisposition to schizophrenia is inherited, and environmental factors influence gene expression to enable this disorder, which is found worldwide. No environmental causes invariably produce schizophrenia. Possible early warning signs of later development of schizophrenia include both biological factors (a mother with severe and long-lasting schizophrenia; oxygen deprivation and low weight at birth; short attention span and poor muscle coordination) as well as psychological factors (disruptive or withdrawn behavior; emotional unpredictability; poor peer relations and solo play).

What principle states that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a minimum percentage rather than a constant amount? -Absolute threshold -Different threshold -Signal detection theory -Priming -Weber's law

Weber's law

Culture and emotional expression

When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at recognizing them

Electronic communication

When we communicate online vs. face to face we often are less focused on others' reactions, less self-conscious, and thus less inhibited we are more willing to share joys, worries, and vulnerabilities

What is the prenatal development sequence? - Zygote, embryo, fetus - Fetus, zygote, embryo - Embryo, zygote, fetus - Zygote, fetus, embryo - Fetus, embryo, zygote

Zygote, embryo, fetus

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple. Finding one, they automatically close on it and begin sucking—which itself requires a coordinated sequence of reflexive tonguing, swallowing, and breathing. Failing to find satisfaction, the hungry baby may cry—a behavior parents find highly unpleasant and very rewarding to relieve.

therapeutic alliance

a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem

therapeutic lifestyle change

a lifestyle modification that includes diet, physical activity, and weight loss

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

Which of the following is most likely to be a function or the left hemisphere? a. speech b. evaluating perceptual tasks c. making inferences d. identifying emotion in other people's faces e. identifying one's sense of self

a. speech

12-week training program with the following goals

aerobic exercise adequate sleep light exposure social connection anti rumination nutritional supplements 77 percent of those who completed the program experienced relief from depressive symptoms, compared with 19 percent in those assigned to a treatment-as-usual control condition.

The basic idea behind classical conditioning is that the organism associates events. associates behavior and resulting events. voluntarily operates on the environment. associates response with a consequence. quits responding when reward stops.

associates events

The way we explain negative and positive events is called personal control. reciprocal determinism. positive psychology. attributional style. situational assessment.

attributional style

clinician's perceptions

believe in therapy's success. believe client is better off after therapy than if client had not taken part in therapy 1. clinicians are aware of failures, but they believe failures are the problems of other therapists 2. if a client seeks another clinician, the former therapist is more likely to argue that the client has developed another psychological problem 3. clinicians are likely to testify to the efficacy of their therapy regardless of the outcome of treatment

infradian rhythms

biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a season - menstrual cycles

why do researchers find the study of fraternal twins important a) they share similar environment and the same genetic code b) data collected concerning their similarities is necessary for calculating heritability c)they are the same age and are usually raised in similar environment, but they do not have the same genetic code d) results allow us to determine exactly how disorders ranging from heart disease to schizophrenia are inherited e) they are typically raised in less similar environments than non-twin siblings

c)they are the same age and are usually raised in similar environment, but they do not have the same genetic code

autonomic system

controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands

Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux

demonstrated that some emotional responses, especially simple likes, dislikes, and fears-involve no conscious thinking ex) we may fear a spider even if we "know" it is harmless

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross's Stages of Dying

denial , anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance

Social Cognitive: depression

depression arises partly from self-defeating beliefs and negative explanatory styles

Major Depressive Disorder

depression is the "common cold" of psychological disorders - Leading cause of disability worldwide Major depressive disorder occurs when sign of depression last 2 or more weeks and are not caused by drugs or medical conditions Signs include: - Lethargy and fatigue - Feelings of worthlessness - Loss of interest in family and friends - Loss of interest in activities

monocular cues

depth cues that require the use of only one eye Include relative size, relative motion, relative height, texture gradient, relative clarity, linear perspective, interposition

trait theorists

describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors Attempt to measure personality through personality inventories such as the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) Most interested in knowing where a person fits on each of the Big 5 personality factors Most criticized for underestimating the variability of behavior from situation to situation

PYY

digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

Socrates believed in ___ which means __

dualism: mind and body are separate

agoraphobia

fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic.

what are the chromosome patterns of girl/boy

girl= XX boy= XY

Mandela Effect

happens when someone has a clear memory of something that never happened in this reality

The risk of major depression and bipolar disorder dramatically increases if you -- have suffered a debilitating injury. have an adoptive parent that has the disorder. have a parent or sibling with the disorder. have a life-threatening illness. have above-average intelligence.

have a parent or sibling with the disorder.

Hypnosis Myths

hypnosis can make you remember things you have forgotten hypnosis can make you act totally against your will

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Drives

impulse to reduce discomfort aroused tension states created by internal imbalances - prompt an organism to restore the balance, typically reducing the drive - hunger example: you miss breakfast because you woke up late-by 10 am you are starving. Skipping breakfast creates an internal, physiological NEED for food, which leads to hunger, a psychological drive. The drive to eat and need for food is gone once you eat lunch

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

behavioral approach

in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development

neural network

interconnected neural cells, networks can learn as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results

Psychometrics research

measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits

Mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices 2 helpful devices: method of loci and link method - Link Method: form a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together - Loci method: technique of associating items with specific places

Male vs. Female leaders

men to be more directive, even autocratic (making managerial decisions without consulting others) women tend to be more democratic- welcoming of subordinates' input in decision making

Skin contains

millions of sensory receptors which form combinations of receptor activation --> different types of touch

Aristotle believed in ___ which means ___

mind and body are one

person-centered perspective

people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally

Arousal Theories

people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. Some people may require a higher level of arousal, which might motivate them to seek out exciting and stimulating activities. - Sensation-seeking scale

heredity

physical characteristics (eye color, hair color, height)

How does the place theory, frequency theory explain how we sense pitch?

place theory best explains high pitches frequency theory best explains low pitches combo of place and frequency explains pitches in the intermediate range

Alcohol is a teratogen that can slip through the __________ and damage the fetus or embryo. placenta nervous system womb brainstem zygote

placenta

PET scan

position emission tomography uses radioactive glucose to see functioning in brain and sees metabolic activity

posttraumatic growth

positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.

lobotomies

psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollable emotional or violent patients Cut the nerves connecting frontal lobes to inner brain Modern methods use stereotactic neurosurgery and radiosurgery that refine older methods of psychosurgery

valid

research measures what researcher set out to measure; accurate

APA national guidelines

research must be proposed to ethics board (IRB)

Konrad Lorenz

researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting Imprinting: newborn of a species follows and becomes bonded to the first moving object they encounter - Imprinting can involve more than one sense: sight, sound, smell & is stronger when the animal is under stress - There is a stringent critical period for imprinting to take place Imprinting process is irreversible - Phenomenon is species specific

variable-ratio schedule

rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses; do not know when reinforcement will occur; very persistent to extinction Similar to the slot machine (aka gambler's schedule)

Variable interval schedule

rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time; rat learns to respond at a moderate, steady rate; fast responses don't get extra rewards so speed isn't important ex) pop quiz

non-split brains

right = art/creativity left = logic

limbic system

ring of structures around thalamus that regulates memory, aggression, fear, hunger, thirst includes hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

positive after image

same color as the previously seen stimulus

self actualization vs self transcendence

self actualization: people seek to realize their own potential self transcendence: people strive for meaning, purpose, and communication that is beyond the self

binge-eating disorder

significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa.

Day care

some studies suggest that extensive time in day care can increase aggressiveness and defiance in children Some working mothers make up by sacrificing time to participate in activities with their children

Criteria validity

test scores should correlate highly with the actual skill

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input -focus on a particular conversation in a noisy and crowded room

depth perception

the ability to see in 3 dimensions and judge distances

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters controls the amount of light entering the eye bright: iris expands, pupil gets smaller dark: iris contracts, pupil gets larger

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on sensitive body areas called erogenous zones

survey

the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions

William Wundt developed what?

the concept of introspection (looking inward)

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them; sometimes cut to prevent seizures

median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

What did Aristotle and Locke believe about the formation of ideas?

the mind is a blank slate

Testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

Rorschach inkblot test

the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

Retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred; the CR returns

Long-Term Memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

storage

the retention of encoded information over time - heart of memory - 3 stores of memory: sensory, working, long-term memory

Cornea

the transparent outer covering of the eye clear bulge on front of the eyeball that protects the eye

Fear

the usual reaction when a stressor involves real or imagined danger Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep, and preoccupy our thinking Fear can be adaptive- it makes us run away from danger, brings us closer as groups, and protects us from injury and harm We learn fear in 2 ways: conditioning and/or observation

pseudotherapies

therapies with no scientific basis to suggest they are effective

group therapy

therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction

Weber's Law

to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount - if mass is doubled, the difference threshold also doubles

Overcompensation

to conceal, even from themselves, the feelings of inferiority

counseling

treat without medicine and instead use talk/insight therapy to solve everyday problems

memory construction

we filter information and fill in missing pieces with plausible guesses and assumptions

limits on operant conditioning

we most easily learn and retain behaviors that reflect our biological predispositions - natural behaviors are easier to teach than unnatural you could easily teach pigeons to flap their wings to avoid being shocked, and to peck to obtain food: Fleeing with their wings and eating with their beaks are natural pigeon behaviors. However, pigeons would have a hard time learning to peck to avoid a shock, or to flap their wings to obtain food

Grapheme-color synesthesia

written letters or numbers are associated with specific colors

Vygotsky called the space between what a child could learn with and without help the theory of mind. zone of abstract logic. zone of abstract reasoning. zone of proximal development. zone of developmental readiness.

zone of proximal development.

brain plasticity

The brain's ability to rearrange the connections between its neurons ability to change throughout life

phallic

(3-5 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings

latency

(5-12 years) suppress sexual interest, play mostly with same-sex peers

genital stage

(adolescence and up) adult sexuality. Feeling more comfortable with the mature understanding of what sex means and what is about

amygdala

2 almond shaped structures center for emotion and fear

empirically deprived

A test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.

hypothesis

A testable prediction

Which of the following actions is a violation of Maslow's heirarchy of needs? A person who moves to a new city gets an apartment before beginning to make friends. A very hungry reality show contestant searches for food before trying to win a competition. A professor spends time socially with her colleagues before she works on her own research. An artist works to win a local award before spending time on his own personal projects. An athlete follows a "no pain, no gain" motto rather than stopping for rest and nourishment.

An athlete follows a "no pain, no gain" motto rather than stopping for rest and nourishment

How does memory change with age?

As the years pass, recall begins to decline, especially for meaningless information, but recognition memory remains strong. Developmental researchers study age-related changes (such as memory) with cross-sectional studies (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same people over a period of years). "Terminal decline" describes the cognitive decline in the final few years of life.

motor abilities (adult)

At age 70, out motor abilities also decline 70 year old is no match for a 20 year old individual Fatal accidents also increases around this age

Which of the following is a similarity between humanistic and psychoanalytic therapies? -- Both approaches focus on the present more than the past. Both approaches are more concerned with conscious than unconscious feelings. Both approaches focus on taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings. Both approaches focus on growth instead of curing illness. Both approaches are generally considered insight therapies.

Both approaches are generally considered insight therapies.

Rob conducts an experiment to see whether fear makes mice run through mazes faster. He first select a sample of 60 mice and then divide them into a control group and experimental group. Which cannot be a confounding variable? A) How fast the mice are at the start B) When the mice run the maze C) The population from which he selected his subjects D) How frightened the mice are before the experiment E) Where the mice run the Maze

C) The population from which he selected his subjects

How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?

Classical conditioning principles, we now know, are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive: Each species learns behaviors that aid its survival. Biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.

Which of the following is true of depression? -- Depression usually develops during middle age. Depression usually happens without major cognitive or behavioral changes. A major depressive episode usually gets worse and worse unless it's treated. True depression is usually not related to stress in one's work or relationships. Compared with men, nearly twice as many women have been diagnosed with depression.

Compared with men, nearly twice as many women have been diagnosed with depression.

Megan, a third grader, is having trouble with math. She is starting to do poorly in other subjects, because she feels she cannot master math. Based on Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which stage is Megan in? -- Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Competence versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation

Competence versus inferiority

highway hypnosis

Condition in which a driver is lulled into an inattentive, drowsy state one's consciousness seems to be divided between driving and one's conscious train of thought phenomenon consistent idea that hypnosis is a dissociated state of consciousness

William Wundt

Conducted first psychology experiments in first psych laboratory

According to Mary Ainsworth's research on attachment, what would a child need most to become "securely attached"? Consistent, responsive caregivers The right temperament A terry cloth-wrapped "surrogate" mother An imprinting experience shortly after birth Enriched motor development experiences

Consistent, responsive caregivers

Some people think development occurs much in the way a tree grows, slowly and steadily adding one ring each year. Others think that there are rather abrupt developmental jumps, like the transformation of a tadpole into a frog. Which of the following issues would this difference of opinion relate to? - Nature and nurture - Maturation and learning - Prenatal and neonatal - Stability and change - Continuity and stages

Continuity and stages

What is the correct term for a period of time when certain events must take place in order to facilitate proper development? Conservation stage Preoperational stage Attachment period Critical period Assimilation step

Critical period

How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?

Cross-sectional studies (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same cohort over a period of years) have shown that fluid intelligence declines in older adults, in part because neural processing slows. Crystallized intelligence tends to increase. The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age. - At age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. - By early adolescence, scores are very stable and predictive.

Which of the following statements is most accurate regarding emotion? Smiles are neither social nor emotional events. Inhabitants of individualist countries are more likely to display nonverbal emotions than inhabitants of collectivist countries. Mouths convey more emotion than eyes. Natively blind people who have never seen a smile will never generate a smile. Cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions.

Cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions.

Theoretically, random assignment should eliminate A) Sample error B) The need to use statistics C) Concern of validity D) Many confounding variables E) The need for representative sample

D) Many confounding variables

What is the most common reason people seek mental health services? Depression Bipolar disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder Dissociative identity disorder Illness anxiety disorder

Depression

Which psychotherapy would be most effective for treating particular problem?

Depression: behavior, cognition, interpersonal Anxiety: cognition, exposure, stress inoculation Bulimia: cognitive-behavior Phobia: behavior Bed-wetting: behavior modification

Most antipsychotic drugs mimic a certain neurotransmitter by blocking its activity at the receptor sites. These drugs affect which one of the following neurotransmitters? Adrenaline Epinephrine Serotonin Dopamine Acetylcholine

Dopamine

Which neurotransmitter is affected by antipsychotic medications? Epinephrine Dopamine Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Serotonin

Dopamine

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Critics of humanistic psychology have suggested that this theory fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for which of the following? Empathy Love Negativity Evil Laziness

Evil

Which of Freud's ideas did his followers accept or reject?

Freud's early followers, the neo-Freudians, accepted many of his ideas. They differed in placing more emphasis on the conscious mind and in stressing social motives more than sexual or aggression motives. Contemporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's emphasis on sexual motivation. They stress, with support from modern research findings, the view that much of our mental life is unconscious, and they believe that our childhood experiences influence our adult personality and attachment patterns.

What development in adolescents allows for greater impulse control? -- The hormonal surge of early adolescence Hindbrain changes associated with the onset of puberty Frontal lobe maturation in late adolescence Limbic system development in mid-adolescence A decrease in myelin production throughout adolescence

Frontal lobe maturation in late adolescence

Summarize how Ernest Hilgard's work supports the idea of hypnosis as a divided consciousness.

Hilgard viewed hypnotic dissociation as a form of everyday mind splits such as doodling while listening to a lecture or typing the end of a sentence while starting a conversation. He also felt that hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the pain stimulus from the emotional suffering that defines a person's experience of pain.

Which of the following is most likely to be true of a person from an individualistic culture? -- His behavior would be a reflection of his personality and attitudes. He would cope by accommodating to reality. He would view his life task as fitting in and maintaining connections. He would strive to develop a few close and enduring relationships. He would focus on his duty to his family

His behavior would be a reflection of his personality and attitudes.

criteria for intellectual disability

IQ below 70 and difficulty meeting routine needs like self care

light and shadow

Nearby objects reflect more light to eyes. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away

Which of the following words or phrases best identifies our gauge of how valued and accepted we feel? Hope Autonomy Competence Self-esteem Ostracism

Self-esteem

actualizing tendency

according to Rogers, an innate inclination toward growth that motivates people

Pollyanna Principle

aka "Positivity Bias" A person regarded as being foolishly or blindly optimistic States that pleasant items and events are usually processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant items

Implicit memory

aka "procedural memory" involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows Skills we learn

Conversion disorder

aka functional neurological symptom disorder Report existence of severe physical problems w/no biological reason - Like blindness, deafness, or paralysis Usually appears in childhood or adolescence under extreme ex) my head hurts ... i think i have a brain tumor

anorexia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.

bulimia nervosa

an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), excessive exercise, or fasting.

cannon-bard theory

an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal takes place simultaneously Walter and Philip Bard questioned the James Lange Theory Emotion triggering stimulus i routed in the brain's cortex, causing subjective awareness of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the body's arousal

Forgetting

an inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval

optic chaism

area where optic nerves cross and carry info to brain

Which branch of the nervous system calms a person? a. central b. sympathetic c. parasympathetic d. somatic e. endocrine

c. parasympathetic

positive effects of punishment

can effectively control certain behaviors, especially useful in teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior, most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment

risk

cannot be harmed or have mental/physical risks

types of descriptive research

case study, survey, naturalistic observation

insecure anxious attachment

constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection

Dependence and addiction of drugs

continued use of a psychoactive drug produces tolerance. With repeated exposure to a drug, the drug's effect lessons. Thus it takes bigger does to get the desired effect

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

Sleep: growth

during sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone

crossed eyes

eyes don't line up properly; eyes look in different directions

divided consciousness theory

hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness behavior occurs on autopilot

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

toxical-gustatory synesthesia

individual words or sounds associate with the experience of specific tastes - very rare

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

latent learning

learning that occurs but isn't apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ex) children learning from watching a parent, demonstrate learning much later than needed (peeling an orange) There is more to learning than associating a response with a consequence

adrenal gland

located above kidneys endocrine glands that arouse body in times of stress release adrenaline and noradrenaline

Misattribution

mistakenly attributing a memory to the wrong source

precognition

perceiving future events, such as an unexpected death in the next month or a sporting event's outcome

Paranoid Schizophrenia

preoccupations w/delusions or hallucinations ex) John Nash- A Beautiful Mind or "Somebody's out to get me!"

schedules of reinforcement

specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced

Frequency Theory

the entire cochlea is believed to vibrate at a particular frequency, thus sending the signal of the quality of sound to the brain

fraternal twins

two zygotes genetic relatedness = 50%

All of our senses do what?

-Receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells -Transform that stimulation into neural impulses -Deliver the neural information to our brain

Storing Memories in the Brain

-memories are distributed, not localized Through electrical stimulation of the brain Forgetting occurs as new experiences interfere with our retrieval

Which of the following would help determine what stimuli an organism can distinguish between? Negative reinforcement A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement Extinction A discriminative stimulus

A discriminative stimulus

Gender and Social Connectedness

A gender difference in social connectedness surfaces early in children's play. Boys typically play in large groups with an activity focus and little intimate discussion. Girls usually play in smaller groups, often with one friend. Their play is less competitive and more imitative of social relationships. - Both in play and other settings, females are more open and responsive to feedback than are males. Females are more interdependent than males. - As teens, girls spend more time with friends and less time alone. - - As adolescents, they spend more time on social networking sites. - As adults, women take more pleasure in talking face to face and tend to use conversation more to explore relationships. These gender differences are sometimes reflected in patterns of phone-based communication.

Which of the following is a longitudinal study? -- Researchers test the intelligence of all the students in a high school. Intelligence tests are given to the residents of a nursing home. Researchers randomly select 50 students from a high school with 2000 students. The 50 students are given intelligence tests. A group of college juniors is given an extensive battery of tests over a period of 2 days. A group of kindergartners is given an intelligence test. They are retested every other year for 30 years.

A group of kindergartners is given an intelligence test. They are retested every other year for 30 years.

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures

GABA

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Which of the following is an application of shaping? A mother who wants her daughter to hit a baseball first praises her for holding a bat, then for swinging it, and then for hitting the ball. A pigeon pecks a disk 25 times for an opportunity to receive a food reinforcement. A rat presses a bar when a green light is on but not when a red light is on. A rat gradually stops pressing a bar when it no longer receives a food reinforcement. A gambler continues to play a slot machine, even though he has won nothing on his last 20 plays, and he has lost a significant amount of money.

A mother who wants her daughter to hit a baseball first praises her for holding a bat, then for swinging it, and then for hitting the ball.

zygote

A one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg. - fertilized egg. it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo all of the other cells in your body developed from this single cell each of cells contain messages from your parents carried on the chromosomes that lie within its nucleus each chromosome houses many genes

Social development researchers suggest that infancy's major social achievement is attachment. Childhood's major social achievement is developing which of the following? Basic trust Into a sexually mature person Intimacy A positive sense of self Object permanence

A positive sense of self

Insulin

A protein hormone secreted by the pancreas that is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood.

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. -marked by sudden and irresistible bouts of sleep that can strike at any time -poor control of sleep-wake cycles -sleep attacks usually last a few seconds to several minutes -do not sleep any more or less than normal

placenta

A structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.

Which of the following is an example of an assessment likely to be used by a social-cognitive psychologist? -- A student teacher is formally observed and evaluated in front of the classroom. A person applying for a managerial position takes the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. A defendant in a criminal case is interviewed by a court-appointed psychologist. In a premarriage counseling session, a young couple responds to ambiguous inkblots. A depressed young man is asked by his therapist to relax on a couch and talk about whatever comes to mind.

A student teacher is formally observed and evaluated in front of the classroom.

Little Albert Experiment

A study in which a white rat (NS) was paired with a loud sudden noise in order to condition a fear response in an infant. The child eventually became fearful of related stimuli (generalization)

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.

trichromatic theory

A theory of color vision that says cones are sensitive to red, green, or blue light- the three colors that combine to create millions of color combinations

How might REM sleep function to develop and preserve neural pathways?

A theory suggests that dreams serve a physiological function by providing the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation. Stimulating experiences preserve and expand the brain's neural pathways.

Clinical or psychiatric social workers

A two-year master of social work graduate program plus postgraduate supervision prepares some social workers to offer psychotherapy, mostly to people with everyday personal and family problems. About half have earned the National Association of Social Workers' designation of clinical social worker.

systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. flooding: patient is immersed in the feared object or situation

Systematic desensitization

A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.

after image

A visual image that remains after a stimulus is removed.

Which of the following best describes meta-analysis? -- Evidenced-based practice A treatment versus no treatment group A tendency for smaller scores to move toward the average Regressing from unusual to usual A way to combine the results of lots of studies

A way to combine the results of lots of studies

Intellectual disability is defined by both IQ and which of the following? Chronological age Mental age Adaptive ability Physical condition Heritability

Adaptive ability

Which of the following statements is true of alcohol? - Alcohol is a stimulant because it produces insomnia. - Alcohol is a depressant because it produces bipolar disorder. - Alcohol is a stimulant because people do foolish things while under its influence. - Alcohol is a depressant because it calms neural activity and slows body function. - Alcohol is a stimulant because it increases instances of casual sex.

Alcohol is a depressant because it calms neural activity and slows body function.

What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?

An intelligence test score of or below 70 is one diagnostic criterion for the diagnosis of intellectual disability (others are limited conceptual, social, and practical skills). People with this diagnosis vary from near-normal to requiring constant aid and supervision. Down syndrome is a developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. -- High-scoring people tend to be healthy and well-adjusted, as well as unusually successful academically. - Schools sometimes "track" such children, separating them from students with lower scores. - Such programs can become self-fulfilling prophecies as both groups live up to—or down to—others' perceptions and expectations.

participant-relevant confounding variables

Any differences amongst participants that may skew results -random assignment so that people cannot choose groups

Which theory explains why, even when our biological needs are satisfied, we may still feel driven to experience stimulation? Incentive Homeostasis Instinct Arousal theory Physiology

Arousal theory

Which of the following is the best example of kinesthesia? - Awareness of the smell of freshly brewed coffee - Ability to feel pressure on your arm - Ability to hear a softly ticking clock - Ability to calculate where a kicked soccer ball will land from the moment it leaves your foot - Awareness of the position of your arms when swimming the backstroke

Awareness of the smell of freshly brewed coffee

Bobo Doll Experiments

Bandura's bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior towards a bobo doll - 3 experimental conditions: model was praised, model was punished, model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior

Classical and operant conditioning are based on the principles of which psychological perspective? Cognitive Biological Behaviorist Evolutionary Humanist

Behaviorist

Latent learning is evidence for which of these conclusions? Punishment is an ineffective means of controlling behavior. Negative reinforcement should be avoided when possible. Cognition plays an important role in operant conditioning. Conditioned reinforcers are more effective than primary reinforcers. Shaping is usually not necessary for operant conditioning.

Cognition plays an important role in operant conditioning.

What's an example of how perceptual set can affect what we hear?

Consider the kindly airline pilot who, on a takeoff run, looked over at his depressed co-pilot and said, "Cheer up." Expecting to hear the usual "Gear up," the co-pilot promptly raised the wheels—before they left the ground

Jose hypothesize is that a new drug he has just invent will enhance my mice memories. He sees the drug to the experimental group and give the control group a placebo. He then times the mice as they learn to run through a maze. In order to know whether his hypothesis has been supported, Jose would need to use A) Scatter Plots B) Descriptive statistics C) histograms D) Inferential statistics E) Means end analysis

D) Inferential statistics

chromosomes

DNA molecules that carry genetic info

Stressful events

Daily stress (locker jams, traffic, lost keys) Persistent daily hassles can lead to burnout (physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion) Significant changes (death of loved one, living on own, divorce) Catastrophes (earthquake, flood, war)

The most widely used modern intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet. Louis Terman. Robert Sternberg. David Wechsler. Howard Gardner.

David Wechsler

How does fluid intelligence change as we age? Decreases slowly with age Has not been measured over time Increases slowly with age Does not change until about age 75 Remains unchanged if we exercise

Decreases slowly with age

Repression

Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.

Deep sleep occurs in which stage? - Hypnagogic - REM - Alpha - NREM-1 - Delta

Delta

Which of the following is the best term or phrase for a false belief, often of persecution, that may accompany psychotic disorders? Psychosis Schizophrenia Delusion Split mind Dissociative identity disorder

Delusion

context effects

Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus

Lynn is teaching learning. Every time she claps her hands, Charlie turns off the light. When Randy claps in approval of Lynn's presentation, Charlie does not turn the light off. What concept has Charlie demonstrated? Habituation Discrimination Spontaneous recovery Extinction Habituation

Discrimination

What term did Ernest Hilgard use to describe a split between different levels of consciousness? - Hypnagogic imagery - REM sleep - Delta waves - Spindles - Dissociation

Dissociation

active listening

Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy. Active listening is now an accepted part of therapeutic counseling practices in many high schools, colleges, and clinics.

Which psychological concept would predict that smiling warmly on the outside would cause you to feel better on the inside? Relative deprivation Mimicry Empathy Facial feedback Catharsis

Facial feedback

What do we call the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness? Culture-specific expression Moebius syndrome Botox Facial feedback effect Culturally universal expression

Facial feedback effect

Which of the following is the major source of energy in your body? PYY Arcuate nucleus Hypothalamus Ghrelin Glucose

Glucose

Which of the following best represents crystallized intelligence? -- Jake can solve math word problems quickly. Grandpa Milt is good at crossword puzzles. Aliyah has a knack for training dogs. Anna writes creative computer programs. Heng bakes excellent chocolate chip cookies.

Grandpa Milt is good at crossword puzzles.

What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapy?

Group therapy sessions can help more people and costs less per person than individual therapy would. Clients may benefit from exploring feelings and developing social skills in a group situation, from learning that others have similar problems, and from getting feedback on new ways of behaving. Family therapy views a family as an interactive system and attempts to help members discover the roles they play and to learn to communicate more openly and directly.

Which of the following's primary function is processing memories? Cerebral cortex Medulla Corpus callosum Hippocampus Hypothalamus

Hippocampus

what term refers to the ability of the body's physiological processes to maintain a balanced or constant internal state? Hierarchy of needs Basal metabolic rate Homeostasis Instinct Motivation

Homeostasis

According to Erikson's psychosocial theory of development, the crisis that needs resolution for adolescents involves the search for what? Trust Identity Autonomy Initiative Worth

Identity

Recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep are characteristic of which sleep disorder? - Sleep apnea - Narcolepsy - Insomnia - Sleep talking - Sleepwalking

Insomnia

The perception that we control our own fate is also called what? Self-control Learned helplessness Internal locus of control External locus of control Emotion-focused coping

Internal locus of control

What are some of the ways that sexual development varies?

Intersex individuals are born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female characteristics. Research suggests sex-reassignment surgery can be problematic.

One night Samar became frightened when she was startled by a noise while walking down the street alone. Which theory of emotion would say that her fear resulted from the startle response alone? James-Lange Cannon-Bard Two-factor Lazarus Schachter-Singer

James-Lange

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely is known as what? Law of effect Operant conditioning Shaping Respondent behavior Discrimination

Law of effect

Classical conditioning techniques

Learning theorist O.H. Mower though reconditioning could be a solution; developed a successful conditioning therapy for chronic bedwetters Child sleeps on liquid-sensitive pad connected to alarm. Moisture on pad triggers alarm, waking the child. w/sufficient repetition, this association of bladder relaxation w/waking up stops the bed wetting. In three out of 4 cases the treatment is effective. types: flooding, systematic desensitization, aversive conditioning

Which of the following is a "Big Five" personality factor? Seriousness Neuroticism Dutifulness Dominance Abstractedness

Neuroticism

Monochromats

People who cannot perceive any color, usually because their retinas lack cones. have no or only 1 functioning cone; respond to light like a black and white film

How do our expectations, contexts, emotions, and motivation influence our perceptions?

Perceptual set is a mental predisposition that functions as a lens through which we perceive the world. Our learned concepts (schemas) prime us to organize and interpret ambiguous stimuli in certain ways. Our physical and emotional context, as well as our motivation, can create expectations and color our interpretation of events and behaviors.

Which of the following is a conclusion that can be drawn from the Yerkes-Dodson law? Performance on easy tasks is best when arousal is low. Performance is best when arousal is extremely high. Performance is best when arousal is extremely low. Performance on difficult tasks is best when arousal is high. Performance is best when arousal is moderate.

Performance is best when arousal is moderate.

Stages of aging

Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of stages Mid-life crisis: at 40 are less likely to occur than crisis triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage); not necessarily bad- reevaluation of life Social clock: culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Which of the following best describes the extent to which a test yields consistent results upon retesting? Content validity Validity Reliability Predictive validity Normal curve

Reliability

case study limitations

Reported by biased observers Relies on subjective evidence Has low internal validity difficult to generalize Has low external validity researchers may overinflate importance

After an alarming event, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration are high, and you have an outpouring of hormones. Hans Seyle would most likely guess that you are in which general adaption syndrome phase? Exhaustion Resistance Immobilization Collapse Shock

Resistance

What do we call the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response? Acquisition Spontaneous recovery Discrimination Operant conditioning Classical conditioning

Spontaneous recovery

What evidence points to a genetic influence on intelligence, and what is heritability?

Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees indicate a significant hereditary contribution to intelligence scores. Intelligence seems to be polygenetic, and researchers are searching for genes that exert an influence. Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes.

Which of the following is produced by perceptual set? - Not noticing that the songs change in a restaurant - Noticing a difference in the weight of a friend from one week to the next - Moving an arm quickly so that a mosquito flies away - Surprise at hearing an Oklahoma cowboy speak with a British accent - Not noticing a watch on your wrist as the day goes on

Surprise at hearing an Oklahoma cowboy speak with a British accent

Based on brain scans, which of the following is true of brain function and mood? -- The brain is more active during manic episodes and less active during depressive episodes. The brain is less active during manic episodes and more active during depressive episodes. There is no consistent relationship between brain activity and mood. The brain is more active than normal during both manic and depressive episodes. The brain is less active than normal during both manic and depressive episodes.

The brain is more active during manic episodes and less active during depressive episodes.

In what way do brain scans confirm the link between REM sleep and memory?

The brain regions that buzz as rats learn to navigate a maze, or as people learn to perform a visual-discrimination task, buzz again during later REM sleep.

Which of the following is the most likely consequence of the brain's tendency to vicariously experience something we observe? Actual physical injury The risk of misremembering our own actions Interference with associative learning The elimination of classically conditioned responses to stimuli A confusion between reinforcers and rewards in an operant conditioning setting

The risk of misremembering our own actions

embryonic stage

The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from week 3-8 development of neural tube (day 18) & blood circulation (day 24) weeks 4-8: formation of head, tail, lateral folds, & primitive gut - heart moves to normal position - appearances of brain, limbs, eyes, ears, and nose - development of human-like appearances sensitivity is greatest during this stage teratogens

What do we call the conversion of stimulus energies, like sights and sounds, into neural impulses? - Transduction - Perception - Priming - Signal detection theory - Threshold

Transduction

Which of the following cognitive abilities is possible only at the formal operational stage? -- Reversing arithmetic operations Using a theory of mind to predict the behavior of others Using hypothetical situations as the basis of moral reasoning Using symbolic thinking for pretend play Understanding basic physics to recognize impossible situations

Using hypothetical situations as the basis of moral reasoning

down syndrome

a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea can help restore hearing for people with nerve deafness The latest cochlear implants can help restore hearing for most adults. However, the implants will not enable normal hearing in adults if their brain never learned to process sound during childhood.

Obesity

a disorder characterized by being excessively overweight Increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems

posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

conversion disorder

a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. (Also called functional neurological symptom disorder.)

visual cliff

a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals - Infants are reluctant to crawl past the edge of the visual cliff; animals showed similar results Shows that depth perception, to some extent, is inborn

meta-analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

aversive conditioning

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol) Reverse of systematic desensitization

The most noticeable difference between human brains and other mammalian brain is the size of the a. association areas. b. frontal lobe. c. glial cells d. reticular activating system e. visual cortex

a. association areas.

fixate

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psycho-sexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved - You move on in life but may have issues that arise from the struggles during that stage - May occur due to traumatic events Could become an "oral fixation": seek expressive oral contact through smoking, drinking, eating. Either passive or biting sarcasm to act tough Anal fixation or retentive: overly controlled and orderly Anal expulsive: very messy and disorganized

Priming

activation of particular associations in memory Often "memoryless memory"- memory without explicit remembering, invisible memory

Echoing, restating, and seeking clarification of what a person expresses (verbally or nonverbally) in a therapy session is called active listening. virtual reality exposure therapy. systematic desensitization. family therapy. classical conditioning.

active listening.

Lewis Terman

adapted Binet's test for American School Children, adapted original items, added others, est. new age norms, extended the upper end of the test's range from teenager's to "superior adult," renamed it "Stanford-Binet test"

the stress horomnes epinephrine and norepinephrine are released from where? Parasympathetic nervous system Hippocampus Brain stem Adrenal glands Hypothalamus

adrenal glands

Technique: question your interpretations

aim: reveal beliefs therapists' directives: Explore your beliefs, revealing faulty assumptions such as "I must be liked by everyone."

The aging brain may help nurture positive feelings that are reported by many older adults. Brain scans of older adults show that the _________, a neural processing center for emotions, responds less actively to negative events (but not to positive events), and it interacts less with the hippocampus, a brain memory-processing center. amygdala hypothalamus pineal gland thyroid gland thalamus

amygdala

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning and memory

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats ex) students getting stamps each time they read a book. when they get 5 stamps, they can turn them in to get a toy.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex

motor cortex

area at rear of frontal lobes; controls voluntary movement of body parts; left hemisphere motor cortex controls right side of body and vice versa

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking located in all 4 lobes

Assessing Intelligence

assess a person & compare it to other people

Your friend's baby brother, Matt, loves to play with his pet cat. When he sees a puppy, he points and calls it "Mi Mi," which is what he calls his cat. Matt is demonstrating Piaget's process of conservation. accommodation. cognition. object permanence. assimilation.

assimilation

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction use when we believe we cannot change a situation If, despite our best efforts, we cannot get along with that family member, we may search for stress relief by reaching out to friends for support and comfort.

which of the following is most closely associated with the idea of epigenetics a) eye color b) gene display based on environmental factors c) IG as a function of educational experiences d) height at birth e) shoe size

b) gene display based on environmental factors

morphine elevates mood and eases pain, and is most similar to which of the following? a. Dopamine b. Serotonin c. Endorphins d. Acetylcholine e. GABA

c. Endorphins

Stimulation at a point on which the following may cause a person to report being touched on the knee? a. motor cortex b. cerebellum c. somatosensory cortex d. temporal lobe e. thalamus

c. somatosensory cortex

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that travel across the synapse from one neuron to the next; can influence whether or not a 2nd neuron can generate an action potential

myelin sheath

covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses

Dementia

damage to the brain cells, causing mental erosion caused by strokes, brain tumors, or alcoholism With increasing age, the risk of dementia also increases Not a normal part of growing old

prenatal development

development from conception to birth zygote: conception to 2 weeks embryo: 2 to 9 weeks fetus: 9 weeks to birth

Farsightedness

distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry

compensation

efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one's abilities

separation anxiety

emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment developmental stage during which the child experiences anxiety when separated from the primary caregiver - Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age

Mood Disorders

emotional extremes of mood disorders come in 2 principle forms: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder

The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions is called interpersonal intelligence. general intelligence. practical intelligence. emotional intelligence. adaptive intelligence.

emotional intelligence.

Phases of sex

excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Sensory experiences without sensory stimulation are called word salads. delusions. paranoid thoughts. ruminations. hallucinations.

hallucinations

Hyperalgesia

increased sensitivity to pain -extreme sensitivity to something that others find mildly painful

Test norms

info about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test

word salad

jumble of incoherent speech as sometimes heard in schizophrenia

Circadian Rhythms: light

light triggers the suprachiasmatic (cluster of 20k cells that control circadian clock) nucleus to decrease (in the morning) melatonin from the pineal gland and increase (evening) it at nightfall the sleep-wake cycle can be altered by artificial light (lamps, phones, tv)

oval window

membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations; the point on the surface of the cochlea which receives the sound vibration from the ossicles. as the oval window vibrates, the fluid in the cochlea vibrates

False Memories

memories of imagined experiences are more restrict to the gist of the supposed event-the meanings and feelings we associate with it Gist memories are durable so children's false memories sometimes outlast their true memories

what happens if the hippocampus is damaged?

memory damage; inability to learn new things.

Postpartum Depression

moderately severe depression that begins w/in 3 months following childbirth Marked by mood swings, despondency, feelings of inadequacy, and in inability to cope w/the new baby May last from 2 months to one year Part of problem may be hormonal

fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

axons

pass messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands

Somatization disorder

patients under 30 years of age will exhibit a variety of unexplained physical symptoms

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change we can recognize objects without being deceived by changes in their color, brightness, shape, or size top-down process

clarivoyance

perceiving remote events; example: sensing a friend's house is on fire

types of punishment

positive punishment and negative punishment positive: undesirable event following a behavior negative: desirable state or event ends following a behavior ex) positive: someone burned by hot stove=less likely to touch it again or negative: a boy who loses tv privileges for pulling his sister's hair is less likely to pull her hair again

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology

Eating disorders

prevalent among young adolescents May or may not be obvious Difficult to diagnose and treat People often hide their struggles rather than seek help

As the infant's brain develops, some neural pathways will decay if not used. This use-it-or-lose-it process is known as motor development. pruning. spacing. accommodation. maturation.

pruning

Psychosis

psychological disorder in which a person loses contact w/reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions

What is color?

reflected light ex) tomato is everything but red, because it rejects (reflects) the long wavelengths of red. the tomato's color is our mental construction.

hypothalamus

regulates appetite Damage: cause weight gain due to lack of restraint in eating serves as weight thermostat

Enthusiasm for treatment often diminishes after

researchers subtract the rates of: (1) normal recovery among untreated persons and (2) recovery due to the placebo effect, which arises from the positive expectations of patients and mental health workers alike.

Gender __________ are the social expectations that guide men and women's behavior. Gender __________ is a person's sense of being male or female. concepts; role preferences; role roles; preference roles; identity roles; preference

roles; identity

Shallow Processing vs Deep

shallow- reading material vs memorizing material

What did Socrates and Plato believe about the formation of ideas?

some ideas are inborn

Positive Transfer

sometimes old info can facilitate our learning of new information ex) knowing Latin may help you learn French

sensation

stimulation of sense organs the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

Retrieval Cues

stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory memories are held in storage by a web of associations - These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory

inhibitory effect

stops action potential

objective personality tests

structured tests, such as questionnaires, self-inventories, or rating scales, used in psychological assessment

eugenics

study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart & fit people to reproduce

Diana Baumrind

suggested that the majority of parents display one of 3 different styles Authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive

Freud & anxiety

suggested that we repress our painful and intolerable ideas, feelings, and thoughts, resulting in anxiety

opponent process theory of emotion

suggests that any given emotion also has an opposed emotion (fear/relief or sadness/happiness) Activation of one member of the pair automatically suppresses the opposite emotion But the opposing emotion can serve to diminish the intensity of the initial emotion

Theory: Spearman's general intelligence (g)

summary: A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas strengths: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. other considerations: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor.

Theory: Sternberg's triarchic theory

summary: Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical. strengths: These three facets can be reliably measured. other considerations: 1) These three facets may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor. 2) Additional testing is needed to determine whether these facets can reliably predict success.

Theory: Thurstone's primary mental abilities

summary: Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. strengths: A single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities. other considerations: Even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor.

kinesthetic sense

system for sensing body position and movement of individual body parts relies on receptor cells from the muscles and joints -2 types of specialized cells important for kinesthetic sense: in tendons, in muscles

Facial Feedback effect

tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness

medulla

the base of the brainstem; controls life supporting functions such as heart beat, breathing

genes

the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein - hereditary blueprints

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle humans experience 24 hour cycles of varying alertness (sleep), body temp, and growth hormone secretion

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth

reciprocal determinism

the environment does determine behavior (as Skinner argued) however behavior also determines the environment behavior, the external environment, and personal factors interact to create our personality and define how we interact in the world

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

personal control

the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time

Ebbinghaus findings

the more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on day 2

olfactory nerve

the nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain

Frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time long waves = low frequency/low pitch Short waves= high frequency/high pitch

auditory canal

the opening through which sound waves travel as they move into the ear for processing; ends at the ear drum (tympanic membrane)

internal locus of control

the perception that you control your own fate

self-report inventory

type of psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or without the help of an investigator Often ask questions about personal interests, values, symptoms, behavior

Irreversibility

unable to envision reversing an action Pre-operational children can't mentally "undo" something In the conservation of water, they don't think about what would happen if the water were poured back from the tall beaker into the original beaker

survey limitations

unreliable based on willingness of people to complete it risk of people lying can have low responses

social cognitive approach

views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them Bandura's theory emphasized the role of conscious thoughts including self-efficacy or our own beliefs in our abilities. Thus people routinely attempt to influence their life circumstances and their outcomes. "People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating."

we have a very sensitive absolute threshold for

vision

Clients' and therapists' perceptions of therapy's effectiveness

vulnerable to inflation from two phenomena. One is the placebo effect—the power of belief in a treatment. If you think a treatment is going to be effective, it just may be (thanks to the healing power of your positive expectations). The second phenomenon is regression toward the mean—the tendency for unusual events (or emotions) to "regress" (return) to their average state.

Light's _________ is the distance from one wave peak to the next. This dimension determines the _________ we experience. - hue; wavelength - wavelength; hue - hue; intensity - wavelength; intensity - intensity; wavelength

wavelength; hue

Nonverbal communication

we are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal communication We can usually detect anger in another language We read anger and fear in the eyes and happiness in the mouth In a crowd of faces a single angry face will "pop out" faster than a single happy face

Time and memory

we unconsciously note the sequence of a day's events (i.e. retracing your steps when you lose your coat)

Mood-Congruent memory

we usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood

LOC: Conscious

what you're currently aware of, including yourself and your environment

drug dependence

when a person needs a drug in order to function absence of drug may lead to feelings of physical pain. Intense cravings (physical dependence) and negative emotions (psychological dependence)

Monists

when body and brain dies, consciousness dies too

industrial psychologist

work for large corporations to maximize employee output and input

sports psychologist

work for major league teams to maximize performance and minimize performance anxiety

Misinformation Effect

incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects (top-down) what we perceive. Perceptual set can influence what we hear, taste, feel, and see.

one way to treat pain

activate long nerve fibers via massage, electric stimulation, or acupuncture

Coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

mean

average

what is the study of specific genes and teams of genes that influence behavior called a) molecular genetics b) evolutionary psychology c) behavior genetics d) heritability e) natural selection

c) behavior genetics

what do genes do?

they provide the code for proteins

oral

0-18 months or (0-1) pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing

dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. too much --> schitzophrenia; too little--> parkinsons

Homeostasis

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state

What is the primary means by which parents influence the behavior of their children? Parenting style Genetic contributions Prenatal environment Teaching cooperation Rewarding achievement

Genetic contributions

extraneous variable

Something unwanted or unexpected that might affect the dependent variable.

smell and memories

The brain region for smell (in red) is closely connected with the brain regions involved with memory (limbic system). That is why strong memories are made through the sense of smell.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span

traits

a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Why survey?

cheap easy diverse population know how people feel random sampling

Correlation and Causation

correlation does not equal causation

rationalization

create logical explanations of our behavior in order to justify it ex) student might blame a poor exam score on instructor rather than lack of preparation Not only prevents anxiety, may also protect self-esteem and self-concept

narcissim

excessive self-love and self-absorption

sympathetic nervous system

fight or flight

amok

in a frenzied or uncontrolled state

observational learning

learning by observing and watching others (model)

gonads

sex glands that influence emotion and physical development ovaries/testes

secondary reinforcer

something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding b/c it is paired w/a primary reinforcer (money)

Fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

gender identity

the individual's sense of being male or female

Perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished ("Nicole, you're such a good mommy to your dolls"; "Big boys don't cry, Alex.").

sleep walking

walking during non-REM sleep -affects estimated 10% of all humans at least once in their life

Endocrine system

chemical communication carried out by set of hormones synthesized by set of glands

Pain disorder

complaints of severe pain w/o any particular physical condition

3 stages of general adaptation syndrome

1. Alarm: sudden activation of SNS-sympathetic nervous system (heart rate, blood flow) 2. Resistance: temperature and blood pressure are high, sudden outpour of hormones, it may deplete body of reserves if persistent 3. Exhaustion: more vulnerable to illness, in extreme cases death

What are the 3 major issues of developmental psychology?

1. Nature v. Nurture - the interaction between our genetic inheritance and our experiences 2. Continuity & Stages - whether development is gradual and continuous or a series of relatively abrupt changes 3. Stability & Change - whether our traits endure or change as we age

Why do we dream?

1. to satisfy our own wishes 2. to file away memories 3. to develop and preserve neural pathways 4. to make sense of neural static 5. to reflect cognitive development

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

scatterplots

comprised of points generated by values of two variables -slope depicts direction -amount of scatter=strength of relationship

convergence

A binocular cue for perceiving depth - When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see faraway objects -neuromuscular cue

Hawthorne effect

A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied

Charlotte and Tamar are Lab Partners assigned to research who is friendlier girls our boys. after conversing with their first 10 participants they find at their friendliness ratings often differ. With which of the following should they be most concerned. A) Reliability B) Confounding variables C) Ethics D) Validity E) Assignment

A) Reliability

How does autism spectrum disorder affect development?

ASD is marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors. Genetic influences contribute to ASD, as does the male hormone testosterone.

What's the difference between achievement and aptitude tests?

Achievement tests are designed to assess what you have learned. Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you can learn. The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), an aptitude test, is the most widely used intelligence test for adults.

According to Robert Sternberg, what kind of intelligence is assessed by traditional intelligence tests? Linguistic Practical Creative Spatial Analytical

Analytical

When hearing emotions conveyed in another language, what emotion can people most readily detect? Sadness Happiness Anger Fear Surprise

Anger

split brain

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them

Adolescent mood swings might be misdiagnosed as which psychological disorder? Schizophrenia Temper tantrums Oppositional defiant disorder Bipolar disorder ADHD

Bipolar disorder

Elephants appear to have the capacity to remember large-scale spaces over long periods. Which of the following best identifies this capacity? Latent learning Insight Cognitive maps Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation

Cognitive maps

Reinforcement

any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior that follows

Professor Ma wants to design a project studying emotional response to date rape. He advertises for participants in the school newspaper, informs them about the nature of the study, gets their consent, conducts an interview, and debriefs them about the results when the experiment is over. If you were on the IRB, which ethical consideration would you most likely have the most concerned about and Professor Moss study. A) Conversion B) Deception C) Confounding variables D) Confidentiality E) Clear scientific purpose

D) Confidentiality

Memory Wonder Drug

Drugs that boost production of the protein CREB may help reshape short term memory (STM) turn into long-term memory (LTM) Drugs that boost Glutamate - Neurotransmitter enhances synaptic communication (LTP)

Which of the following hypotheses would be most difficult to test experimentally A) People exposed to the color red will be more aggressive than those exposed to the color blue B) Exercise improves mood C) Exposure to Violent television increases aggression D) Studying leads to better grades E) Divorce makes children more independent

E) Divorce makes children more independent

Which of the following identifies children's difficulty seeing another's perspective? -- Abstract thinker Role player Egocentric thinker A child who understands conservation A child who demonstrates high mental operations

Egocentric thinker

Which of the following provides the best evidence that race is more of a social construct than a biological category? -- People of varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race. The races arose in different continents. Behavior traits (like running speed) are associated with race. Skin cancer rates vary by race. The incidence of high blood pressure varies by race.

People of varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race

what are the 2 theories of hearing?

Place theory Frequency theory

Neurologically, what is the function of pruning? -- Pruning creates new connections between synapses through repeated experiences. Pruning reduces the negative effects of teratogens by eliminating neural waste. Pruning increases the weight of the brain through enriching experiences. Pruning creates areas in the brain used in learning mathematics. Pruning eliminates unused neural pathways.

Pruning eliminates unused neural pathways.

mental orthopedics

The exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline. These procedures would prepare a child for formal education.

latent content of dreams

The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by dream interpretation and analysis. symbolic meaning of dream images, what your unconscious mind is thinking

How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?

The humanistic psychologists' view of personality focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization. Abraham Maslow proposed that human motivations form a hierarchy of needs; if basic needs are fulfilled, people will strive toward self-actualization and self-transcendence. Carl Rogers' person-centered perspective suggested that the ingredients of a growth-promoting environment are genuineness, acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), and empathy. The self-concept was a central feature of personality for both Maslow and Rogers.

dependent variable

The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.

Which of the following are symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder? -- Unexplainable and continual tension Sudden episodes of intense dread Irrational and intense fear of a specific object or situation Repetitive thoughts or actions Nightmares for weeks after a severe, uncontrollable event

Unexplainable and continual tension

psychoanalytic therapy

Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his/her unconscious motives, in order to help the patient be more able to choose behaviors consciously. Therapy sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives and reducing anxiety through self insight through analysis and interpretation.

Mary checks her phone every 30 minutes for incoming text messages. Her behavior is being maintained by what kind of reinforcement schedule? Fixed-interval Variable-interval Variable-ratio Fixed-ratio Continuous

Variable-interval

pruning

When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die.

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses major organ for hearing

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions Change people's thinking by revealing the "absurdity" of their self-defeating ideas, the sharp-tongued Ellis believed, and you will change their self-defeating feelings and enable healthier behaviors.

cohort

a group of people from a given time period

Caffeine

a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances causes increased alertness and wakefulness too much--> anxiety, insomnia, restlessness, uncomfortable withdrawal like nicotine, increases heart and breathing rates and other automatic functions to provide energy

emotions

a mix of physiological activation (heart pounding), expressive behaviors (quickened pace), and conscious experience (thoughts and feelings) They're our body's adaptive response

bipolar disorder

a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior and directs it towards a goal

nerve vs neuron

a nerve is a bundle of neurons

Social-Cultural influences on drug use

availability of drugs, peer pressure

Repression

avoid painful thoughts by forcing them into the back of our mind Underlies all ofter defense mechanisms Ex) Witness murder, don't remember details when asked by police (unconscious)

A gymnast falls and hits her head on the floor. She attempts to continue practicing, but has trouble maintaining balance. What part of her brain has probably been affected? a. reticular formation b. cerebellum c. amygdala d. frontal lobe e. brainstem

b. cerebellum

Hormones are ______ released into the ________. a. neurons; neurotransmitters b. chemical messengers; bloodstream c. electrical messengers; bloodstream d. electrical messengers; synapse e. chemical messengers; synapse

b. chemical messengers; bloodstream

atypical

behavior is not just quirky, it is considered extremely odd

Split-half reliability

checking the consistency

rumination

compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes.

Binocular Cues

depth cues that require the use of both eyes -the retina is a two-dimensional surface yet we use it to determine height, width, and depth -Eyes and brain work together and use a number of tricks to create the third dimension

Social nonconformity

disobeying social standards for normal conduct, usually leads to destructive or self-destructive behavior

wavelength determines

hue (color) the eye detects 7 million hues

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

pons

located above medulla; coordinate movements on right/left side of body

Disorganized thinking

thinking of a person w/schizophrenia is fragmented and bizzare and distorted w/false beliefs Comes from a breakdown in selective attention- they cannot filter out info

situation-relevant confounding variables

when the situations into which the different groups of an experiment are put are not truly equivalent; can create invalid experiment results due to the situation rather than the independent variable

next-in-line effect

when we are next in line, we focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last person's words

Feel-Good-Do-Good Phenomenon

when we feel happy we are more willing to help others

The nearly 1-in-100 odds of any person being diagnosed with schizophrenia become about 1 in 10 among those -- who also suffer anxiety disorder. whose sibling or parent has the disorder. who have been diagnosed with depression. who live with someone diagnosed with schizophrenia. whose identical twin has schizophrenia.

whose sibling or parent has the disorder.

Is psychotherapy cost effective?

yes. Studies show that when people seek psychological treatment, their search for other medical treatment drops—by 16 percent in one digest of 91 studies. Given the staggering annual cost of psychological disorders and substance abuse—including crime, accidents, lost work, and treatment—psychotherapy is a good investment the claim—that psychotherapy, on average, is somewhat effective—refers to no one therapy in particular. It is like reassuring lung-cancer patients that "on average," medical treatment of health problems is effective

How does your brain recognize a face?

your brain integrates information projected by your retinas to several visual cortex areas, compares it with stored information, and enables you to recognize the face Scientists are debating whether this stored information is contained in a single cell or distributed over a network. Some supercells—"grandmother cells"—do appear to respond very selectively to 1 or 2 faces in 100

Sudden sleep attacks at inopportune times are symptomatic of which sleep disorder? - Sleep apnea - Insomnia - Night terrors - Sleepwalking - Narcolepsy

Narcolepsy

A student studies diligently to avoid the bad feelings associated with a previously low grade on a test. In this case, the studying behavior is being strengthened because of what kind of reinforcement? Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Delayed reinforcement Primary reinforcement Conditioned reinforcement

Negative reinforcement

OCEAN

Openness: curious, original, intellectual, creative, open to new ideas Conscientious: organized, systematic, punctual, dependable, achievement- oriented Extroversion: outgoing, talkative, sociable Agreeableness: trusting, kind, sensitive, warm Neuroticism: temperamental, moody, anxious

On which of the following are token economies based? Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Group therapy Cognitive therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Operant conditioning

cognitive processes of classical conditioning

Organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.

Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?

Other critics view DSM diagnoses as arbitrary labels that create preconceptions which bias perceptions of the labeled person's past and present behavior. The legal label, "insanity," raises moral and ethical questions about whether society should hold people with disorders responsible for their violent actions. Most people with disorders are nonviolent and are more likely to be victims than attackers.

neophobia

dislike of things unfamiliar

social-cultural influences on pain

1. presence of others 2. empathy for others' pain 3. cultural expectations We tend to perceive more pain when others also seem to be experiencing pain. When feeling empathy for another's pain, a person's own brain activity may partly mirror that of the other's brain in pain.

How many receptor cells do we have in our nasal cavities?

5 million in the upper nasal passages can detect up to 10k molecules in the air

Children are said to have an intellectual disability if they have difficulty adapting to the demands of independent living and have IQ scores below 60. 70. 80. 90. 100.

70

taste aversion learning

A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness.

Melatonin

A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. helps regulate daily biological rhythms and is linked to sleep-wake cycles melatonin level increases during the night and decreases with exposure to morning light

What does it mean to lesion the brain? Why is this procedure important to studying the brain?

A lesion is the destruction of brain tissue.

growth orientation

According to Maslow, a tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in life, rather than to focus on what is missing

How should we draw the line between normality and disorder?

According to psychologists and psychiatrists, a psychological disorder is a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.

Piaget

All human beings pass through all stages in the same order.

What's an example of priming and what does it help reveal about us being able to evaluate a stimulus?

An unnoticed image or word can reach your visual cortex and briefly prime your response to a later question. In a typical experiment, the image or word is quickly flashed, then replaced by a masking stimulus that interrupts the brain's processing before conscious perception For example, one experiment subliminally flashed either emotionally positive scenes (kittens, a romantic couple) or negative scenes (a werewolf, a dead body) an instant before participants viewed slides of people The participants consciously perceived either scene as only a flash of light. Yet the people somehow looked nicer if their image immediately followed unperceived kittens rather than an unperceived werewolf. As other experiments confirm, we can evaluate a stimulus even when we are not aware of it—and even when we are unaware of our evaluation

When hearing emotions conveyed in another language, what emotion can people most readily detect?

Anger

paradoxial sleep

Another name for REM sleep, because internally the brain and body are active, but externally the body appears calm and inactive.

Which kind of drug is most closely associated with increasing the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin? Antidepressant Antipsychotic Antianxiety Mood-stabilizing Muscle relaxant

Antidepressant

Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?

Aptitude tests aim to predict how well a test-taker will perform in a given situation. So they are necessarily "biased" in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural experience. By "inappropriately biased," psychologists mean that a test predicts less accurately for one group than for another. In this sense, most experts consider the major aptitude tests unbiased. Stereotype threat, a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, affects performance on all kinds of tests.

How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned about the effects of temperament and parenting?

Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely attached. Sensitive, responsive parents tend to have securely attached children. Adult relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, lending support to Erik Erikson's idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers. Yet it's become clear that temperament—our characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity—also plays a huge role in how our attachment patterns form.

Which of the following is NOT a symptom of major depressive disorder? Weight gain or loss Auditory hallucinations Sleep disturbance Inappropriate guilt Problems concentrating

Auditory hallucinations

How is our biological sex determined, and how do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent development?

Both sex chromosomes and sex hormones influence development. Biological sex is determined by the father's contribution to the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. - The mother always contributes an X chromosome. - The father may also contribute an X chromosome, producing a female, or a Y chromosome, producing a male by triggering additional testosterone release and the development of male sex organs. During puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop. Sex-related genes and physiology influence behavioral and cognitive gender differences between males and females.

Explain how bottom-up and top-down processes work together to help us decipher the world around us..

Bottom-up processing starts at the sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing. Top-down processing constructs perceptions from the sensory input by drawing on our experience and expectations.

Describe how Botulin as an agonist for acetylcholine.

Botulin or Botox smooths wrinkles by paralyzing underlying facial muscles. It causes paralysis by blocking ACh release.

Which of the following statements about mobile networks and social media is accurate? There are more home toilets in India than there are cell phones. Cell phones have been history's most rapidly adopted technology. Fewer than 75 percent of American youth are cell-phone users. Phone calling has displaced texting. Texting has declined in Canada and elsewhere because of e-mail.

Cell phones have been history's most rapidly adopted technology.

Pheromones

Chemical signals produced by the body that serve as a means of interpersonal communication

martin seligman

Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness"

In the attachment studies conducted with infant monkeys, what did the Harlows find? -- Nutrition was the most important factor in attachment. Contact comfort was the most important factor in attachment. The surrogate mother's appearance was the most important attachment factor. Monkeys were equally likely to become attached to either surrogate mother. The monkeys didn't form attachments to the surrogate mothers.

Contact comfort was the most important factor in attachment.

What are depressants, and what are their effects?

Depressants, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and the opiates (which include narcotics), dampen neural activity and slow body functions. Alcohol tends to disinhibit, increasing the likelihood that we will act on our impulses, whether harmful or helpful. It also impairs judgment, disrupts memory processes by suppressing REM sleep, and reduces self-awareness and self-control. User expectations strongly influence alcohol's behavioral effects.

Lily scored 145 on an IQ test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 what is her Z score. A) -3 B) -1. 5 C) + . 67 D) 1. 5 E) + 3

E) + 3

What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial?

Dissociative disorders are conditions in which conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. Skeptics note that dissociative identity disorder, formerly known as multiple personality disorder, increased dramatically in the late twentieth century, that it is rarely found outside North America, and that it may reflect role-playing by people who are vulnerable to therapists' suggestions. Others view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by anxiety-reduction.

Which of the following is the diagnosis given to people with multiple personalities? Schizophrenia Antisocial personality disorder Fugue state Conversion disorder Dissociative identity disorder

Dissociative identity disorder

A psychotherapist who uses a blend of therapies is practicing what kind of approach? Eclectic Psychodynamic Cognitive Cognitive-behavioral Humanistic

Eclectic

Which of these drugs, which acts as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen, can also cause dangerous dehydration? - LSD - Ecstasy - Alcohol - Cocaine - Caffeine

Ecstasy

How are brain stimulation and psychosurgery used in treating specific disorders?

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, is an effective treatment for severely depressed people who have not responded to other therapy. Newer alternative treatments for depression include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and, in preliminary clinical experiments, deep-brain stimulation that calms an overactive brain region linked with negative emotions. Psychosurgery removes or destroys brain tissue in hopes of modifying behavior. Radical psychosurgical procedures such as the lobotomy were once popular, but neurosurgeons now rarely perform brain surgery to change behavior or moods. Brain surgery is a last-resort treatment because its effects are irreversible.

The effects of opiates are similar to the effects of which neurotransmitter? - Barbiturates - Endorphins - Tranquilizers - Nembutal - Acetylcholine

Endorphins

What's an example of sensory adaptation?

Entering your neighbors' living room, you smell a musty odor. You wonder how they can stand it, but within minutes you no longer notice it. When we are constantly exposed to a stimulus that does not change, we become less aware of it because our nerve cells fire less frequently.

Which of the following is true? -- Those born during winter and spring are less likely to develop schizophrenia later in life. People born in densely populated areas are less likely to develop schizophrenia later in life. Fetuses exposed to flu virus are more likely to develop schizophrenia later in life. Maternal influenza during pregnancy does not affect brain development in monkeys. The retrovirus HERV is found more often in people who do not develop schizophrenia.

Fetuses exposed to flu virus are more likely to develop schizophrenia later in life

How did Freud think people defend themselves against anxiety?

For Freud, anxiety was the product of tensions between the demands of the id and superego. The ego copes by using unconscious defense mechanisms, such as repression, which he viewed as the basic mechanism underlying and enabling all the others.

Which of the following represents Freud's Oedipus complex? -- Yutao has begun to suffer from the same recurrent nightmares he had as a child. Madeline manifests repressed anxiety because of guilt she experienced when she disappointed her parents during toilet training. Five-year-old Anagha is taking on many of her mother's values through a process of identification. Four-year-old Carlos is experiencing unconscious sexual desire for his mother and unconscious hatred for his father. Elle has begun to overeat and smoke cigarettes as a college student, indicating a degree of oral fixation.

Four-year-old Carlos is experiencing unconscious sexual desire for his mother and unconscious hatred for his father.

What was Freud's view of personality?

Freud believed that personality results from conflict arising from the interaction among the mind's three systems: the id (pleasure-seeking impulses), ego (reality-oriented executive), and superego (internalized set of ideals, or conscience).

mirror neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.

Which of the following is a primary sex characteristic that changes at puberty? -- A growth spurt in height, especially for boys Development of breasts for girls Full development of external genitalia in both sexes Facial hair and deepened voice for boys Appearance of pubic and underarm hair in both sexes

Full development of external genitalia in both sexes

Which neurotransmitter inhibits CNS activity in order to calm a person down during stressful situations? GABA Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Dopamine Serotonin

GABA

What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects?

Hallucinogens—such as LSD and marijuana—distort perceptions and evoke hallucinations—sensory images in the absence of sensory input. The user's mood and expectations influence the effects of LSD, but common experiences are hallucinations and emotions varying from euphoria to panic. Marijuana's main ingredient, THC, may trigger feelings of disinhibition, euphoria, relaxation, relief from pain, and intense sensitivity to sensory stimuli. It may also increase feelings of depression or anxiety, impair motor coordination and reaction time, disrupt memory formation, and damage lung tissue (because of the inhaled smoke).

According to research, which type of aggression is more common among males than females? Harmful physical aggression Indirect nonphysical aggression Verbal aggression Ostracism Spreading rumors

Harmful physical aggression

how does humanistic therapy differ from psychoanalytic therapy

Humanistic therapy aims to boost people's self-fulfillment by helping them grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance. Promoting this growth, not curing illness, is the focus of therapy. Thus, those in therapy became "clients" or just "persons" rather than "patients" (a change many other therapists have adopted). The path to growth is taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings and actions, rather than uncovering hidden determinants. Conscious thoughts are more important than the unconscious. The present and future are more important than the past. The goal is to explore feelings as they occur, rather than achieve insights into the childhood origins of the feelings.

Which of the following characterizes the "low road" neural pathway to emotions? Information travels directly from the thalamus to the amygdala. The emotion results more slowly than it would via the "high road." It is an example of top-down processing. It is more likely to be utilized for complex feelings. It passes through the brain's cortex.

Information travels directly from the thalamus to the amygdala.

a woman had been pondering a problem for days and was about to give up when, suddenly, the solution came to her. Her experience can be best described as what? Cognitive mapping Insight Operant conditioning Classical conditioning Unconscious associative learning

Insight

Who conducted a famous study of high IQ children? Lewis Terman David Wechsler Robert Sternberg Howard Gardner Alfred Binet

Lewis Terman

Counselors

Marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from family relations. Clergy provide counseling to countless people. Abuse counselors work with substance abusers and with spouse and child abusers and their victims. Mental health and other counselors may be required to have a two-year master's degree.

Who identified secure and insecure attachment? Sigmund Freud Konrad Lorenz Jean Piaget Mary Ainsworth Jerome Kagan

Mary Ainsworth

Intelligence

Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations a concept and not a "thing" and is a socially constructed concept In research, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be "school smarts"

illusions

Misinterpreting sensory stimuli

Which of the following processes is the best term for explaining how we learn languages? Biofeedback Discrimination Modeling Insight Creativity

Modeling

What is molecular genetics? Why is it important to the study of human behavior?

Molecular genetics is the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. It is important because scientists are curious whether or not genes can influence behavior. They want to find genes that put people at risk for genetically influenced disorders.

If you are trying to maintain a healthy balance between connecting with others online and a real-world perspective, which of the following suggestions should you follow? Monitor your feelings. Dismiss the notion of logging online time. Interact often with your more distracting online friends. Decrease physical activity. Try a social networking marathon.

Monitor your feelings.

Which of the following is the best synonym for social learning? Observational learning Modeling Mirror neuron imitation Prosocial model Imitation

Observational learning

A person troubled by repetitive thoughts or actions is most likely experiencing which of the following? Generalized anxiety disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder Panic disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder Fear conditioning

Obsessive-compulsive disorder

Psychogenic Amnesia

Occurs when a person blocks out certain info, usually associated w/a stressful or traumatic event, leaving him or her unable to remember important personal info w/this disorder, the degree of memory loss goes beyond normal forgetfulness and includes gaps in memory for long period of time or of memories involving the traumatic event Not the same as amnesia, which involves a loss of info from the memory, usually as the result of disease or injury to the brain Memories still exist but are deeply buried w/in the person's mind and cannot be recalled - Memories might resurface on their own after being triggered in the person's surroundings

How do we sense touch?

Our sense of touch is actually several senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain—that combine to produce other sensations, such as "hot."

Dissociative Fugue

People w/this disorder temporarily lose their sense of personal identity and impulsively wander or travel away from their homes or places of work Often become confused about who they are and might even create new identities Show no signs of illness, such as a strange appearance or off behavior A fugue in progress often is difficult for others to recognize b/c the person's outward behavior appears normal Symptoms may include: - Sudden and unplanned travel away from home - Inability to recall past event or important info from person's life - Confusion or loss of memory about identity & possibly assuming a new identity to make up for the loss

To what extent is intelligence related to neural processing speed?

People who score high on intelligence tests tend also to have agile brains and score high in speed of perception and speed of neural processing. The direction of correlation has not been determined, and some third factor may influence both intelligence and processing speed.

According to research, which of the following has been identified as an early warning sign of schizophrenia? Emotional predictability Poor peer relations and solo play Long attention span Good muscle coordination High birth weight

Poor peer relations and solo play

According to Lawrence Kohlberg, what stage of moral development is exhibited when actions are judged "right" because they flow from basic ethical principles? Postconventional Preconventional Conventional Preoperational Formal operational

Postconventional

what are projective tests, how are they used, and what are some criticisms of them?

Projective tests attempt to assess personality by showing people vague stimuli with many possible interpretations; answers reveal unconscious motives. One such test, the Rorschach inkblot test, has low reliability and validity.

What do psychodynamic therapists call the blocking of anxiety-laden material from the conscious? Resistance Interpretation Transference Face-to-face therapy Interpersonal psychotherapy

Resistance

What do we call behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus? Respondent behavior Operant behavior Extinguished behavior Biofeedback conditioning Skinnerian conditioning

Respondent behavior

Scott Lilienfeld, James Wood, and Howard Garb (2001) wrote, "When a substantial body of research demonstrates that old intuitions are wrong, it is time to adopt new ways of thinking." What were they talking about? MRI test Rorschach inkblot test Freud's work on the id and ego Psychodynamic theories Modern views of the unconscious

Rorschach inkblot test

What patterns of thinking, perceiving, and feeling characterize schizophrenia?

Schizophrenia is a disorder that typically strikes during late adolescence, affects men slightly more than women, and seems to occur in all cultures. Symptoms are disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and diminished or inappropriate emotions. Delusions are false beliefs; hallucinations are sensory experiences without sensory stimulation.

How do chronic and acute schizophrenia differ?

Schizophrenia symptoms may be positive (the presence of inappropriate behaviors) or negative (the absence of appropriate behaviors). In chronic (or process) schizophrenia, the disorder develops gradually and recovery is doubtful. In acute (or reactive) schizophrenia, the onset is sudden, in reaction to stress, and the prospects for recovery are brighter.

What are sensation and perception? What do we mean by bottom-up processing and top-down processing?

Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting this information, enabling recognition of meaningful events. Sensation and perception are actually parts of one continuous process. Bottom-up processing is sensory analysis that begins at the entry level, with information flowing from the sensory receptors to the brain. Top-down processing is information processing guided by high-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions by filtering information through our experience and expectations.

Which of the following is true based on "Big Five" personality traits research? Highly conscientious people are likely to be evening people or "owls." Highly conscientious people get poor grades. Married partners scoring the same on agreeableness are more likely to experience marital dissatisfaction. Shy introverts are more likely to prefer communicating through e-mail instead of in person. Neuroticism predicts the use of positive-emotion words in text messages.

Shy introverts are more likely to prefer communicating through e-mail instead of in person.

What are somatic symptom and related disorders?

Somatic symptom disorder presents a somatic (bodily) symptom—some physiologically unexplained but genuinely felt ailment. With conversion disorder (also called functional neurological symptom disorder), anxiety appears converted to a physical symptom that has no reasonable neurological basis. The more common illness anxiety disorder is the interpretation of normal sensations as a dreaded disorder.

Which of the following statements is false? -- Many behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression. Someone suffering from depression will get better only with therapy or medication. Compared with men, women are nearly twice as vulnerable to major depression. Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close relationships often precede depression. With each new generation, depression is striking earlier and affecting more people.

Someone suffering from depression will get better only with therapy or medication.

What does evidence reveal about environmental influences on intelligence?

Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees also provide evidence of environmental influences. Test scores of identical twins raised apart are slightly less similar (though still very highly correlated) than the scores of identical twins raised together. Studies of children raised in extremely impoverished environments with minimal social interaction indicate that life experiences can significantly influence intelligence test performance. No evidence supports the idea that normal, healthy children can be molded into geniuses by growing up in an exceptionally enriched environment.

What is the energy that we see as visible light, and how does the eye transform light energy into neural messages?

The hue we perceive in light depends on its wavelength, and its brightness depends on its intensity. After entering the eye and being focused by the lens, light energy particles (from a thin slice of the broad spectrum of electromagnetic energy) strike the eye's inner surface, the retina. The retina's light-sensitive rods and color-sensitive cones convert the light energy into neural impulses.

What did Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner's experiments establish? That the acquisition of a CR depends on pairing the CS and the US That different species respond differently to classical conditioning situations The current belief that classical conditioning is really a form of operant conditioning That mirror neurons form the biological basis of classical conditioning The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning

The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning

How do the medical model and the biopsychosocial approach understand psychological disorders?

The medical model assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses with physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured through therapy, sometimes in a hospital. The biopsychosocial approach assumes that three sets of influences—biological (evolution, genetics, brain structure and chemistry), psychological (stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood-related perceptions and memories), and social-cultural (roles, expectations, definitions of "normality" and "disorder")—interact to produce specific psychological disorders.

Explain the arguments that state hypnosis is a social phenomenon.

The more that a person trusts the hypnotist, the more they allow that person to direct their attention and fantasies. The hypnotists ideas become the subject's thoughts and the subject's thoughts produce the hypnotic experiences and behaviors. If an experimenter eliminates a subject's motivation to be hypnotized by saying that hypnosis reveals their gullibility, subjects become unresponsive. These experiments, support the idea that hypnotic phenomena are an extension of normal social and cognitive processes.

If the retina receives upside-down images, how do we see the world right side up?

The retina doesn't "see" a whole image. Rather, its millions of receptor cells convert particles of light energy into neural impulses and forward those to the brain. There, the impulses are reassembled into a perceived, upright-seeming image.

Flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations

persistence

The unwanted recurrence of memories of a traumatic event.

attributional style

The way a person typically explains the things that happen in his or her life optimism vs. pessimism

Compared with rats raised in an enriched environment, which of the following is true of rats raised in isolation? -- Their brain cortex is less developed. Though neurologically similar, they fear other rats. Their brains have more connections. They have a thicker brain cortex. The differences between the two groups are not statistically significant.

Their brain cortex is less developed.

Which of the following is the best phrase for a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client who are working to overcome the client's problem? Therapeutic alliance EMDR Evidence-based practice Meta-analysis Outcome research

Therapeutic alliance

defensive self-esteem

This type of self-esteem focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failure and criticism feel threatening. It correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior.

What is one of the principal functions of mirror neurons? To allow an organism to replace an unconditioned response with a conditioned response To help produce intrinsic motivation in some children To be the mechanism by which the brain accomplishes observational learning To produce the neural associations that are the basis of both classical and operant conditioning To explain why modeling prosocial behavior is more effective than modeling negative behavior

To be the mechanism by which the brain accomplishes observational learning

How do individualist and collectivist cultures influence people?

Within any culture, the degree of individualism or collectivism varies from person to person. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism, like those found in North America and Western Europe, tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism, like those in many parts of Asia and Africa, tend to value interdependence, tradition, and harmony, and they define identity in terms of group goals, commitments, and belonging to one's group

dreams

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind

gender schema

a set of behaviors organized around how either a male or female should think and behave form early in life

generatitivity

according to Erikson, the ability to create, originate, and produce throughout adulthood - being productive and supporting future generations

Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve

as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience - includes rapid development of cerebellum: readiness to learn walking at age 1

Guillian-Barre Syndrome

body paralysis

top-down processing (pain)

brain anticipates pain, body feels expected pain

Neural networks grow more complex by -- branching outward to form multiple connections. keeping the nervous system immature. controlling one another with a restricted response system. limiting connections. associating behaviors that would not normally be associated together.

branching outward to form multiple connections.

Binge-Eating Disorder

characterized by binge eating episodes followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that is Bulimia.

hormones

chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and circulated in blood; slower communication system; influences interest in sex, food, aggression

smell

chemical sense processed near the prefrontal cortex throughout the olfactory bulb before its sent along

long nerve fibers

conduct most other sensory info; close the gate

collectivist

culture whose members focus more on the needs of the group and less on individual desires

Heritability relates to the -- percentage of a person's intelligence that is due to environmental influences. percentage of a person's intelligence that is due to genetics. correlation of intelligence test scores among family members. extent to which variability among individuals' intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic variation. genetic stability of intelligence over time.

extent to which variability among individuals' intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic variation.

bipolar cells

eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells

change blindness

failing to notice changes in the environment around us

MRI

magnetic resonance imaging magnets/radiowaves see structure of soft tissue provides more detailed images of the human body than x-rays shows brain anatomy

reaction formation

make unacceptable impulses into their opposite, acceptable form ex) you dislike your psych teacher but tell everyone how much you love them or you really like another person but pretend to hate them Freud: using reaction formation to hide true feelings by behaving in the exact opposite way

Recent research about brain size and function suggests that -- the occipital lobe is more active when people are thinking about questions on intelligence tests. people who are smarter use less energy when solving problems. there is no correlation between processing speed and IQ scores. people with larger brains are always smarter than those with smaller brains. subjects with larger parietal lobes tended to process information more slowly.

people who are smarter use less energy when solving problems.

Supertasters

people with heightened sensitivity to taste - they have an abundance of taste receptors - appx. 25% of the population - less likely to become alcoholics

personality disorders

psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.

Robert McCrae

psychologist associated with the five-factor model of personality, worked with Paul Costa

basic research

pure research that aims to confirm an existing theory or to learn more about a concept or phenomenon

back-to-sleep position

putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of a smothering crib death

Evolutionary perspective

qualities have evolved through natural selection that have helped humans adapt combines aspects of biological, psychological, and social perspectives

Howard Gardner found evidence of multiple intelligences in individuals who scored low on intelligence but had an area of exceptional ability—for example, to make complex calculations. These people have the Flynn effect. savant syndrome. advanced mental age. Wechsler syndrome. intelligence heritability.

savant syndrome.

emotions are a mix of consciously experienced thoughts, expressive behaviors, and physiological arousal. Which theory emphasized the importance of consciously experienced thoughts? Facial feedback theory James-Lange theory Arousal and performance theory Fight-or-flight theory Schachter-Singer two-factor theory

schachter-Singer two-factor theory

In general, males score higher than females on tests of spelling. verbal fluency. emotion detection. spatial ability. sensitivity to touch, taste, and odor.

spatial ability.

Theory: Gardner's multiple intelligences

summary: Our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts. strengths: Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. other considerations: Should all of our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be called talents?

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

Maslows thoughts on free will

we are in complete control

Ethnic Similarities and Differences

- Racial groups differ - High level achievement comes from high level of education - Difference in race is largely based on environmental factors

Beck's Basics

Aaron Beck suggests that depression is a result of negative thinking which he called cognitive errors (errors in logic) Identified 3 negative thoughts that seemed to be automatic and occured w/o delay in depressed patients Cognitive triad: - Self - External world - Future Believes faulty thinking leads to depression

cyber ostracism

Banishment or exclusion in a virtual environment such as the Internet

How, by taking care of themselves with a healthy lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression, and how does this reflect our being biopsychosocial systems?

Depressed people who undergo a program of aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social engagement, negative-thought reduction, and better nutrition often gain some relief. In our integrated biopsychosocial system, stress affects our body chemistry and health; chemical imbalances can produce depression; and social support and other lifestyle changes can lead to relief of symptoms.

Which of the following is most effectively treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)? Psychosis Schizophrenia Obsessive-compulsive disorder Depression Generalized anxiety disorder

Depression

How do parents and peers influence adolescents?

During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases. Adolescents adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Parents have more influence in religion, politics, and college and career choices.

What do we call a mental predisposition that influences our interpretation of a stimulus? - A context effect - Perceptual set - Extrasensory perception - Emotion - Motivation

Extrasensory perception (ESP)

ganglion cells

In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.

Which of the following dream theories states that dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories? - Information-processing - Wish-fulfillment - Physiological function - Neural activation - Neural disconnection

Information-processing

Which of the following sleep theories emphasizes sleep's role in restoring and repairing brain tissue? - Memory - Protection - Growth - Recuperation - Creativity

Recuperation

How do Gardner's and Sternberg's theories of multiple intelligences differ?

Savant syndrome seems to support Howard Gardner's view that we have multiple intelligences. He proposed eight independent intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory proposes three intelligence areas that predict real-world skills: analytical (academic problem solving), creative, and practical.

How do children's self-concepts develop?

Self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually. At 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by ages 8 to 10 their self-image is stable.

Which ability is a good predictor of good adjustment, better grades, and social success? Self-control Locus of control Problem-focused coping Learned helplessness Emotion-focused coping

Self-control

psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.

deficiency orientation

a preoccupation with perceived needs for things a person does not have

psychosis

a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.

terror management theory

a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death

respondant behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

influences on drug use

biological, psychological, social-cultural

When there is a negative charge inside an axon and a positive charge outside it, the neuron is a. in the process of reuptake. b. not in the refractory period. c. said to have a resting potential. d. said to have an action potential. e. depolarizing.

c. said to have a resting potential.

Which of the following scanning techniques measures glucose consumption as an indicator of brain activity? a. CT b. MRI c. fMRI d. PET e. EEG

d. PET

What occurs when experiences influence our interpretation of data? a. Selective attention b. Transduction c. Bottom-up processing d. Top-down processing e. Signal detection theory

d. Top-down processing

dissociative disorders

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.

displacement

divert sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable person or object Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences, we instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no threat ex) Supervisor gets angry at you, and then you become angry at your wife at home

sensory cortex (touch)

divided by body part more cortex = more sensitivity - brain tuned to be more sensitive to unexpected stimulation women more sensitive to touch than men

Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase energy and are released by the a. thyroid glands b. pituitary gland c. hypothalamus d. thalamus e. adrenal glands

e. adrenal glands

Agoraphobia

ear of situations the person views as difficult to escape from Fear of leaving one's home or room in the house

frontal lobe

enables advanced cognitive abilities (planning, judgement, emotion, consciousness)

operant chamber

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reliability

measurement consistency

Linear perspective

method of determining depth by noting that parallel lines appear to converge in the distance

telepathy

mind to mind communication

moral intuition

quick gut feelings that precede moral reasoning

An 18-month-old typically recognizes herself in a mirror. This self-awareness contributes to self-assurance. self-concept. self-esteem. self-actualization. self-determination.

self-concept

peripheral nervous system

sensory and motor nerves that connect CNS to the rest of the body; subdivided into somatic and autonomic systems

2 types of nerve fibers in the spinal cord

short and long

clinical psychology

studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological (mental, emotional, behavioral) disorders

Neurotransmitters cross the ________ to carry information to the next neuron. synaptic gap axon myelin sheath dendrites cell body

synaptic gap

set point

the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set When the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lower basal metabolic rate (BMR) may act to restore the lost weight BMR: body's resting rate of energy expenditure

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there brain fills in missing info so that there is no awareness that the visual field is incomplete

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

drug withdrawal

upon stop taking a drug (after addiction) users may experience undesirable effects of withdrawal discomfort & distress

what are the 5 ways to examine the brain?

EEG CAT scan PET scan MRI fMRI

temperatment

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

Habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

William James

attempted to study the function of consciousness

neurons

building blocks of our nervous system

Action Potential

electrical charge "on switch" for neuron

Psychoanalytic techniques

free association, analysis of transference, interpretation

identical twins

one zygote that splits genetic relatedness = 100%

what can lesioning reveal about the brain?

reveals the general effects of brain damage

Alfred Binet (Colleague Theodore Simon)

wants to know a child's mental age Varied reasoning and problem solving questions that might predict school achievement Made no assumptions about children being slow, etc.

What median of the following distribution 6, 2, 9, 4, 7, 3 A) 4 B) 5 C) 5. 5 D) 6 E) 6. 5

B) 5

What does IRB stand for and what do they do?

Institutional Review Board: decides/gives permission to do their research; want to prevent harm of humans

debreifing

a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study as well as the results

Gesalt Psychology

emphasizes tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes (the whole is greater and different than the sum of its parts)

Biological perspective

the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of physical structures/substances (biology) on behavior, thoughts, and emotions

EMDR Therapy

(eye movement desensitization and reprocessing): therapist attempts to unlock and reprocess previous frozen traumatic memories by waving a finger in front of the eyes of the client Has not held up under scientific testing

Alcohol

- in LOW doses: relaxes drinker by slowing down the sympathetic nervous system (lowering inhibitions and judgments) -in HIGH doses: reactions slow, speech slurs, and skilled performance deteriorates -Also affects memory by disrupting the processing of recent events into long-term memory, reduces self-awareness, and focuses one's attention on immediate situation rather than future consequences In short: - slowed neural processing - memory disruption - reduced self awareness/control - expectancy effects

therapy study w/Massachusetts boys

500 Massachusetts boys, aged 5 to 13 years half the boys were assigned to a 5-year treatment program. The treated boys were visited by counselors twice a month. They participated in community programs, and they received academic tutoring, medical attention, and family assistance as needed. ---- Client testimonials yielded encouraging results, even glowing reports. Some men noted that, had it not been for their counselors, "I would probably be in jail." - Even among the "difficult" boys in the treatment group, 66 percent had no official juvenile crime record. --- For every boy in the treatment group, there was a similar boy in a control group, receiving no counseling. Of these untreated men, 70 percent had no juvenile record. On several other measures, such as a record of having committed a second crime, alcohol use disorder, death rate, and job satisfaction, the untreated men exhibited slightly fewer problems. --- *The glowing testimonials of those treated had been unintentionally deceiving.

Which of the following is likely to result from the release of oxytocin? A fight-or-flight response A tend-and-befriend response Social isolation Elevated hunger Exhaustion

A tend-and-befriend response

animal magnetism

A term coined by F.A. Mesmer to refer to a putative force or fluid capable of being transmitted from one person to another, producing healing effects. See also Mesmerism. (hypnosis)

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

A widely used personality test based on Jungian types.

Once a sperm penetrates the cell wall of an egg and fertilizes it, this structure is known as what? An embryo A fetus Placenta A teratogen A zygote

A zygote

Which of the following is true of the mental similarities between adoptive children and their adoptive parents as they age? -- Adoptive children become much more similar to their adoptive families over time. Adoptive children become slightly more similar to their adoptive families over time. There is hardly any similarity, either when the adoptive children are young or when they are older. Adoptive children become slightly less similar to their adoptive families over time. Adoptive children become much less similar to their adoptive families over time.

Adoptive children become much less similar to their adoptive families over time.

What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?

Adults do not progress through an orderly sequence of age-related social stages. Chance events can determine life choices. The social clock is a culture's preferred timing for social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. Adulthood's dominant themes are love and work, which Erikson called intimacy and generativity.

Which of the following is best described along a continuum ranging from ruthless and suspicious to helpful and trusting? Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness Extraversion Perfectionism

Agreeableness

Who first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, and how do social-cognitive theorists view personality development?

Albert Bandura first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which views personality as the product of the interaction between a person's traits (including thinking) and the situation—the social context. The behavioral approach contributes an understanding that our personality development is affected by learned responses. Social-cognitive researchers apply principles of learning, as well as cognition and social behavior, to personality. Reciprocal determinism is a term describing the interaction and mutual influence of behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental factors. Research on how we interact with our environment evolved into research on the effects of optimism and pessimism, which led to a broader positive psychology.

Slowed reactions, slurred speech, and decreased skill performance are associated with abuse of which drug? - Nicotine - Methamphetamine - Caffeine - Alcohol - Ecstasy

Alcohol

Which of the following identifies the parenting style most likely to ground a teen who had missed a curfew—and to explain the rationale for doing so, after considering the teen's reasons? Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Secure attachment Insecure attachment

Authoritative

What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?

All psychotherapies offer new hope for demoralized people; a fresh perspective; and (if the therapist is effective) an empathic, trusting, and caring relationship. The emotional bond of trust and understanding between therapist and client—the therapeutic alliance—is an important element in effective therapy.

humanistic theory

An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth emphasizes that individuals control their own behavior. View human nature in a more positive light - we are all good. proposed by Maslow and carl rogers

What are the different anxiety disorders?

Anxious feelings and behaviors are classified as an anxiety disorder only when they form a pattern of distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. People with generalized anxiety disorder feel persistently and uncontrollably tense and apprehensive, for no apparent reason. In the more extreme panic disorder, anxiety escalates into periodic episodes of intense dread. Those with a phobia may be irrationally afraid of a specific object, activity, or situation. Two other disorders (obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder) involve anxiety (though they are classified separately from the anxiety disorders).

How do early experiences modify the brain?

As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then trigger a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but throughout our lives our brain modifies itself in response to our learning.

CT/CAT scan

computed tomography x-rays create 3D image which provides a nice view of tissue and denser bone structures can reveal brain damage

B.F. Skinner

Believed that organisms tent to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes organisms tend not to repeat responses that led to neutral or negative outcomes rewards => reinforcements

What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy, and what are the specific goals and techniques of Rogers' client-centered approach?

Both psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies are insight therapies—they attempt to improve functioning by increasing clients' awareness of motives and defenses. Humanistic therapy's goals have included helping clients grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance; promoting personal growth rather than curing illness; helping clients take responsibility for their own growth; focusing on conscious thoughts rather than unconscious motivations; and seeing the present and future as more important than the past. Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy proposed that therapists' most important contributions are to function as a psychological mirror through active listening and to provide a growth-fostering environment of unconditional positive regard, characterized by genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.

Which of the following is true of boys compared with girls? Boys have a higher average intelligence score. Boys are better spellers than girls. Boys are better at detecting emotions. Boys are more verbally fluent. Boys are more likely to have extremely low intelligence scores.

Boys are more likely to have extremely low intelligence scores.

Stages of Ethic of Care

Carol Gilligan - Her work questions the male-centered personality psychology of Freud and Erikson, as well as Kohlberg's male-centered stages of moral development. She proposed the following stage theory of the moral development of women: 1. Orientation to individual survival - first transition: selfishness to responsibility (connection and responsibility to others) 2. Goodness and self sacrifice (reliance on others, social acceptance) - 2nd transition: goodness to truth (questioning comparative value of self vs others) 3. Morality of nonviolence (heightened understanding of choice between own needs and care for others; do not harm others or self

What are the arguments for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability?

Charles Spearman proposed that we have one general intelligence (g). He helped develop factor analysis, a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related mental abilities. L. L. Thurstone disagreed and identified seven different clusters of mental abilities. Yet a tendency remained for high scorers in one cluster to score high in other clusters. Studies indicate that g scores are most predictive in novel situations and do not much correlate with skills in evolutionarily familiar situations.

What did Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrate? Children are likely to imitate the behavior of adults. There may be a negative correlation between televised violence and aggressive behavior. Children are more likely to copy what adults say than what adults do. Allowing children to watch too much television is detrimental to their development. Observational learning can explain the development of fears in children.

Children are likely to imitate the behavior of adults.

Does childhood neglect, abuse, or family disruption affect children's attachments?

Children are very resilient, but those who are moved repeatedly, severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments by an early age may be at risk for attachment problems.

How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?

Current research confirms that we do not have full access to all that goes on in our mind, but the current view of the unconscious is not that of a hidden storehouse filled with repressed feelings and thoughts. Researchers see the unconscious as a separate and parallel track of information processing that occurs outside our awareness, such as schemas that control our perceptions; priming; implicit memories of learned skills; instantly activated emotions; self-concepts and stereotypes that filter information about ourselves and others; and mechanisms that defend our self-esteem and deter anxiety, such as the false consensus effect/projection and terror management.

Explain how biology and experience interact in our sleep patterns.

Distractions such as smartphones, TVs, late shifts at work, and modern lighting can keep people up at night and make them sleep less overall. Artificial lighting can disrupt circadian rhythms, our biological clock is used to waking up with sun and sleeping with the sun. Light can delay sleep.

Why would we not eat?

Exert control Lose weight Make a political statement No access to food

What do we call it when the CR decreases as the CS is repeatedly presented alone? Generalization Discrimination Spontaneous recovery Extinction Acquisition

Extinction

Which of the following expressions about nonverbal expression is true? People blind from birth do not usually exhibit common facial expressions. The meaning of gestures is the same across cultures. Facial signs of emotion are generally understood across world cultures. People from different cultures have difficulty understanding nonverbal expressions. Nonverbal expression is not reliably interpreted within a culture.

Facial signs of emotion are generally understood across world cultures

Which of the following is the longest prenatal stage? Teratogen Conception Zygote Embryo Fetus

Fetus

According to Erikson, which of the following is a dominant goal of adulthood? Competence Generativity Performance Identity Connectedness

Generativity

According to Erikson, what is the primary developmental task for adolescents? Trust versus mistrust Initiative versus guilt Competence versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation

Identity versus role confusion

A question on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) such as "I get angry sometimes" is included to determine what about the test-taker? -- Whether the person has a personality disorder. If the person needs immediate help for anger management. If the person is more extraverted than introverted. Whether the person has a stronger id or superego. If the person is answering the questions truthfully.

If the person is answering the questions truthfully.

Example of context effects

Imagine hearing a noise interrupted by the words "eel is on the wagon." Likely, you would actually perceive the first word as wheel. Given "eel is on the orange," you would hear peel. This curious phenomenon, discovered by Richard Warren, suggests that the brain can work backward in time to allow a later stimulus to determine how we perceive an earlier one. The context creates an expectation that, top-down, influences our perception

Which of the following disorders do Americans report most frequently? -- Schizophrenia Mood disorders Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Mood disorders

What are mood disorders? How does major depressive disorder differ from bipolar disorder?

Mood disorders are characterized by emotional extremes. A person with major depressive disorder experiences two or more weeks of seriously depressed moods and feelings of worthlessness, and takes little interest in, and derives little pleasure from, most activities. A person with the less common condition of bipolar disorder experiences not only depression but also mania—episodes of hyperactive and wildly optimistic, impulsive behavior.

Attempts to control social behavior by using the punishing effects of isolation is an example of attachment disorder. ostracism. exploitation. wanting to belong. conforming.

Ostracism

How can we best understand and control pain?

Pain reflects bottom-up sensations (such as input from nociceptors, the sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals) and top-down processes (such as experience, attention, and culture). One theory of pain is that a "gate" in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The biopsychosocial perspective views our perception of pain as the sum of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. Pain treatments often combine physical and psychological elements, including placebos and distractions.

Recent research most consistently supports the effectiveness of hypnosis in which of the following areas? - Pain relief - Recovery of lost memories - Reduction of sleep deprivation - Forcing people to act against their will - Cessation of smoking

Pain relief

Which of the following processes would produce the acquisition of a conditioned response? Repeatedly present an unconditioned response Administer the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus Make sure that the conditioned stimulus comes at least one minute before the unconditioned stimulus Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus several times Present the conditioned stimulus until it starts to produce an unconditioned response

Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus several times

Explain how perceptual constancies help us organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions. (short answer)

Perceptual constancy enables us to perceive objects as stable despite the changing image they cast on our retinas. Color constancy is our ability to perceive consistent color in objects, even though the lighting and wavelengths shift. Brightness (or lightness) constancy is our ability to perceive an object as having a constant lightness even when its illumination—the light cast upon it—changes. Our brain constructs our experience of an object's color or brightness through comparisons with other surrounding objects. Shape constancy is our ability to perceive familiar objects (such as an opening door) as unchanging in shape. Size constancy is perceiving objects as unchanging in size despite their changing retinal images. Knowing an object's size gives us clues to its distance; knowing its distance gives clues about its size, but we sometimes misread monocular distance cues and reach the wrong conclusions, as in the Moon illusion.

Which term describes questionnaires that cover a wide range of feelings and behaviors and are designed to assess several traits? Factor analysis studies Peer reports Achievement tests Cognition tests Personality inventories

Personality inventories

Why do we eat?

Physiological need: our bodies need nourishment to relieve hunger Psychological need: feel comforted, socialize, relieve boredom

What theories help us understand pitch perception?

Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and frequency theory explains how we hear low-pitched sounds. (A combination of the two theories (the volley principle) explains how we hear pitches in the middle range.) Place theory proposes that our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the place where a sound wave stimulates the cochlea's basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain deciphers the frequency of the neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain.

Which of the following correctly describes one of Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning? -- Preconventional stage, where one follows moral principles Conventional stage, where individualism is foremost Conventional stage, where it is imperative to uphold the law and follow rules Preconventional stage, where moral judgment depends on rewards and punishments Postconventional stage, where it is imperative to uphold the law and follow rules

Preconventional stage, where one follows moral principles

Junita does not feel like getting out of bed, has lost her appetite, and feels tired for most of the day. Which of the following neurotransmitters likely is in short supply for Junita? Dopamine Serotonin Norephinephrine Acetylcholine Glutamate

Serotonin

Your best friend decides to paint her room an extremely bright electric blue. Which of the following best fits the physical properties of the color's light waves? - No wavelength; large amplitude - Short wavelength; large amplitude - Short wavelength; small amplitude - Long wavelength; large amplitude - No wavelength; small amplitude

Short wavelength; large amplitude

Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: weight

Sleep loss can make you fatter. Sleep deprivation increases ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone and decreases leptin which suppresses hunger. It increases cortisol, a stress hormone that stimulates the body to make fat.

What are bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity that occur during NREM-2 sleep? - Hallucinations - Circadian rhythms - Alpha waves - Sleep spindles - Delta waves

Sleep spindles

Sleep: Creative thinking

Sleep theory that states that decision making and creative thinking are improved after sleeping. sleep allows us to solve problems more insightfully

Harry Harlow

Studied attachment in infant rhesus monkeys with artificial mothers Removed newborn monkeys from their mothers at birth & raised them in the lab with 2 types of artificial mothers - ½ fed by wire mother, other ½ fed by cloth mother - Young monkey's attachment measured by the amount of time they spent with each mother - Bodily contact and touch are vital to emotional wellbeing and development - Monkey preferred cloth mother b/c it provided sense of security

What factors affect suicide and self-injury, and what are some of the important warning signs to watch for in suicide-prevention efforts?

Suicide rates differ by nation, race, gender, age group, income, religious involvement, marital status, and (for gay and lesbian youth) social support structure. Those with depression are more at risk for suicide than others are, but social suggestion, health status, and economic and social frustration are also contributing factors. Environmental barriers (such as jump barriers) are effective in preventing suicides. Forewarnings of suicide may include verbal hints, giving away possessions, withdrawal, preoccupation with death, and discussing one's own suicide. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) does not usually lead to suicide but may escalate to suicidal thoughts and acts if untreated. People who engage in NSSI do not tolerate stress well and tend to be self-critical, with poor communication and problem-solving skills.

What does Edward Thorndike's law of effect state? The difference between positive and negative reinforcement That behavior maintained by partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction than behavior maintained by continuous reinforcement How shaping can be used to establish operant conditioning That rewarded behavior is more likely to happen again The limited effectiveness of punishment

That rewarded behavior is more likely to happen again

How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders?

The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) contains diagnostic labels and descriptions that provide a common language and shared concepts for communication and research. Some critics believe the DSM editions have become too detailed and extensive.

Critics of behavior modification express two concerns

The first is practical: How durable are the behaviors? Will people become so dependent on extrinsic rewards that the appropriate behaviors will stop when the reinforcers stop? Proponents of behavior modification believe the behaviors will endure if therapists wean patients from the tokens by shifting them toward other, real-life rewards, such as social approval. They also point out that the appropriate behaviors themselves can be intrinsically rewarding The second concern is ethical: Is it right for one human to control another's behavior? Those who set up token economies deprive people of something they desire and decide which behaviors to reinforce. To critics, this whole process has an authoritarian taint. Advocates reply that some patients request the therapy. Moreover, control already exists; rewards and punishers are already maintaining destructive behavior patterns. So why not reinforce adaptive behavior instead? Treatment with positive rewards is more humane than being institutionalized or punished, advocates argue, and the right to effective treatment and an improved life justifies temporary deprivation.

Which of the following describes the idea that psychological disorders can be diagnosed and treated? Taijin-kyofusho The DSM The biopsychosocial approach Amok The medical model

The medical model

X chromosome

The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Amy was sure everyone noticed how nervous she was when she spoke in front of the entire school, but later no one that she talked to mentioned it. What is the term for the belief that others are always noticing and evaluating us more than they really are? Self-monitoring Self-schemas Possible selves The spotlight effect The social-cognitive perspective

The spotlight effect

How do we sense our body's position and movement?

Through kinesthesia, we sense the position and movement of our body parts. We monitor our body's position and movement, and maintain our balance with our vestibular sense.

McGurk Effect

What we see overrides what we hear influences what we hear such as seeing someone say one syllable while hearing another; we may perceive a third syllable that blends both inputs ex) seeing mouth movements for GA while hearing BA may allow us to perceive DA

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution

electroconvulsive therapy

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)

extinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

Fixed-ratio schedule

a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses; the faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they'll receive; speed matters-the faster the rat makes the required amount of responses, the faster it will be fed ex) stores that run a buy 5, get 1 free special

fixed-interval schedule

a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time ex) a researcher always reinforces a rat's first bar press after 60 sec. After receiving a food pellet for that response, the rat has to wait 60 sec before it'll be reinforced for another correct response Interval (60sec) = fixed; no way the rat can get reinforced during the interval A SPECIFIC TIME HAS TO PASS

midlife transition

a period in middle adulthood when a person's perspective on his or her life may change significantly crisis, time of great struggle, regret, or even feeling struck down by life reassess goals

relative motion

a person who's moving can determine depth by focusing on a distant object -Objects further away than the object of focus will appear to move in the same direction as the subject is moving -Objects closer than the object of focus will appear to move in the opposite direction

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

Sensation Seeking Scale

a personality inventory to measure the sensation-seeking tendency

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

technique: Rank thoughts and emotions

aim: reveal beliefs therapists' directives: Gain perspective by ranking your thoughts and emotions from mildly to extremely upsetting.

technique: examine consequences

aim: test beliefs therapists' directives: Explore difficult situations, assessing possible consequences and challenging faulty reasoning.

technique: decatastrophize thinking

aim: test beliefs therapists' directives: Work through the actual worst-case consequences of the situation you face (it is often not as bad as imagined). Then determine how to cope with the real situation you face.

Explicit memory

aka "Declarative memory" Refers to facts and experience that one can consciously know and declare Facts we learn, episodes we experience

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders

aka: DSM manual of psychological disorders and their symptoms - classifies mental disorders

TAT test

aka: thematic apperception test a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes assert that a person's responses reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through stories they make up about ambiguous pictures - Picture interpretation technique

self concept

all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

Monocular Parallax

although we can see depth with only one eye it is much more difficult to perceive depth with one eye closed than with both eyes open -Animals with eyes on the sides of their heads (birds) tend to compensate for their lack of depth perception by moving their heads

phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.

Which of the following represents perceptual constancy? a. We recognize the taste of McDonald's food each time we eat it. b. In photos of people, the people almost always are perceived as figure and everything else as ground. c. We know that the color of a printed page has not changed as it moves from sunlight into shadow d. From the time they are very young, most people can recognize the smell of a dentist's office e. The cold water in a lake doesn't seem so cold after you have been swimming in it for a few minutes

c. We know that the color of a printed page has not changed as it moves from sunlight into shadow

Computer-enhanced X-rays used to create brain images are known as a. position emission tomography scans b. functional magnetic resonance images c. computed tomography scans d. electroencephalograms e. magnetic resonance images

c. computed tomography scans

parasympathetic nervous system

calms the body, brings it to relaxed state

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

STAGE 3 and 4:

delta sleep, "slow wave" sleep -may last 15-30 min -slow-wave b/c brain activity slows dramatically -theta rhythm of stage 2--> much slower rhythm called delta (amp of waves increase dramatically) Delta sleep: deepest stage of sleep (REM is not) and the most restorative

Types of research

descriptive, correlational, experimental

amplitude (sound)

determines loudness the physical strength of the sound wave

David Wechsler

developed the Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for preschoolers, developed it because Stanford-Binet was biased towards English speaking people Measure overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intellea that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems, verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory most widely used, kinda like common sense questions

Place Theory

different frequencies of sound waves are said to vibrate different places on the cochlea. these places are wired to different parts of the auditory cortex in the brain so that the sound can be processed correctly

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell - Classical condition: learning to associate one stimulus to another (stimulus-stimulus learning)

Negative effect of punishment

doesn't prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the Punisher, can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self-esteem, children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems, may explain why abusive parents tend to come from abusive families

Problem solving dream theory

dreams are way to solve problems while sleeping -Rosalind Cartwright: dreamers sort through and accept emotions associated with yesterday's misfortunes -Fiss: dreams help us register subtle hints that go unnoticed during the day Argument against this: most people only remember a small amount of their dreams

information processing theory

dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories you experience that day -REM does increase after stressful events

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment aka. Tranquilizers ex) Nembutal, Seconal, Amytal - sometimes prescribed to induce sleep and decrease anxiety - if combined with alcohol, the total depressive effect on the body can be lethal

John B. Watson

founder of behaviorism - little Albert and Generalization

William James

founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment

somatosensory cortex

front of parietal lobes, registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

Charles Spearman's g refers to general intelligence. grouped intelligence factors. genetic intelligence. generated creativity. generalized reliability.

general intelligence.

parietal lobe

general processing, sensory info, body position "association lobe" reasoning, math

Rogers encouraged therapists to exhibit

genuineness, acceptance, empathy When therapists enable their clients to feel unconditionally accepted, when they drop their façades and genuinely express their true feelings, and when they empathically sense and reflect their clients' feelings, the clients may deepen their self-understanding and self-acceptance

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent) By exposing such feelings, you may gain insight into your current relationships.

gender

in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

2 types of specialized cells important for kinesthetic sense

in tendons: connect muscles to bones and are triggered by tension in muscles: triggered by length of muscle

Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)

in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities - Used to be known as Multiple Personality Disorder Person has several rather than one integrated personality People w/DID commonly have a history of childhood abuse or trauma "Sybil" or "the 3 faces of Eve" are good examples Therapy often makes use of hypnosis Goal: integrate and fuse identities into single, stable personality

Caffeine/Nicotine

increase heart and breathing rates and other automatic functions to provide energy

top-down processing

information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations to interpret incoming sensory info and construct perceptions

behavioral genetics

interdisciplinary field that studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior

What are some examples for each theory of emotion?

james lange: we observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid cannon-bard: our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid 2-factor: we may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context zajonc/leDoux: we automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat Lazarus: the sound is "just the wind"

hypothalamus

located directly under front of thalamus regulates biological needs (eating, drinking, body temp..)

thyroid gland

located in neck; regulates energy level in body hypo and hyper thyroidism

tardive dyskinesia

long term use of antipsychotic drugs can produce tardive dyskinesia Involuntary movements of the facial muscles such as grimacing, tongue, and lips

Sternberg's Triangular Theory

love is made up of intimacy, passion, and commitment - Intimacy: affection, sharing, support, and communication in a relationship - Passion: high levels of physical arousal in a relationship, especially sexual - Commitment: decision to love and stay with another person - Infatuation: passion without commitment or intimacy

Parkinsons

low dopamine levels = slow body movements or tremors

long wavelength

low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)

progressive relaxation

lying down comfortably and tensing and releasing the tension in each major muscle group in turn

Psychological influences on pain

our mental state can influence the degree to which we experience pain we can edit our memories of pain- which often differ from the pain that we actually experienced

identity

our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

Divisions of the ear

outer, middle, inner

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

counter conditioning

pairs the trigger stimulus (enclosed space of elevator) w/new response (relaxation) that is incompatible w/fear. Behavior therapist have successfully counter-conditioned people w/fears. A procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors Based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy

Authoritarian

parents impose rules and expect obedience "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Don't stay out late or you'll be grounded." "Why? Because I said so."

Permissive

parents submit to children's demands and use little punishment

dendrites

part of the neuron that receives messages

no coercion

participants must provide consent and know that they are involved in research; limited deception

mere exposure effect

people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them

Value Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism

self - i: independent (identity from individual traits) - c: interdependent (identity from belonging) life task - i: discover and express one's uniqueness - c: maintain connections, fit in, perform role what matters - i: me-personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-esteem - c: us-group goals and solidarity, social responsibilities and relationships, family duty coping method - i: change reality - c: accommodate to reality morality - i: defined by individuals (self-based) - c: defined by social networks (duty-based) relationships - i: many; often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable - c: few, close and enduring; harmony valued attributing behavior - i: behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes - c: behavior reflects social norms and roles

ego

self the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. reality principle Between id and superego The self decides what to do "let's figure out a way to work together."

what does the nervous system do?

sends messages from the brain to body for movement

Resting Potential

the state of a neuron when it is at rest and capable of generating an action potential; set and ready to fire again

Socio-cultural

the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.

figure-ground

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surrounding (the ground) Figure: object that stands out Ground: background

Grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into understandable groups includes Similarity, Proximity, Closure, Continuity

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

resillience

the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma

cocktail party effect

the phenomenon of being able to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, much the same way that a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room.

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

Imprinting

the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during a critical period very early in life

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

person-situation controversy

the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors

benefits of belonging

1) social bonds 2) cooperation towards survival 3) positive influence on thoughts and behaviors

Kinsey's Studies

Alfred Kinsey held confidential interviews with 18k people (early 50s) Institute was founded in 1947, just before the publication of Sexual Behavior in the Human male in 1948, by pioneering sex researcher Dr. Alfred C. Kinsey

encoding

Getting info in automatic processing - Some info is automatically processed (route to school) - new/unusual information requires attention and effort

In general, what are the functions of the various regions of the cerebral cortex?

Information processing, control of voluntary movements, high mental processes

Which of the following is considered a benefit of group therapy? It is the most effective therapy for children. It is particularly effective in the treatment of antisocial personality disorder. It is particularly effective in the treatment of schizophrenia. It is the only setting proven effective for virtual reality exposure therapy. It saves time and money when compared with other forms of therapy.

It saves time and money when compared with other forms of therapy.

What do we call the illusion of movement that results from two or more stationary, adjacent lights blinking on and off in quick succession? - Phi phenomenon - Perceptual constancy - Binocular cues - Retinal disparity - Depth perception

Phi phenomenon

Parapyschology

The study of paranormal phenomenon- ESP and Pyschokinesis. The study of extrasensory perceptions.

Goals of Psychoanalytic Therapy

To make the unconscious conscious. To reconstruct the basic personality. To assist clients in reliving earlier experience and working through repressed conflicts. To achieve intellectual awareness.

oedipus complex

a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

generally speaking, heritability is the extent to which a) difference among people are accounted for by genes b) an individual's specific traits are due to genes or the environment c) differences among people are due to the environment d) differences among people are due to their cultural heritage e) an individual's height is related to the height of his or her parents

a) difference among people are accounted for by genes

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

Anxiety disorders

combo of physical, cognitive, and psychological symptoms in which a person's sympathetic nervous system has initiated a fight or flight response Anxiety is very common among people in the US Typically Situational: we can usually point to cause of anxiety. When we cannot identify cause, it is more problematic

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences - Corrupting: Drugs quickly corrupt - Support: Cannot be overcome voluntarily - Misconceptions: not different than repetitive pleasure-seeking behavior, gambling, food, and internet

hairy skin

contains hair cells, which detect movement and pressure

What part of the brain triggers the release of adrenaline to boost heart rate when you're afraid? a. amygdala b. thalamus c. medulla d. hippocampus e. hypothalamus

e. hypothalamus

Statistical abnormality

having extreme scores on some dimension, such as intelligence, anxiety, or depression

Mary had a a little lamb What's this an example of?

perceptual set - many people perceive what they expect, and miss the repeated word

Hunger Pangs

stomach pains/contractions which send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger

neurogenesis

the formation of new neurons

According to most experts, intelligence tests are not biased because -- the average scores for various racial and ethnic groups do not differ by much. the tests do a pretty good job of predicting what they are supposed to predict. cultural background has little influence on test scores. scores on the test are not very stable even when you don't consider race. scores are increasing for almost all groups because of the Flynn effect.

the tests do a pretty good job of predicting what they are supposed to predict.

Deja Vu

"I've experienced this before" Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience Happens most commonly to well educated, imaginative young adults, especially when tired or stressed If we have previously been in a similar situation, the current situation may be loaded with cues that unconsciously retrieve the earlier experience

Tongue Phenomenon

"You know a name but were unable to retrieve it" - it's on the tip of your tongue Occurs when the retrieval process does not produce a complete response but parts that must be constructed into a whole Shows how forgetting may result from retrieval failure rather than encoding or storage failure

general intelligence

(g) a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Why can't we tickle ourselves?

- No surprise - produces less somatosensory cortex activation than does the same tickle from something or someone else (the brain is wise enough to be most sensitive to unexpected stimulation)

Describe the 5 stages of sleep

1-2: you first fall asleep, but you are not yet in deep sleep 3-4: you are in a deep, restful sleep-breathing and heart rate slow, body is still 5: brain is active and you dream. your eyes move under your eyelids in rapid eye movement (REM)

Which of the following would be considered an example of Erikson's concept of generativity? -- A 25-year-old meets and marries the love of his life. A 35-year-old earns a lot of money, though she doesn't particularly enjoy her job. An 85-year-old looks back at a life well-lived and feels satisfied. A 40-year-old takes pride in her work and how she has raised her children. A 20-year-old decides to become a physician.

A 40-year-old takes pride in her work and how she has raised her children.

interpersonal therapy

A brief, psychodynamic psychotherapy that focuses on current relationships and is based on the assumption that symptoms are caused and maintained by interpersonal problems.

Why is there some controversy over attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?

A child who by age 7 displays extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and treated with medication and other therapy. The controversy centers on whether the growing number of ADHD cases reflects overdiagnosis or increased awareness of the disorder. Long-term effects of stimulant-drug treatment for ADHD are not yet known.

Neurotransmitters and depression

A reduction of norepinephrine and serotonin has been found in depression Drugs that alleviate mania reduce norepinephrine Suicide: the most severe form of behavioral response to depression is suicide

How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?

A reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.

Brain-scanning techniques reveal what kinds of brain activity differences in people with chronic schizophrenia? Abnormally high brain activity in the frontal lobes An increase in the brain waves that reflect synchronized neural firing Abnormal activity in multiple brain areas Decreased activity in the amygdala A lack of dopamine receptors

Abnormal activity in multiple brain areas

How would a hearing specialist test absolute threshold for sounds?

Absolute Threshold is the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50 percent of the time. To test your absolute threshold for sounds, a hearing specialist would expose each of your ears to varying sound levels. For each tone, the test would define where half the time you could detect the sound and half the time you could not. That 50-50 point would define your absolute threshold.

How is adolescence defined, and what physical changes mark this period?

Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence. For boys, early maturation has mixed effects; for girls, early maturation can be a challenge. The brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.

How do the eye and the brain process visual information?

After processing by bipolar and ganglion cells in the eyes' retina, neural impulses travel through the optic nerve, to the thalamus, and on to the visual cortex. In the visual cortex, feature detectors respond to specific features of the visual stimulus. Supercell clusters in other critical brain areas respond to more complex patterns. Through parallel processing, the brain handles many aspects of vision (color, movement, form, and depth) simultaneously. Other neural teams integrate the results, comparing them with stored information and enabling perceptions

Who of the following is considered the leading advocate of personality's social-cognitive approach? Gordon Allport Carl Jung Karen Horney Carl Rogers Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura

self-efficacy

An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. - the learned expectation of success If we think we will succeed, we have a better chance of succeeding Can play a major role in how we approach goals, tasks, and challenges (optimism v. pessimistic)

Explain how visual processing works as you look at a tiger in the zoo.

As you look at that tiger in the zoo, information enters your eyes, is transduced, and is sent to your brain as millions of neural impulses. As your brain buzzes with activity, various areas focus on different aspects of the tiger's image. Finally, in some as yet mysterious way, these separate teams pool their work to produce a meaningful image, which you compare with previously stored images and recognize: a crouching tiger

How might Skinner's operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, at home, and for self-improvement?

At school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use electronic adaptive quizzing to provide immediate feedback. In sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.

What is the routine for visual processing?

At the entry level, information processing begins in the retina's neural layers, which are actually brain tissue that has migrated to the eye during early fetal development. These layers don't just pass along electrical impulses; they also help to encode and analyze sensory information. After processing by your retina's nearly 130 million receptor rods and cones, information travels to your bipolar cells, then to your million or so ganglion cells, and through their axons making up the optic nerve to your brain. Any given retinal area relays its information to a corresponding location in the visual cortex, in the occipital lobe at the back of your brain.

What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?

Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell and sound. Researchers use techniques that test habituation, such as the visual-preference procedure, to explore infants' abilities.

Which of the following would be considered a sign of secure attachment in a 1-year-old? -- Showing no sign of stranger anxiety, whether the parent is present or not Paying no attention to a parent who returns after a brief separation Showing anger at the parent after a brief separation Becoming distressed when the parent leaves and seeking contact on return Not reacting to a parent leaving or returning after a brief separation

Becoming distressed when the parent leaves and seeking contact on return

How does the basic assumption of behavior therapy differ from those of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies? What techniques are used in exposure therapies and aversive conditioning?

Behavior therapies are not insight therapies. Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviors. Classical conditioning techniques, including exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization or virtual reality exposure therapy) and aversive conditioning, attempt to change behaviors through counterconditioning—evoking new responses to old stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.

How does a perceived lack of control affect people's behavior and health?

Being unable to avoid repeated aversive events can lead to learned helplessness. People who perceive an internal locus of control achieve more, enjoy better health, and are happier than those who perceive an external locus of control. Self-control requires attention and energy, but it predicts good adjustment, better grades, and social success. A perceived lack of control provokes an outpouring of hormones that put people's health at risk.

carl rogers

Believed in individuals personal growth tendencies. People are naturally good. Self-concept: our perception of our abilities, behaviors, and characteristics - if self-concept is positive, we act in positive ways Genuine: being open with feelings and dropping facades Acceptance: get rid of conditions of worth Empathy: sharing and mirroring our feelings and reflecting meanings

How do we use binocular and monocular cues to perceive the world in three dimensions and perceive motion? (long answer)

Binocular cues are depth cues that depend on the use of 2 eyes. Since the eyes are 2 ½ in. apart, the 2 retinas can receive slightly different images of the world. Retinal disparity compares the images from the retinas allowing the brain to judge how close an object is to you (distance). The greater the disparity or difference between the 2 images, the closer the object. Monocular cues are depth cues available to each eye separately (relative height, relative size, interposition, relative motion, linear perspective, light and shadow) Relative height: we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away; Relative size: if we assume 2 objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away; Interposition: if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer; Relative motion: as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move- if you stare at a specific point (house) while moving (riding a bus), the farther an object is from that fixation point, the faster it will seem to move; Linear perspective: Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance, the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance; Light and Shadow: shading produces a sense of depth consistent w/our assumption that light comes from above. Normally, the brain compute motion based partly on its assumption that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching. Large objects (train) may appear to move more slowly than smaller objects (cars) moving at the same speed. To catch a flyball, softball players follow an unconscious rule - run to keep the ball at a constantly increasing angle of gaze. The brain can also perceive continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images (stroboscopic movement). You can create this illusion by flashing 24 still pictures a second. Films are merely a superfast slideshow. Phi Phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on an off in a quick succession - perceive a single light moving back and forth.

Which of the following is most closely associated with hairlike receptors in the semicircular canals? - Body position - Smell - Hearing - Pain - Touch

Body position

Which of the following represents a circadian rhythm? - A burst of growth occurs during puberty. - A full Moon occurs about once a month. - Body temperature rises each day as morning approaches. - When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in the southern hemisphere. - Pulse rate increases when we exercise.

Body temperature rises each day as morning approaches.

Which of the following can be characterized as a compulsion? -- Worry about exposure to germs or toxins Fear that something terrible is about to happen Concern with making sure things are in symmetrical order Anxiety when objects are not lined up in an exact pattern Checking repeatedly to see if doors are locked

Checking repeatedly to see if doors are locked

What are the basic components of classical conditioning, and what was behaviorism's view of learning?

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. In classical conditioning, an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. A UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS is a previously neutral stimulus (such as a tone) that, after association with a US (such as food) comes to trigger a CR. A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus. Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.

Which of the following therapeutic approaches is scientifically supported? Recovered-memory therapies Rebirthing therapies Cognitive therapy Energy therapies Crisis debriefing

Cognitive therapy

Which kind of therapy below is most closely associated with the goal of altering thoughts and actions? Aversive conditioning Psychodynamic Client-centered Family Cognitive-behavioral

Cognitive-behavioral

What did Carl Jung call the shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history? Neurosis Archetypes Collective unconscious Inferiority complex Terror management

Collective unconscious

What type of hearing loss is due to damage to the mechanism that transmits sound waves to the cochlea? - Sensorineural - Window-related - Conduction - Cochlear - Basilar

Conduction

What do we call awareness of our environment and ourselves? - Selective attention - Hypnotism - Posthypnotic suggestion - Dissociation - Consciousness

Consciousness

What does research on restored vision, sensory restriction, and perceptual adaptation reveal about the effects of experience on perception? (short answer)

Experience guides our perceptual interpretations. People blind from birth who gained sight after surgery lack the experience to visually recognize shapes, forms, and complete faces. Sensory restriction research indicates that there is a critical period for some aspects of sensory and perceptual development. Without early stimulation, the brain's neural organization does not develop normally. People given glasses that shift the world slightly to the left or right, or even upside down, experience perceptual adaptation. They are initially disoriented, but they manage to adapt to their new context.

What do we call a desire to perform a behavior in order to receive promised rewards or to avoid threatened punishment? Latent learning Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation Insight learning Emotion-focused coping

Extrinsic motivation

Which of the following is the best biological explanation for why the human body stores fat? Fat signals affluence and social status. Fat is a fuel reserve during periods when food is scarce. Fat is a display of abundant food sources. Fat keeps the body warm in winter climates. Fat combats the global epidemic of diabetes.

Fat is a fuel reserve during periods when food is scarce

What do we call the specialized neurons in the occipital lobe's visual cortex that respond to particular edges, lines, angles, and movements? - Rods - Cones - Foveas - Feature detectors - Ganglion cells

Feature detectors

Which of the following is the best example of sensory interaction? - Finding that despite its delicious aroma, a weird-looking meal tastes awful - Finding that food tastes bland when you have a bad cold - Finding it difficult to maintain your balance when you have an ear infection - Finding that the cold pool water doesn't feel so cold after a while - All of these are examples.

Finding that food tastes bland when you have a bad cold

absent mindedness

Forgetting caused by lapses in attention inattention to details --> encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere)

Which of Jean Piaget's stages describes typical adolescent thinking? Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Accommodation

Formal operational

Freud's dream theory

Freud believed that dreams are the single, best source of information about the unconscious; dreams are highly sufficient, carefully constructed, and always contain a concealed meaning; dreams are not random purpose of dreams is wish fulfillment and fulfillment of unconscious desires -dreams were the key to understanding inner conflicts -ideas and thoughts are hidden in the unconscious he studied manifest and latent content

How do gender roles and gender typing influence gender development?

Gender roles, the behaviors a culture expects from its males and females, vary across place and time. Social learning theory proposes that we learn gender identity—our sense of being male or female—as we learn other things: through reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Critics argue that cognition also plays a role because modeling and rewards cannot explain gender typing. Transgender people's gender identity or expression differs from their birth sex. Their sexual orientation may be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual.

Diego likes to play sports and video games whereas Sara likes to sing, dance, and play "house." This example best depicts which of the following? Gender identity Gender typing Gender schema Social learning theory Gender expression

Gender typing

Biological Perspective: depression

Genetic influences: mood disorders run in families Rate of depression is higher in identical (50%) than fraternal (20%) Linkage analysis and association studies link possible genes and dispositions for depression

Describe Gestalt psychologists' understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. (short answer)

Gestalt psychologists searched for rules by which the brain organizes fragments of sensory data into gestalts (from the German word for "whole"), or meaningful forms. In pointing out that the whole may exceed the sum of its parts, they noted that we filter sensory information and construct our perceptions. To recognize an object, we must first perceive it (see it as a figure) as distinct from its surroundings (the ground). We bring order and form to stimuli by organizing them into meaningful groups, following such rules as proximity, continuity, and closure.

Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magoun reticular formation study on cats

Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magoun discovered that electrically stimulating the reticular formation of a sleeping cat almost instantly produced an awake, alert animal. When Magoun severed a cat's reticular formation without damaging the nearby sensory pathways, the effect was equally dramatic: The cat lapsed into a coma from which it never awakened. The conclusion? The reticular formation enables arousal.

Someone from a collectivist culture is more likely to do what? Develop a strong sense of self Give priority to group goals Form casual, often temporary relationships Achieve personal goals Focus on how they are different from the group

Give priority to group goals

all therapies offer at least three benefits:

HOPE FOR DEMORALIZED PEOPLE (people seeking therapy typically feel anxious, depressed, devoid of self-esteem, and incapable of turning things around; "things can and will get better") A NEW PERSPECTIVE (offers people a plausible explanation of their symptoms and an alternative way of looking at themselves or responding to their world. Armed with a believable fresh perspective, they may approach life with a new attitude, open to making changes in their behaviors and their views of themselves.) AN EMPATHIC, TRUSTING, CARING RELATIONSHIP (effective therapists are empathic people who seek to understand another's experience; who communicate their care and concern to the client; and who earn the client's trust through respectful listening, reassurance, and advice.)

Positive & Negative Schizophrenic Symptoms

Have inappropriate symptoms (hallucination, disorganized thinking, deluded ways) that are not present in normal individuals (positive symptoms) Absence of appropriate symptoms (apathy, expressionless faces, rigid body) that are present in normal individuals (negative symptoms) When schizophrenia is slow to develop (chronic/process), recovery is doubtful (usually display negative symptoms) When it rapidly develops (acute/reactive), recovery is better (positive symptoms)

William Stern

He invented the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ= (mental age ÷ chronological age) x 100

Explain Freud's theory of wish fulfillment in dreams

He proposed that dreams provide a psychic safety valve that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings. He viewed a dream's manifest content (remembered story line of a dream) as a censored, symbolic version of its latent content (underlying meaning of the dream) the unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly. Freud considered dreams to be the key to understanding inner conflicts.

Which subfield of psychology provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine? Cognitive Health Clinical Educational Community

Health

8 Intelligences (Gardner)

Identified 8 relatively independent intelligences, and views them as multiple abilities that come in different packages. Logical-mathematical Verbal-linguistic Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist

What's an example of how perceptual set can affect what we see?

In 1972, a British newspaper published unretouched photographs of a "monster" in Scotland's Loch Ness—"the most amazing pictures ever taken," stated the paper. If this information creates in you the same expectations it did in most of the paper's readers, you, too, will see the monster in a similar photo in FIGURE 17.2. But when a skeptical researcher approached the photos with different expectations, he saw a curved tree limb—as had others the day the photo was shot. With this different perceptual set, you may now notice that the object is floating motionless, with ripples outward in all directions—hardly what we would expect of a lively monster. Once we have formed a wrong idea about reality, we have more difficulty seeing the truth. BELIEVING IS SEEING

In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?

In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.

From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky, and today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?

In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. They form schemas that help them organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence, children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the preoperational stage (about age 2 to about 6 or 7), they develop a theory of mind, but they are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. At age 6 or 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation. By about age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development is more continuous, than he believed. Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the ways a child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning.

When and why were intelligence tests created?

In the late 1800s, Francis Galton, who believed that genius was inherited, attempted but failed to construct a simple intelligence test. In France in 1904, Alfred Binet, who tended toward an environmental explanation of intelligence differences, started the modern intelligence-testing movement by developing questions to measure children's mental age and thus predict progress in the school system. -- During the early twentieth century, Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet's work for use in the United States. - Terman believed intelligence is inherited, and he thought his Stanford-Binet could help guide people toward appropriate opportunities. - During this period, intelligence tests were sometimes used to "document" scientists' assumptions about the innate inferiority of certain ethnic and immigrant groups.

How do anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder demonstrate the influence of psychological and genetic forces?

In these eating disorders, psychological factors may overwhelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state. Despite being significantly underweight, people with anorexia nervosa (usually adolescent females) continue to diet because they view themselves as fat. Those with bulimia nervosa (usually females in their teens and twenties) secretly binge and then compensate by purging, fasting, or excessively exercising. Those with binge-eating disorder binge but do not follow bingeing with purging, fasting, or exercise. Cultural pressures, low self-esteem, and negative emotions interact with stressful life experiences and genetics to produce eating disorders.

Which of the following is an unlearned, complex behavior exhibited by all members of a species? Reflex Drive Incentive Instinct Motive

Instinct

Why do intelligent people live longer?

Intelligence provides better access to resources. Intelligence encourages healthy lifestyles. Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses could influence both intelligence and health. A "well-wired body" as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, may foster both intelligence and longer life.

Which of the following is not a component of emotional intelligence? Understanding emotions Perceiving emotions Using emotions Managing emotions Inventing emotions

Inventing emotions

Compared with the late nineteenth century, what is true about the transition from childhood to adulthood in Western cultures? -- It starts earlier and is completed earlier. It starts later and is completed later. It starts later and is completed earlier. It starts earlier and is completed later. It has not changed.

It starts earlier and is completed later.

Which of the following represents drug tolerance? - Hans has grown to accept the fact that his wife likes to have a beer with her dinner, even though he personally does not approve of the use of alcohol. - Jose often wakes up with a headache that lasts until he has his morning cup of coffee. - Pierre enjoys the effect of marijuana and is now using the drug several times a week. - Jacob had to increase the dosage of his pain medication when the old dosage no longer effectively controlled the pain from his chronic back condition. - Chau lost his job and is now homeless as a result of his drug use.

Jacob had to increase the dosage of his pain medication when the old dosage no longer effectively controlled the pain from his chronic back condition.

Sensing the position and movement of individual body parts is an example of which sense? Kinesthetic Vestibular Auditory Umami Olfactory

Kinesthetic

Jean Piaget

Known for his theory of cognitive development in children - noticed his children were able to handle logical problems differently at different ages - as children age, their ability to handle logical problems change - described how people are able to deal with logical problems differently at different points in their lives

Which of the following drugs produces effects similar to a near-death experience? - Ecstasy - Nicotine - Barbiturate - Methamphetamine - LSD

LSD

What is learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?

Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli (a stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response). In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior. For example, in observational learning, we learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.

What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?

Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties and continue to decline throughout middle adulthood (roughly age 40 to 65) and late adulthood (the years after 65). Women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50; men have no similar age-related sharp drop in hormone levels or fertility. In late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses. Chromosome tips (telomeres) wear down, reducing the chances of normal genetic replication. But for some, longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health habits enable better health in later life.

alfred adler

Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order like Freud, believed in childhood tensions, however, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual A child struggles with inferiority complex during growth and strikes for superiority and power - Adler: a foremost source of human motivation is a striving for superiority, universal drive to improve oneself, and master life's challenges. *Founder of Individual Psychology Studied inferiority complex Superiority is a prime goal in life, rather than physical gratification compensation, inferiority complex, and overcompensation

Are some psychotherapies more effective than others for specific disorders?

No one type of psychotherapy is generally superior to all others. Therapy is most effective for those with clear-cut, specific problems. Some therapies—such as behavior conditioning for treating phobias and compulsions—are more effective for specific disorders. Psychodynamic therapy helped treat depression and anxiety, and cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies have been effective in coping with anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression. Evidence-based practice integrates the best available research with clinicians' expertise and patients' characteristics, preferences, and circumstances.

Which of the following statements about the impact of aging is true? -- During old age, many of the brain's neurons die. If we live to be 90 or older, most of us will eventually become senile. Older people become less susceptible to short-term illnesses. Recognition memory—the ability to identify things previously experienced—declines with age. Life satisfaction peaks in the 50s and then gradually declines after age 65.

Older people become less susceptible to short-term illnesses.

What's an example of how perceptual set can affect what we taste?

One experiment invited some bar patrons to sample free beer. When researchers added a few drops of vinegar to a brand-name beer, the tasters preferred it—unless they had been told they were drinking vinegar-laced beer. Then they expected, and usually experienced, a worse taste. In another experiment, preschool children, by a 6-to-1 margin, thought french fries tasted better when served in a McDonald's bag rather than a plain white bag

What are the absolute and difference thresholds, and do stimuli below the absolute threshold have any influence on us?

Our absolute threshold for any stimulus is the minimum stimulation necessary for us to be consciously aware of it 50 percent of the time. Signal detection theory predicts how and when we will detect a faint stimulus amid background noise. Individual absolute thresholds vary, depending on the strength of the signal and also on our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. Our difference threshold (also called just noticeable difference, or JND) is the difference we can discern between two stimuli 50 percent of the time. Weber's law states that two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (not a constant amount) to be perceived as different. Priming shows that we can process some information from stimuli below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness. But the effect is too fleeting to enable people to exploit us with subliminal messages.

Jumpy Eye

Our eyes are always moving. This continual flitting from one spot to another ensures that stimulation on the eyes' receptors continually changes. Due to this, if we stare at an object without flinching, it does it not vanish from sight.

If you want to listen more actively in your own relationships, three Rogerian hints may help:

Paraphrase. Rather than saying "I know how you feel," check your understanding by summarizing the person's words in your own words. Invite clarification. "What might be an example of that?" may encourage the person to say more. Reflect feelings. "It sounds frustrating" might mirror what you're sensing from the person's body language and intensity.

What are the claims of ESP, and what have most research psychologists concluded after putting these claims to the test?

Parapsychology is the study of paranormal phenomena, including extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis. The three most testable forms of ESP are telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving remote events), and precognition (perceiving future events). Skeptics argue that (1) to believe in ESP, you must believe the brain is capable of perceiving without sensory input, and (2) researchers have been unable to replicate ESP phenomena under controlled conditions.

In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development?

Parents influence their children in areas such has manners and political and religious beliefs, but not in other areas, such as personality. As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture—styles, accents, slang, attitudes. By choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools, parents exert some influence over peer group culture.

Which of the following has been shown to be the most effective intervention to reduce teen pregnancies? Abstinence-only sex education in schools Participation in service learning programs Increasing guilt related to sexual activity Taking a pledge to remain abstinent Increased exposure to sexual content in the media

Participation in service learning programs

What is one defining characteristic of someone who is easily hypnotized?

People who are easily hypnotized are open to suggestions and are willing to accept them. People who have the ability to focus their attention completely on a task and become absorbed in it can be easily hypnotized.

How do brain abnormalities and viral infections help explain schizophrenia?

People with schizophrenia have increased dopamine receptors, which may intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia. Brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia include enlarged, fluid-filled cerebral cavities and corresponding decreases in the cortex. Brain scans reveal abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, thalamus, and amygdala. Interacting malfunctions in multiple brain regions and their connections may produce schizophrenia's symptoms. Possible contributing factors include viral infections or famine conditions during the mother's pregnancy and low weight or oxygen deprivation at birth.

What are the three clusters of personality disorders? What behaviors and brain activity characterize the antisocial personality?

Personality disorders are disruptive, inflexible, and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. These disorders form clusters, based on three main characteristics: (1) anxiety; (2) eccentric or odd behaviors; and (3) dramatic or impulsive behaviors. Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a lack of conscience and, sometimes, by aggressive and fearless behavior. Genetic predispositions may interact with the environment to produce the altered brain activity associated with antisocial personality disorder.

What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?

Personality inventories (such as the MMPI) are questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors. Test items are empirically derived, and the tests are objectively scored. But people can fake their answers to create a good impression, and the ease of computerized testing may lead to misuse of the tests.

What do we call an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation? Obsessive-compulsive disorder Phobia Panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder

Phobia

Physiological Differences

Physical responses, like finder temp. And movement of facial muscles change during fear, rage, and joy Amygdala shows difference in activation during the emotions of anger and range Activity of left hemisphere (happy) is different from the right (depressed) for emotions

Which of the following is the lowest priority motive in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs? Belongingness and love needs Physiological needs Esteem needs Self-actualization needs

Physiological needs

How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?

Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, from a pre-conventional morality of self-interest, to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a post-conventional morality of universal ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Some critics argue that Kohlberg's post-conventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist cultures.

__________ believed that a child's moral judgments build on cognitive development. __________ agreed and sought to describe the development of moral reasoning. Kohlberg; Erikson Erikson; Kohlberg Piaget; Kohlberg Piaget; Erikson

Piaget; Kohlberg

What is the significance of plasticity?

Plasticity can modify the brain after it is damaged. It can allow for compensation if a specific area cannot fully function.

What is plasticity and what are two instances in which it could occur.

Plasticity is the brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.

Gifted

Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 135 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area.

Therapy: Behavior

Presumed Problem: Dysfunctional behaviors Therapy Aim: Relearn adaptive behaviors; extinguish problem ones. Therapy Technique: Use classical conditioning (via exposure or aversion therapy) or operant conditioning (as in token economies).

Therapy: Cognitive

Presumed Problem: Negative, self-defeating thinking Therapy Aim: Promote healthier thinking and self-talk. Therapy Technique: Train people to dispute negative thoughts and attributions.

Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral

Presumed Problem: Self-harmful thoughts and behaviors Therapy Aim: Promote healthier thinking and adaptive behaviors. Therapy Technique: Train people to counter self-harmful thoughts and to act out their new ways of thinking.

What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs?

Preventive mental health programs are based on the idea that many psychological disorders could be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent, nurturing environments that foster growth, self-confidence, and resilience.

psychiatrists

Psychiatrists are physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders. Not all psychiatrists have had extensive training in psychotherapy, but as M.D.s or D.O.s they can prescribe medications. Thus, they tend to see those with the most serious problems. Many have their own private practice.

In which kind of therapy would the therapist be most likely to note the following during a session: "Blocks in the flow of free associations indicate resistance"? Cognitive therapy Psychoanalysis Client-centered therapy Behavioral therapy Person-centered therapy

Psychoanalysis

What did Sigmund Freud call his theory of personality and the associated treatment techniques? Psychoanalysis Humanism The self-concept Psychosexual stages Free association

Psychoanalysis

How many people suffer, or have suffered, from a psychological disorder? Is poverty a risk factor?

Psychological disorder rates vary, depending on the time and place of the survey. In one multinational survey, rates for any disorder ranged from less than 5 percent (Shanghai) to more than 25 percent (the United States). Poverty is a risk factor: Conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of psychological disorders. But some disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive people into poverty.

What are the drug therapies? How do double-blind studies help researchers evaluate a drug's effectiveness?

Psychopharmacology, the study of drug effects on mind and behavior, has helped make drug therapy the most widely used biomedical therapy. Antipsychotic drugs, used in treating schizophrenia, block dopamine activity. Side effects may include tardive dyskinesia (with involuntary movements of facial muscles, tongue, and limbs) or increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Antianxiety drugs, which depress central nervous system activity, are used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These drugs can be physically and psychologically addictive. Antidepressant drugs, which increase the availability of serotonin and norepinephrine, are used for depression, with modest effectiveness beyond that of placebo drugs. The antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are now used to treat other disorders, including strokes, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Lithium and Depakote are mood stabilizers prescribed for those with bipolar disorder. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect and researchers' bias.

How do psychotherapy, biomedical therapy, and an eclectic approach to therapy differ?

Psychotherapy is treatment involving psychological techniques; it consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. The major psychotherapies derive from psychology's psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive perspectives. Biomedical therapy treats psychological disorders with medications or procedures that act directly on a patient's physiology. An eclectic approach combines techniques from various forms of psychotherapy.

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

Pulsating magnetic coil placed over prefrontal regions of the brain to treat depression w/minimal side effects Initial studies have found modest positive benefits

How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?

Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an aversive stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; teaching aggression; creating fear; encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present); and fostering depression and low self-esteem.

Which of the following most accurately describes an impact of punishment? Punishment is a good way to increase a behavior, as long as it is not used too frequently. Punishment may create problems in the short term but rarely produces long-term side effects. Punishment can be effective at stopping specific behaviors quickly. Punishment typically results in an increase of a behavior that caused the removal of an aversive stimulus. Punishment should never be used (in the opinion of most psychologists), because the damage it causes can never be repaired.

Punishment typically results in an increase of a behavior that caused the removal of an aversive stimulus.

How does day care affect children?

Quality day care, with responsive adults interacting with children in a safe and stimulating environment, does not appear to harm children's thinking and language skills. Some studies have linked extensive time in day care with increased aggressiveness and defiance, but other factors—the child's temperament, the parents' sensitivity, and the family's economic and educational levels and culture—also matter.

Increasing amounts of paradoxical sleep following a period of sleep deprivation is known as what? - Circadian sleep - Sleep shifting - Narcolepsy - Sleep apnea - REM rebound

REM rebound

How does REM rebound suggest that the causes and functions of REM sleep are deep biological?

REM rebound is the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. Most other mammals also experience REM rebound, suggesting that the causes and functions of REM sleep are biological.

Which of the following is an example of self-efficacy? -- Manuela believes others are always watching her. Abraham believes he is a good person. Rasheed believes he is a competent skater. Saundra believes it rained because she's been wishing for rain for days. Igor maintains his optimism despite doing poorly in his math class.

Rasheed believes he is a competent skater.

Which of the following is an example of stress? Ray is tense and anxious as he has to decide which college to attend. Sunga is assigned an extra shift at work. Joe's parents are allowing him to stay home alone while they go away for a weekend. Linda remembers to repay a friend the $10 she owes her. Enrico learns of a traffic accident on the Interstate.

Ray is tense and anxious as he has to decide which college to attend.

Children's TV-viewing habits (past behavior) influence their viewing preferences (internal personal factor), which influence how television (environmental factor) affects their current behavior. What is this an example of? Personal control Learned helplessness Reciprocal determinism The Big Five traits Implicit learning

Reciprocal determinism

Which of these is an example of a longitudinal study? -- The depth perception of infants is measured once a month for 6 months in a row, starting at six months. In the same month, researchers compare the reaction time of 20 sixth graders and 20 first graders. The memory of one group of 50-year-old adults is measured and then 20 years later compared to a different group of 70-year-olds. A psychologist develops a case study of a woman who is 102 by interviewing her twice a week for 12 weeks. Researchers compare curiosity ratings of a group of toddlers with that same group's SAT scores 15 years later.

Researchers compare curiosity ratings of a group of toddlers with that same group's SAT scores 15 years later.

The view from Narmeen's left eye is slightly different from the view from her right eye. This is due to which depth cue? - Retinal disparity - Relative size - Linear perspective - Relative motion - Convergence

Retinal disparity

Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages?

Self-confidence tends to strengthen across the life span. Surveys show that life satisfaction is unrelated to age. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease.

What is the function of sensory adaptation?

Sensory adaptation (our diminished sensitivity to constant or routine odors, sights, sounds, and touches) focuses our attention on informative changes in our environment.

Which of the following is an example of cognitive appraisal? Randal is happy all day because he is savoring the wonderful events of yesterday. Charles is frightened in a dark alley because he remembers stories of others being attacked in dark alleys. Sherika labels the arousal she is feeling as attraction because she is in the presence of a good-looking young man. Dora is angry because she cannot figure out how to convince her husband to take her to Hawaii. Ann is frustrated because traffic has made her late for an important meeting.

Sherika labels the arousal she is feeling as attraction because she is in the presence of a good-looking young man.

Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: health

Sleep deprivation can suppress immune cells that fight off viral infections and cancer. People who sleep less than 7 hrs. Per night are 3 times more likely to develop a cold. People who sleep 7-8 hours tend to outlive those who are chronically sleep deprived.

Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: job performance

Sleep deprivation slows reactions and increases errors on visual attention tasks. This can be devastating for driving, piloting, and equipment operating.

A dog is trained to salivate when it hears a tone associated with food. Then the tone is sounded repeatedly without an unconditioned stimulus until the dog stops salivating. Later, when the tone sounds again, the dog salivates again. This is a description of what part of the conditioning process? Spontaneous recovery Extinction Generalization Discrimination Acquisition

Spontaneous recovery

Why do people smoke?

Starting to smoke: invited by peers, influenced by culture and media- socially rewarding, genetic factors (addiction gene) Continuing: positively reinforced by physically stimulating effects- takes away unpleasant cravings Not stopping: after regular use, smokers have difficulty stopping because of withdrawal symptoms such as insomnia, anxiety, distractibility, and irritability

What are stimulants, and what are their effects?

Stimulants—including caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, the amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy—excite neural activity and speed up body functions, triggering energy and mood changes. All are highly addictive. Nicotine's effects make smoking a difficult habit to kick, yet the percentage of Americans who smoke has been dramatically decreasing. Cocaine gives users a fast high, followed within an hour by a crash. Its risks include cardiovascular stress and suspiciousness. Use of methamphetamines may permanently reduce dopamine production. Ecstasy (MDMA) is a combined stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and feelings of intimacy. Its users risk immune system suppression, permanent damage to mood and memory, and (if taken during physical activity) dehydration and escalating body temperatures.

How do we experience taste and smell?

Taste and smell are chemical senses. Taste is a composite of five basic sensations—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami—and of the aromas that interact with information from the taste receptor cells of the taste buds. There are no basic sensations for smell. We have some 20 million olfactory receptor cells, with about 350 different receptor proteins. Odor molecules trigger combinations of receptors, in patterns that the olfactory cortex interprets. The receptor cells send messages to the brain's olfactory bulb, then to the temporal lobe, and to parts of the limbic system.

Which of the following depends least on the maturation process? Riding a bike Writing Talking Bladder control Telling time

Telling time

Refractory Period

The "recharging phase" when a neuron, after firing, cannot generate another action potential.

Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?

The Big Five personality factors—conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion (CANOE)—currently offer the clearest picture of personality. These factors are stable and appear to be found in all cultures.

Discuss the stroop effect and how it supports the argument that hypnosis is a state of divided consciousness.

The Stroop effects describe the slowed response of people to name the color of the letters if the word itself provides a conflict. An example would be the word red, with its letters colored green. Dissociation is the spit in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. People under hypnosis were much less slowed by the word-color conflict when asked to identify the color of the letters. Apparently, brain areas that decode words and detect conflict remain inactive when hypnotized.

What theories help us understand color vision?

The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory proposed that the retina contains three types of color receptors. Contemporary research has found three types of cones, each most sensitive to the wavelengths of one of the three primary colors of light (red, green, or blue). Hering's opponent-process theory proposed three additional color processes (red-versus-green, blue-versus-yellow, black-versus-white). Contemporary research has confirmed that, en route to the brain, neurons in the retina and the thalamus code the color-related information from the cones into pairs of opponent colors. These two theories, and the research supporting them, show that color processing occurs in two stages.

How do the biological and social-cognitive perspectives explain mood disorders?

The biological perspective on depression focuses on genetic predispositions and on abnormalities in brain structures and function (including those found in neurotransmitter systems). The social-cognitive perspective views depression as an ongoing cycle of stressful experiences (interpreted through negative beliefs, attributions, and memories) leading to negative moods and actions and fueling new stressful experiences.

Why does further weight loss come slowly following a rapid loss during the initial three weeks of a rigorous diet? The number of fat cells makes further weight loss impossible. When a person's hunger increases, metabolism increases. When an obese person's set point has been reached, weight loss increases dramatically. The body reacts as if it's being starved and metabolic rates drop. An obese person cannot maintain a rigorous weight loss diet.

The body reacts as if it's being starved and metabolic rates drop

Synaptic Changes

The brain represents memory in distributed groups of neurons and the nerve cells communicate through synapses Given increased activity in a particular pathway, neural interconnections form or strengthen

During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?

The brain's nerve cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. Their interconnections multiply rapidly after birth, a process that continues until puberty, when a pruning process begins shutting down unused connections. Complex motor skills—sitting, standing, walking—develop in a predictable sequence, though the timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. 46-2

Which of the following changes does not occur with age? -- Visual sharpness diminishes. Distance perception is less acute. Adaptation to light-level changes is less rapid. The lens of the eye becomes more transparent. Senses of smell and hearing diminish.

The lens of the eye becomes more transparent.

Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? How important is self-esteem to psychology and to human well-being?

The self is the center of personality, organizing our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Considering possible selves helps motivate us toward positive development, but focusing too intensely on ourselves can lead to the spotlight effect. High self-esteem (our feeling of self-worth) is beneficial, but unrealistically high self-esteem is dangerous (linked to aggressive behavior) and fragile. Self-efficacy is our sense of competence.

predictive validity

The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.

volley principle

The theory holding that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.

What is the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, and what are the views of its proponents and critics?

Therapy based on operant conditioning principles uses behavior modification techniques to change unwanted behaviors through positively reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesirable behaviors. Critics maintain that (1) techniques such as those used in token economies may produce behavior changes that disappear when rewards end, and (2) deciding which behaviors should change is authoritarian and unethical. Proponents argue that treatment with positive rewards is more humane than punishing people or institutionalizing them for undesired behaviors.

Taste aversion studies lead researchers to which of the following conclusions? Taste is the most fundamental of the senses. There are genetic predispositions involved in taste learning. Animals must evaluate a situation cognitively before taste aversion develops. Taste aversion is a universal survival mechanism.

There are genetic predispositions involved in taste learning.

The correlation between the IQ scores of fraternal twins raised together is lower than IQ scores of identical twins raised together. What conclusion can be drawn from this data? -- Nothing, because the type of twin has not been held constant. Nothing, because there is no comparison between twins and adopted children. Nothing, because cultural differences have not been considered. There is a genetic effect on intelligence. There is an environmental effect on intelligence.

There is a genetic effect on intelligence.

Feature detectors and temporal lobe

There is an area in the temporal lobe by your right ear that allows you to perceive faces and recognize them from varied viewpoints. If this region were damaged, you might recognize other forms and objects, but not familiar faces. You will, however, be able to recognize houses, because the brain's face-perception occurs separately from its object-perception

Which of the following is generally true of males? -- They have a longer life span. They are more likely to have a democratic leadership style. They are more likely to commit suicide. They are more likely to be diagnosed with depression. They are more likely to be diagnosed with anxiety.

They are more likely to commit suicide.

Which of the following is true of the early formation of brain cells? -- They form at a constant rate throughout the prenatal period. They begin forming slowly, and then the rate increases throughout prenatal development. They form slowly during the prenatal period, and then the rate increases after birth. They form at a constantly increasing rate prenatally and in early childhood. They are overproduced early in the prenatal period, and then the rate decreases and stabilizes.

They are overproduced early in the prenatal period, and then the rate decreases and stabilizes.

In Brad Bushman and Roy Baumeister's research, how did people with unrealistically high self-esteem react when they were criticized? -- They became exceptionally aggressive. Many were more receptive to the criticism. Some became easily depressed. Most worked harder to do better the next time. They quit the task without completing it.

They became exceptionally aggressive.

In what ways do the endocrine and nervous systems act similarly? In what ways do they act differently?

They both produce molecules that act on receptors elsewhere. The nervous system sends messages quickly while the endocrine system moves slowly.

What do scientists believe about the reasons for sleep?

They don't know for sure why sleep occurs or why we need it. believe it has an evolutionary purpose body doesn't do as much recuperation during sleep than we might believe the brain is active during sleep, so we aren't really decreasing activity

What are the goals and techniques of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic therapy?

Through psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud tried to give people self-insight and relief from their disorders by bringing anxiety-laden feelings and thoughts into conscious awareness. - Techniques included using free association and interpretation of instances of resistance and transference. -- Contemporary psychodynamic therapy has been influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but is briefer, less expensive, and more focused on helping the client find relief from current symptoms. Therapists help clients understand themes that run through past and current relationships. Interpersonal therapy is a brief 12- to 16-session form of psychodynamic therapy that has been effective in treating depression.

Eleanor Maccoby's research found which of the following factors to be the least positively correlated with problem behavior in preschool children? Parent income Parent education level Time spent in day care Child's temperament Parent sensitivity

Time spent in day care

Which question expresses the developmental issue of stability and change? -- Are individuals more similar or different from each other? How much of development occurs in distinct stages? How much of development is determined by genetics? To what extent do certain traits persist through the life span? Which traits are most affected by life changes and experience?

To what extent do certain traits persist through the life span?

How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis?

Today's psychologists give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, to the importance of our sexuality, and to the conflict between biological impulses and social restraints. But Freud's concept of repression, and his view of the unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, have not survived scientific scrutiny. Freud offered after-the-fact explanations, which are hard to test scientifically. Research does not support many of Freud's specific ideas, such as the view that development is fixed in childhood. (We now know it is lifelong.)

Which of the following is the best term or phrase for a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act? Myers-Briggs Indicator Factor analysis Introversion Extroversion Trait

Trait

How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?

Trait theorists see personality as a stable and enduring pattern of behavior. They describe our differences rather than trying to explain them. Using factor analysis, they identify clusters of behavior tendencies that occur together. Genetic predispositions influence many traits.

In the context of psychoanalytic theory, experiencing strong positive or negative feelings for your analyst is a sign of what? Counterconditioning Meta-analysis Transference Tardive dyskinesia Aversive conditioning

Transference

Describe Gestalt psychologists' understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. (long answer)

When given a cluster of sensations, people tend to organize them into a gestalt (whole). In perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts. In our eye-brain system, our first perceptual task is to perceive any object (figure) as distinct from its surroundings (ground). For example, the conversation you focus on at a noisy party becomes the figure, while the background conversations are the ground. The words you read are the figure, while the white paper is the ground. The figure-ground relationship between two stimuli allows the brain to organize its visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. The second perceptual task is to organize the figure into a meaningful form. Some visual features (color, movement, light-dark contrast) can be processed instantly and automatically. We can organize stimuli by using the process of grouping (perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups). These groups include proximity, continuity, and closure. Proximity is the grouping of nearby figures together. With proximity, we see 3 sets of 2 lines, not 6 separate lines. Continuity is the perception of smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones. (series of alternating semicircles could be perceived as 2 continuous lines- one wavy, one straight) Closure describes our tendency to fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object. The illusion helps construct reality.

When is prosocial modeling most effective? When the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson When the model verbally emphasizes the prosocial lesson but acts as she chooses When the model is predisposed to the prosocial conduct When the observer has a close personal relationship with the model When the model is well-known

When the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson

How are some ways that help diminish pain?

When we are distracted from pain (a psychological influence) and soothed by the release of our naturally painkilling endorphins (a biological influence), our experience of pain diminishes. People who carry a gene that boosts the availability of endorphins are less bothered by pain, and their brain is less responsive to pain

What's an example of change blindness?

While a man (white hair) provides directions to a construction worker, two experimenters rudely pass between them. During this interruption, the original worker switches places with another person wearing different-colored clothing. Most people, focused on their direction giving, do not notice the switch. Prankster researchers Lars Hall, Petter Johansson, and colleagues (2010) invited people to sample two jams and pick one to retaste. By flipping the jars after putting the lids back on, the researchers actually induced people to "resample" their nonchosen jam. Yet, even when asked whether they noticed anything odd, most tasters were choice blind. Even when given markedly different jams, they usually failed to notice the switch.

Which of the following is true of menopause? -- Both men and women experience menopause around the age of 50. Men experience menopause around 50 years of age, but women experience menopause around 65 years of age. Women experience menopause around 50 years of age, but men experience menopause around 65 years of age. Women experience menopause around the age of 50, but men don't experience menopause. Men experience menopause around the age of 65, but women don't experience menopause.

Women experience menopause around the age of 50, but men don't experience menopause.

locus of control

a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control) Our beliefs about what causes our actions then influence our behaviors and attitudes Julian Rotter suggested behavior controlled by rewards and punishments The consequences of our actions determine our beliefs about the underlying causes for these actions internal and external

olfactory bulb

a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance

unconditional positive regard

a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.

Drugs

a chemical substance that can alter perception and mood. -they impact consciousness -they break the blood-brain barrier

Flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event -Not free from errors

instinct

a complex, inherited, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species its difficult to use instincts to both label and explain behaviors because there are over 10,000

Blindsight

a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound formerly refered to as mental retardation

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment ex) studying for a test (studying to get an A or prevent self from getting F) - Research shows that removal of extrinsic motivators resulted in behavior levels lower than before the reward was given ex) athletes playing for money

illness anxiety disorder

a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. (Formerly called hypochondriasis.)

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.

normal distribution

a distribution of scores that falls into a bell curve or normal curve. mean, median, and mode fall at same point

Marijuana

a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive - can cause sense of time distortion - may linger in body for week or more - produces a feeling of elation, promotes relaxation, relieves inhibitions, relieves anxiety, and increases sensitivity to sights, sounds, and touch THC = ingredient that produces high

fatal familial insomnia

a fatal inherited disorder characterized by progressive insomnia very rare genetic disease-eventually results in complete inability to sleep -many patients go 6-9 months w/o sleep, during which time they develop dementia and eventually death

persistent depressive disorder

a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depressive disorder They also display at least two of the following symptoms: Problems regulating appetite Problems regulating sleep Low energy Low self-esteem Difficulty concentrating and making decisions Feelings of hopelessness

interpersonal psychotherapy

a form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships aims to help people gain insight into the roots of their difficulties, its goal is symptom relief in the here and now. Rather than focusing mostly on undoing past hurts and offering interpretations, the therapist concentrates primarily on current relationships and on helping people improve their relationship skills.

self-help groups

a group composed of people who have similar problems and who meet together without a therapist or counselor for the purpose of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support

AIDS

a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.

cognitive map

a mental representation of the physical features of the environment rats exploring a maze w/out a reward are like people sightseeing in a new town - they develop a cognitive map -Once reward is placed in the maze, the rat performs as well as the rats that have been reinforced with food for running the maze

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

Free association is -- a method of exploring the unconscious. another name for hypnosis. the major function of the superego. an ego defense mechanism. a method of dream analysis.

a method of exploring the unconscious.

cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) seeks to make people aware of their irrational negative thinking, to replace it with new ways of thinking, and to practice the more positive approach in everyday settings.

incentive

a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria - ILLEGAL - Derivatives (novocaine) are used today as anesthetics - when snorted/inhaled, reaches the brain in minutes - Produces intense euphoria, mental alertness, self-confidence, lasts for several min. - Blocks the reuptake of dopamine - the brain is flooded with dopamine-produced pleasure sensations

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid -one of the most powerful drugs known - the trip lasts 6-14 hours - Visual distortions and hallucinations - Emotions are very intense and unstable and impaired thought -similar to near death experiences -feelings range from euphoria to detachment to panic peak: people feel separated from their body and dreamlike scenes so real they may become panic-stricken or harm themselves

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels - illegal drug manufactured in street labs - HIGHLY addictive

Alzheimer's Disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning Risk increases with age Individuals who are in the early stages of this disease show more MRI activity in the brain than do normal individuals of the same age Underlying symptoms: deterioration of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine

ADHD

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

lobotomy

a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain It usually decreased the person's misery or tension, but also produced a permanently lethargic, immature, uncreative person.

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.

CIPA

a rare disease that exists in which the afflicted person feels no pain due to a genetic mutation that disrupts the development of the small nerve fibers that carry sensations of pain, heat, and cold to the brain people with this condition usually die by early adulthood

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.

Self-Concept

a sense of one's identity and personal worth, emerges gradually around 6 months Charles Darwin: around 15-18 months, children can recognize themselves in the mirror which indicates self-recognition emerges gradually over a year By 8-10: self-image is stable and children can describe themselves in terms of gender, group memberships, and compare themselves to other children - Children's view of themselves affect their actions as children who form a positive concept are more confident, independent, and sociable

gender roles

a set of expected behaviors for males or for females culture influences gender roles Role: set of expectations about a social position, defining how those positions ought to act.

zygote

a single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco increases the level of other neurotransmitters and chemicals that modulate how your brain works. ex) endorphins are produced like caffeine: increases heart and breathing rates and other automatic functions to provide energy

oxytocin

a stress-moderating hormone associated with pair bonding in animals and released by cuddling, massage, and breast feeding in humans

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors hypnotic pain relief- has helped alleviate headaches, asthma, skin disorders

Biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

Von Restorff Effect

a unique item embedded in an otherwise homogeneous list is recalled better than the average homogeneous items, and items immediately around the distinctive one are also remembered better

insight therapies

a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses

insight therapy

a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses - psychoanalytic - interpersonal

freudian slip

a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion not something you meant to say, but was brought out through your unconscious thought

which of the following is an example of gene enviornment interaction? a) Yeh Lin experiences flushing syndrome, which mostly occurs in those of Asian heritage b) Alfonso gets food poisoning from eating undercooked meat c) Ted gets diabetes, which runs in his family, because he eats to much sugary food d)Samantha has a food allergy to shellfish e) Jordan has an autoimmune disorder that causes him to lose hair

a) Yeh Lin experiences flushing syndrome, which mostly occurs in those of Asian heritage

which of the following refers to an effect of life experience that leaves a molecular mark that affect gene expression a) epigenetics b) adaptation c) evolution d) natural selection e) universal moral grammar

a) epigenetics

which is one of the major criticisms of the evolutionary perspective is psychology a) in analyzes after the fact of using hindsight b) it attempts to extend a biological theory into a psychological realm c) there is very little evidence to support it d) it has not been around long enough to "stand the test of time" e) it seems to apply in certain cultures but not others

a) in analyzes after the fact of using hindsight

which of the following is true regarding the initiation of sexual activity a) men are more likely to initiate sex than women b) women are more likely to initiate sex than men c) the initiation of sexual activity for both men and women correlates with how many television sitcoms they viewed as children d) men and women are equally likely to initiate sexual activity e) who initiates sexual activity is largely determined by culture

a) men are more likely to initiate sex than women

Frequency theory relates to which element of the hearing process? a. Rate at which the basilar membrane vibrates b. Number of fibers in the auditory nerve c. Point at which the basilar membrane exhibits the most vibration d. Decibel level of sound e. Number of hair cells in each cochlea

a. Rate at which the basilar membrane vibrates

Two monocular depth cues are most responsible for our ability to know that a jet flying overhead is at an elevation of several miles. One cue is relative size. What is the other? a. Relative motion b. Retinal disparity c. Interposition d. Light and shadow e. Linear perspective

a. Relative motion

Damage to which of the following could interfere with the ability to plan for the future? a. frontal lobe b. temporal lobe c. parietal lobe d. occipital lobe e. somatosensory cortex

a. frontal lobe

Cognitive neural prosthetics are placed in the brain to help control part of the a. motor cortex b. auditory cortex c. somatosensory cortex d. visual cortex e. parietal lobe

a. motor cortex

Which of the following endocrine glands may explain unusually tall heigh in a 12-year-old? a. pituitary b. adrenal c. pancreas d. parasympathetic e. testes

a. pituitary

theory of mind

ability to attribute mental states-beliefs, intents, knowledge, etc. to oneself and others And understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own

Recall

ability to retrieve info, not in conscious awareness

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

Self Actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential - wholeness, perfection, completion, meaningfulness (meta-needs: impulses for self-actualization)

peak experiences

according to Maslow, times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved when we have growth orientation we are open to new and joyful experiences.

electric approach

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy blend of psychotherapies

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

sexual orientation

an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

Shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.``` ex) learning the steps to ride a bike

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

punishment

any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows

agression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy men admit to more aggression than women do. - gender gap refers to harmful physical aggression, rather than indirect or verbal relational aggression (spreading rumors, ostracism)

behavior therapy

applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors - Doubt healing power of self awareness - Assume problem behaviors are the problems and applications learning principles can eliminate them - Used to treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists don't delve deeply below the surface for inner causes

which of the following statements has been supported by the research of evolutionary psychologists a) women are attracted to men who appear virile b) men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children c) the connection between sex and pleasure is mostly determined by culture d) the same factors determine sexual attraction in both males and females e) most adults are attracted to partners that in some way remind them of their parents

b) men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children

The dual-processing model refers to which of the following ideas? a. The right and left hemispheres of the brain both process incoming messages. b. Incoming information is processed by both conscious and unconscious tracks. c. Each lobe of the brain processes incoming information. d. The brain first processes emotional information and then processes analytical information. e. The thalamus and hypothalamus work together to analyze incoming sensory information.

b. Incoming information is processed by both conscious and unconscious tracks.

counterconditioning

behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning pairs the trigger stimulus (in this case, the enclosed space of the elevator) with a new response (relaxation) that is incompatible with fear. Indeed, behavior therapists have successfully counterconditioned people with such fears. Two specific counterconditioning techniques—exposure therapy and aversive conditioning—replace unwanted responses.

Animism

belief that all things are living, just like oneself Youngers attribute lifelike, human qualities to inanimate objects, asking question such as "when does the ocean stop to rest?" or "why does the wind get so mad?"

Ernest Hilgard

believed hypnosis involves not only social influences but also a special state of dissociation viewed hypnotic dissociation as a vivid form of everyday mind splits (doodling while listening to a lecture)

Kolberg's Levels of Moral Development

believed that moral reasoning was much more complex than the two stage process proposed by Piaget. He believed that children become more advanced in their moral reasoning across developmental stages. Level 1: focus on self (pre conventional) 1. punish 2. reward Level 2: focus on others (conventional) 3. good 4. law Level 3: focus on all (post conventional) 5. social 6. universal

subliminal messages

brief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold a brief stimulus often triggers a weak response that can be detected by brain scanning. Only when the stimulus triggers synchronized activity in several brain areas does it reach consciousness.

what was one of the major findings of Thomas Bouchard's study of twins a) it demonstrated that peer influence is more important than parental influence in the development of personally traits b) it proved that the influence of parental enviornment becomes more and more important as children grow into adults c) he discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult and identical twins who had been separated near birth d) fraternal twins showed almost as much similarity as identical twins when they reached adulthood e) it provided evidence that heritability is less important than researchers previously suspected

c) he discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult and identical twins who had been separated near birth

Our tendency to see faces in clouds and other ambiguous stimuli is partly based on what perception principle? a. Selective attention b. ESP c. Perceptual set d. Share constancy e. Bottom-up processing

c. Perceptual set

What is the purpose of the iris? a. To focus light on the retina b. To process color c. To allow light into the eye d. To enable night vision e. To detect specific shapes

c. To allow light into the eye

Which of the following brain areas is responsible for regulating thirst? a. reticular activating system b. amygdala c. hypothalamus d. hippocampus e. brainstem

c. hypothalamus

Which of the following communicates with the pituitary, which in turn controls the endocrine system? a. parathyroids b. autonomic nervous system c. hypothalamus d. spinal cord e. pancreas

c. hypothalamus

clashes

called intrapsychic or psychodynamic conflicts - the process can cause stress or anxiety - ego tries to prevent anxiety, guilt, and other unpleasant feelings. sometimes the ego helps us negotiate situations and sometimes we use defense mechanisms

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking

Insecurely attached

child is unable to be comforted or is violent or distant upon return Tend to have difficulty trusting others later in life

Securely attached

child is upset but can be calmed Suggests child uses the parent as a safe bases to explore environment. Child can return if there is trouble or upset Tend to have more comfortable relationships later in life

Bowbly's attachment theory

children biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive Stimulate innate caregiver responses from adults Determinant of attachment is not food, but care and responsiveness Produce innate 'social releaser' behaviors: crying/smiling

Competence vs. Inferiority

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior

Mental age

chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance, general capacity that shows up in various ways (mental aptitude)

Client's Perceptions

client self-reports indicate that psychotherapy is effective -- for several reasons, client testimonials don't persuade psychotherapy's skeptics: -people often enter therapy in crisis -clients may need to believe the therapy was worth the effort -clients generally speak kindly of their therapists

carl jung

collective unconscious: contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species' past Founded analytical psychology Proposed and developed the concepts of the extraverted and the introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious Jung's primary disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious Saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete and unnecessarily negative - archetypes

physical dependence

compulsive use of a drug to maintain bodily comfort as indicated by the presence of drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms- need to feel normal - cravings

False Memory syndrome

condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

Dissociative disorder

conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories and thoughts, and feelings When situations become overwhelming or stressful, people dissociate themselves from it This explanation presumes the existence of repressed memories, which have been questioned Symptoms: - Having a sense of being unreal - Being separated from the body - Watching yourself as if in a movie - These disorders involve a disruption in the conscious process

rehearsal

conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it or encode for storage

nerves

consist of neural cables containing many axons connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to CNS

group therapy

consists of 6-9 people attending 90 min. Session that can help more people and cost less Clients benefit from knowing others have similar problems Doesn't provide same decree of therapist involvement w/each client

somatic nervous system

contains motor nerves needed to activate voluntary muscles

Kimberly tells her brother to put on a suit on a warm summer day. Kimberly's brother knows to put on a swimsuit instead of a business suit because of - context. - ESP. - precognition. - bottom-up processing. - clairvoyance.

context

aging and intelligence

cross-sectional studies suggest it declines; longitudinal studies suggest it does not

Human Genome (DNA) researchers have discovered that a) chimpanzees are completely different from humans, sharing a small DNA sequence percentage b) the occasional variations found at a particular gene sites in human DNA are of no interest to science c) many genes do not influence most of our traits d) genetic predispositions do not help explain our shared human nature and human diversity

d) genetic predispositions do not help explain our shared human nature and human diversity

in an effort to reveal genetic influences on personality researchers use adoption studies mainly for what purpose a) to compare adopted children with non adopted children b) to study the effect of prior neglect on adopted children c) to study the effect of a child's age at adoption d) to evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents e) to consider the effects of adoption on a child's, manners and values

d) to evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents

What neurotransmitters are most likely in undersupply in someone who is depressed? a. Dopamine and GABA b. ACh and norepinephrine c. Dopamine and norepinephrine d. Serotonin and norepinephrine e. Serotonin and glutamate

d. Serotonin and norepinephrine

Anti-anxiety drugs

drugs used to control anxiety and agitation depress central nervous system activity. often used in combination with psychological therapy. One antianxiety drug, the antibiotic D-cycloserine, acts upon a receptor that, in combination with behavioral treatments, facilitates the extinction of learned fears. Experiments indicate that the drug enhances the benefits of exposure therapy and helps relieve the symptoms of PTSD and OCD. criticism: reduce symptoms without resolving underlying problems - "Popping a Xanax" at the first sign of tension can create a learned response; the immediate relief reinforces a person's tendency to take drugs when anxious. - Anti-anxiety drugs can also be addicting. After heavy use, people who stop taking them may experience increased anxiety, insomnia, and other withdrawal symptoms. Over the dozen years at the end of the twentieth century, the rate of outpatient treatment for anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD nearly doubled.

Antidepressants

drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD (several are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors- SSRIs) The label is a bit of a misnomer now that these drugs are increasingly being used to successfully treat anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These drugs are agonists; they work by increasing the availability of certain neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine or serotonin, which elevate arousal and mood and appear scarce when a person experiences feelings of depression or anxiety. Prozac and its cousins Zoloft and Paxil, work by blocking the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses (FIGURE 73.1). Given their use in treating disorders other than depression—from anxiety to strokes—this group of drugs is most often called SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) rather than antidepressants Some of the older antidepressant drugs work by blocking the reabsorption or breakdown of both norepinephrine and serotonin. Though effective, these dual-action drugs have more potential side effects, such as dry mouth, weight gain, hypertension, or dizzy spells

antipsychotic drugs

drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder - calm patients w/psychoses ex) chlorpromazine dampened responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli - provided most help to patients w/positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations & paranoia) most are antagonists: similar enough to molecules of neurotransmitter dopamine to occupy its receptor sites and block its activity have powerful side effects: - Some produce sluggishness, tremors, and twitches similar to those of Parkinson's disease - Long-term use of antipsychotics can produce tardive dyskinesia, with involuntary movements of the facial muscles (such as grimacing), tongue, and limbs. Antipsychotics, combined with life-skills programs and family support, have given new hope to many people with schizophrenia. - - Hundreds of thousands of patients have left the wards of mental hospitals and returned to work and to near-normal lives

heritability refers to the percentage of what a) group variation in a trait that can be explained by environment b) traits shared by identical twins c) traits shared by fraternal twins d) traits shared by adopted children and their birth parents e) group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics

e) group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics

You are aware that a dog is viciously barking at you, but you are not aware of the type of dog. Later, you are able to describe the type and color of the dog. This ability to process information without conscious awareness best exemplifies which of the following? a. split brain b. blindsight c. consciousness d. cognitive neuroscience e. dual processing

e. dual processing

George can move his hand to sign a document because the ______, located in the ________ lobe of the brain, allows him to activate the proper muscles. a. somatosensory cortex; temporal b. somatosensory cortex; parietal c. motor cortex; parietal d. somatosensory cortex; frontal e. motor cortex; frontal

e. motor cortex; frontal

Which of the following is sometimes referred to as the brain's train hub, because it directs incoming sensory messages (with the exception of smell) to their proper places in the brain? a. hypothalamus b. pituitary c. cerebellum d. limbic system e. thalamus

e. thalamus

biopsychosocial system

each individual is this kind of system: their cells make organs, their organs make up an individual and its processes, and the individual is part of a family, culture, community Stress affects body chemistry and health. And chemical imbalances, whatever their cause, can produce schizophrenia, depression, and other mental disorders.

Many clinical psychologists incorporate a variety of approaches into their therapy. They are said to take a(n) ___________ approach. transference biomedical psychoanalytic eclectic psychodynamic

eclectic

overjustification effect

effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do - A reward may lesson and replace the person's original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated ex) reading programs

EEG

electroencephalograph measures brain waves and electrical activity found in sleep studies; skull cap or independent electrodes which measure brain activity non-invasive observations bad: doesn't show structures or anatomy of the brain

In many Western societies, it is common for adolescents to graduate high school, go to college, and still live at home with their parents. They have not yet assumed full adult responsibilities and independence. Psychologists have identified this period of time as adulthood. early adulthood. emerging adulthood. late adolescence. role confusion.

emerging adulthood.

archetypes

emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning - universal symbolic images that appear across cultures in myths, art, stories, and dreams ex) Darth Vader v. superman Archetype = evil & goodness Jung also proposed that the entire human race shares a collective unconscious

Exercise and sleep

exercise improves sleep and sleep improves athletic performance

sublimination

expend energy on prosocial activities in order to avoid undesired activities ex) You have anger issues. Instead of hitting people on the streets, you train as an MMA fighter. Sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially acceptable ways

Even as newborns, we prefer sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness. This can be seen by a newborn's preference for soft music. face-like images. low pitched sounds. soft colors. loud music.

face-like images.

Bipolar Disorder

formerly called manic-depressive disorder Alternation b/t depression and mania signals bipolar disorders - Overactive, elated, little need for sleep, few sexual inhibitions, loud What goes up must come down Bipolar 1 : extreme mania and deep depression, one type of manic depressive illness Bipolar 2: person is mainly sad but has one or more hypo-manic episodes Depressive symptoms: - Gloomy - Withdrawn - Inability to make decisions - tired Manic symptoms: - Elation - Euphoria - Desire for action - Hyperactive - Multiple ideas Many great writers, poets, and composers suffered from this disorder During manic phase, creativity surged but not during their depressed phase

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

gap between what a child can do without help and what he can do only with support Children build high level cognitive functioning by isolating ZPD and providing assistance to solve more complex problems with support

biological influences on drug use

genetic predisposition, variations in neurotransmitter systems addictive gene can give someone tendency for affection and also need for the higher amount of the drug for the same impact

As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. The decrease in an infant's responsiveness is called concentration. teratogens. habituation. stability. transference.

habituation

Lev Vygotsky

had an alternative approach to cognitive development Disagreed with Piaget that children move through stages of cognitive development in an orderly fashion * Children learn according to their own schedule - Have a range of abilities under which they're able to operate ZPD

Disturbed perceptions

hallucinations (sensory experience w/o sensory info) & delusions (false beliefs) - Inappropriate Emotions & Behaviors Laugh at inappropriate times Flat Affect: emotionless state Senseless, compulsive acts- may laugh at news of someone dying or show no emotion at all Catatonia: may continually rub an arm, rock a chair, or remain motionless for hours

Test retest reliability

having same individual take the same test at 2 different times

How do the learning and biological perspectives explain anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD?

he learning perspective views anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD as products of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization, fearful-behavior reinforcement, and observational learning of others' fears and cognitions (interpretations, irrational beliefs, and hypervigilance). The biological perspective considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects, or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses in the brain's fear circuits.

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

Charles Spearman

helped develop factor analysis and believed in general intelligence (g factor)

Norepinephrine

helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply linked to depression

hyperglycemia

high blood sugar occurs when blood sugar levels run too high. This is also known as diabetes. Its caused by cells in the pancreas that do not metabolize carbs.

short wavelength

high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)

All of the following are examples of primary reinforcers except a rat's food reward in a Skinner box. cold drink on a hot day. high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently. hug from a loved one. large meal following an extended time without food.

high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently.

Content validity

how well a test measures the total meaning of the concept and if it's a reasonably representative of the material it's evaluating

Schizophrenia

if depression is the common cold, schizophrenia is cancer - Affects men and women equally, but men suffer from it more severely - Strikes young people as they mature into adults - 1 in 100 suffer from schizophrenia - No known cause Symptoms: - Disorganized thinking - Disturbed perceptions - Inappropriate emotions and actions Literal translation is "split mind" - Not multiple personality split but rather a split from reality

Prolonged deprivation

if parental or caregiver support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels A sluggish serotonin response has been found in abused children who become abusers

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane. Thus, the brain determines a sound's pitch by recognizing the specific place (on the membrane) that is generating the neural signal.

grit

in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals

Masters and Johnson Study

in the 1960s, William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex 362 females and 312 males Had participants masturbate and have sex and recorded over 10,000 responses

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

infancy: trust vs. mistrust toddlerhood (1-3): autonomy vs. shame and doubt preschool (3-6): initiative vs. guilt elementary school (6-puberty): industry vs. inferiority adolescence (teen-20s): identity vs. role confusion young adulthood (20s to early 40s): intimacy vs. isolation middle adulthood (40s-60s): generativity vs. stagnation late adulthood (60s and up): integrity vs. despair

maturation stages

infant growth is rapid and steady - Sitting up - by 7 mo - Walking 1 year - Running 18 mo to 2 years - Fine motor control 2-4 years Great deal of variability in when children reach these milestones, but these are general guidelines

LOC: Preconscious

information about yourself and environment that you're not currently thinking about but could be ex) you aren't currently thinking about your favorite childhood toy, but if asked about it, you would be

According to Carol Dweck, students are often hampered by a "fixed mindset." This means they believe: -- intelligence is biologically set and unchangeable. it is never good to change your mind once it is made up. intelligence can be "repaired" by doing specific mental exercises. they have already done everything they can to improve. problems can only be solved a particular way.

intelligence is biologically set and unchangeable.

The Question of Bias

intelligence tests measure developed abilities which reflect your education and expperuna, aptitude tests are biased in a sense that they are sensitive to performance difference caused by cultural aspects

Classical conditioning vs Operant conditioning

involuntary vs voluntary

Why is sensory adaptation important?

it gives us the freedom to focus on informative changes in our environment without being distracted by background chatter. Stinky or heavily perfumed classmates don't notice their odor because, like you and me, they adapt to what's constant and detect only change. Our sensory receptors are alert to novelty; bore them with repetition and they free our attention for more important things. We will see this principle again and again: We perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useful for us to perceive it. Our sensitivity to changing stimulation helps explain television's attention-grabbing power. Cuts, edits, zooms, pans, sudden noises—all demand attention. Sensory adaptation even influences our perceptions of emotions. By creating a 50-50 morphed blend of an angry and a scared face, researchers showed that our visual system adapts to a static facial expression by becoming less responsive to it

Synapse

junction between axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of cell body of the receiving neuron; tiny gap = synaptic gap; axon potential can't jump gap

survey method

kind of correlational research in which surveys are filled out; difficult to control for confounding variables - independent variable not manipulated

hypoglycemia

low blood sugar occurs when blood sugar levels run too low through a lack of food. This is usually accompanied by feelings of dizziness and weakness.

Carol Gilligan's research emphasizes prominent female characteristics, especially spatial abilities. making social connections. playing in large groups. talking a great deal. playing in competitive groups.

making social connections.

correlational research

measure of the relationship between 2 items/variables does NOT say that one variable CAUSES another

Achievement tests are to aptitude tests as -- verbal performance is to spatial performance. elementary school skills are to secondary school skills. measurement is to prediction. reliability is to validity. general intelligence is to multiple intelligences.

measurement is to prediction.

psychiatrists

medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders

The original formula for a child's intelligence quotient compared a child's -- aptitude to his or her school performance. mental age to his or her chronological age. intelligence to his or her siblings' intelligence. intelligence to his or her parents' intelligence. math intelligence to his or her verbal intelligence.

mental age to his or her chronological age.

taste buds

microscopic structures on the bumps on the tongue surface, back of the throat, and inside the cheeks (200 or more) - die and are replaced every 10 days - number of taste buds and sensitivity decrease with age

memory

mind's storehouse with all accumulated learning; any indication that learning has persisted over time. It's our ability to store and retrieve information. If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be seen as a stranger, every language foreign, every task new...

Multiple sclerosis is a result of degeneration in the dendrite. axon. myelin sheath. terminal button. neuron.

myelin sheath.

Heroin

narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive user gets a short-lived feeling of blissful pleasure (3-5 hrs) followed by a craving for another fix, the need for progressively larger does and physical withdrawal symptoms

Biological perspective of anxiety

natural selection has led our ancestors to learn to fear snakes, spiders, etc. Therefor, fear preserves the species Genes may be partly responsible for developing fears/anxiety Twins are more likely to share problems Generalized anxiety, panic attacks, and even OCD are linked w/brain circuits like the anterior cingulate cortex

Sexual Motivation

nature's clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive

Erik Erikson

neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"

future detectors

nerve cells in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

Human Research Ethics

no coercion, informed consent, anonymity or confidentiality, risk, debriefing

According to Plomin and Daniels, "Two children in the same family are [apart from their shared genes] as different from __________ as are pairs of children selected randomly from the population." their parents their grandparents their friends one another their cousins

one another

Fluid intelligence

our ability to reason speedily and abstractly - tends to decrease during late adulthood ex) being more forgetful

Crystallized Intelligence

our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills - tend to increase with age ex) riding a bike and ice skating once learned you can do it years later

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical - analytical (academic problem-solving): assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer. predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly - creative: demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas. many inventions result from such creative problem solving. - practical: required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined, with multiple solutions. managerial success, for example, depends less on academic problem-solving skills than on shrewd ability to manage oneself, one's tasks, and other people. Sternberg and Richard Wagner offer a test of practical managerial intelligence that measures skill at writing effective memos, motivating people, delegating tasks and responsibilities, reading people, and promoting one's career. business executives who score relatively high on this test tend to earn high salaries and receive high performance ratings.

Authoritative

parents are demanding but responsive to their children. Exert control not only by setting rules and enforcing them but also by explaining the reasons and exceptions when making the rules Also known as Democratic parenting

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object If you view an isolated tomato through a paper tube, its color would seem to change as the light—and thus the wavelengths reflected from its surface—changed. But if you viewed that tomato as one item in a bowl of fresh fruit and vegetables, its color would remain roughly constant as the lighting shifts.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder

persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action ex) obsession about dirt and germs may lead to compulsive hand washing Excessive thoughts that lead to repetitive behaviors Often centers on themes such as fear of germs or the need to arrange objects in a specific manner Symptoms appear gradually

Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Thinking

pre-conventional morality: before age 9 - self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete awards "If you save your wife, you'll be a hero" conventional morality: early adolescence - uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order "If you steal the drug, everyone will think you're a criminal post-conventional morality: adolescence and beyond - actions reflect belied in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles "people have a right to live"

Students who do well on college entrance exams generally do well in their first year of college. This helps establish that these exams have predictive validity. split-half reliability. content validity. test-retest reliability. standard validity.

predictive validity.

lazy eye

reduced vision in one eye caused by abnormal visual developments early in life; the weaker (lazy) eye often wanders inward and outward

denial

refuse to perceive reality in order to protect ourselves from it. Often this is done in the face of obvious truth Protects the ego that can't cope with reality May save us from anxiety or pain but requires a substantial investment of energy

How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?

reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying—no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the food or medicine we buy with them). Immediate reinforcers (such as a purchased treat) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.

Carol Dweck

reports that believing intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a "fixed mindset"

Single-blind procedure

research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group

dopamine overactivity

researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine D4 receptors in the brain Brain scans show abnormal activity in the frontal cortex, thalamus, and amygdala

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. cluster in and around the fovea. Many have their own hotline to the brain: Each one transmits to a single bipolar cell that helps relay the cone's individual message to the visual cortex, which devotes a large area to input from the fovea. These direct connections preserve the cones' precise information, making them better able to detect fine detail.

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond share bipolar cells with other rods, sending combined messages

regression

retreat to behavior or thinking like a child in order to avoid adult issues - Throwing a temper tantrum ex) blaming referees when you failed on the field. Or a soccer player pretending to be injured

Psychopathology

scientific study of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

pineal gland

secretion of hormone melatonin; regulation of endocrine functions conversion of nervous system signals to endocrine signals influences sexual development and feeling of sleepiness

What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ?

self-serving bias is our tendency to perceive ourselves favorably, as when viewing ourselves as better than average or when accepting credit for our successes but not blame for our failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile, focuses on sustaining itself, and views failure or criticism as a threat. Secure self-esteem enables us to feel accepted for who we are.

Tyshane went swimming with friends who did not want to get into the pool because the water felt cold. Tyshane jumped in and after a few minutes declared, "It was cold when I first got in, but now my body is used to it. Come on in!" Tyshane's body became accustomed to the water due to - perceptual set. - absolute threshold. - difference threshold. - selective attention. - sensory adaptation.

sensory adaptation

Research on the heritability of personality

shared family environment appears to have remarkably little impact on personality This unexpected finding has been observed quite consistently in behavioral genetics research

1st meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies

showed that the average therapy client ends up better off than 80 percent of the untreated individuals on waiting lists Those not undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve more quickly, and with less risk of relapse.

correlation coefficient

shows the degree of relationship; numbers fall between -1.0 and 1.0 - the higher the #, the stronger the relationship - (+)/(-)= direction - #= strength x=1.0 - perfect positive x=0 - no relationship x=-1.0 - perfect negative

Natalia is washing her hands and adjusts the faucet handle until the water feels just slightly hotter than it did before. Natalia's adjustment until she feels a difference is an example of - a subliminal stimulus. - an absolute threshold. - a difference threshold. - signal detection. - Weber's law.

signal detection

What are examples of the signal detection theory?

signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) people respond differently to the same stimuli ; some teachers are much more likely than others to detect students texting in class the same person's reaction to a stimuli can vary as circumstances change- exhausted parents will notice the faintest whimper from a newborn's cradle while failing to notice louder, unimportant sounds

Humanistic psychologists often prefer to assess personality by -- having a person write out answers to questions. sitting down and talking to a person. getting a person to describe what he or she sees in ambiguous inkblots. having a person describe their dreams. putting a person in a stressful situation to see how he or she behaves under pressure.

sitting down and talking to a person.

Hypothalamus

sleep control center of the brain monitors changes in light or dark in the environment changes levels of hormones in the body

Sleep: preservation

sleep helps us eliminate waste products, repair cells and brain tissue, strengthen the immune system fine-tuning our brains, our bodies use the opportunity of sleep to carry out housekeeping tasks

STAGE 2:

sleep spindles "baseline" of sleep-part of 90 min cycle and occupies approx. 45-60% of sleep. - brain waves slow dramatically-not easy to wake up -sleep spindles (bursts of neural activity-neural firings) occur

The ___________ is a culturally determined timetable for certain events, such as having children and retirement. critical period menopause intimacy phase attachment stage social clock

social clock

What does touching various spots on the skin w/a soft hair, warm or cool wire, and the point of a pin reveal about our skin?

some spots on the skin are especially sensitive to pressure, others to warmth, others to cold, and others to pain. Other skin sensations are variations of the basic 4. Ex) Stroking adjacent pressure spots creates a tickle. Repeated gentle stroking of a pain spot creates an itching sensation. Touching adjacent cold and pressure spots triggers a sense of wetness, which you can experience by touching dry, cold metal. Stimulating nearby cold and warm spots produces the sensation of hot

What are some examples of absolute threshold?

some stimuli we are exquisitely sensitive- standing atop a mountain on an utterly dark, clear night, most of us could see a candle flame atop another mountain 30 miles away, we could feel the wing of a bee falling on our cheek, we could smell a single drop of perfume in a 3-room apartment

Hypnosis

state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion calm and trancelike state during which you have a heightened concentration and focus and in which you're typically more open to suggestion

ecstasy

stimulant and mild hallucinogen -Club drug - increases empathy, peacefulness, the person feels calm or relaxed - Immediate dehydrating effects, The decline in memory and performance, Long-term serotonin changes in the brain → depression

goal of aversive conditioning

substituting a negative (aversive) response for a positive response to a harmful stimulus (such as alcohol). Thus, aversive conditioning is the reverse of systematic desensitization—it seeks to condition an aversion to something the person should avoid.

If you showed a 2-year-old that you'd hidden a toy behind the bed in a model of her bedroom, she would not be able to find the toy in her real bedroom because she lacks analytical thinking. random thinking. symbolic thinking. schematic thinking. egocentric thinking.

symbolic thinking.

overconfidence

tend to think we know more than we do

hindsight bias

tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you knew it all along

centration

tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects When working on the conservation problem with water, pre-operational children tend to concentrate on the height of water while ignoring width.

Wechler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests includes: - similarities: reasoning the commonality of 2 objects or concepts, such as "IN what way are wool and cotton alike?" - Vocab: naming pictured objects, or defining words "what is a guitar" - block design: visual abstract processing, such as "using the 4 blocks, make one just like this." - letter-number sequencing: On hearing a series of numbers and letters, repeat the numbers in ascending order, and then the letters in alphabetical order: "R-2-C-1-M-3." - - - * It yields not only an overall intelligence score, as does the Stanford-Binet, but also separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. Striking differences among these scores can provide clues to cognitive strengths or weaknesses that teachers or therapists can build upon.

Superstitious behavior can be produced by careful manipulation of a classical conditioning experiment. the accidental timing of rewards. possession of a large number of traditionally lucky items. cognitive awareness of superstitious behavior in others. the change in a reinforcement schedule from ratio to interval.

the accidental timing of rewards.

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Heritability of intelligence refers to -- the extent to which a person's intelligence is caused by genetics. the effect of adoption on the intelligence of adopted children. the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics. the extent to which the quality of schools and other environmental factors determine intelligence. the correlation between intelligence test scores of identical twins.

the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics.

How do we detect loudness?

the brain can interpret loudness from the number of activated hair cells. a soft, pure tone activates only the few hair cells attuned to its frequency. Given louder sounds, neighboring hair cells also respond. Thus, the brain can interpret loudness from the number of activated hair cells.

electromagnetic spectrum

the complete range of electromagnetic waves placed in order of increasing frequency includes short waves of gamma waves to long waves

Working Memory (short-term)

the component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs It's not a shelf to temporarily hold info but an active desktop where your brain processes It helps make sense of new input and linking it with long term memory Has a limited capacity (7 +/- 2) May increase by "chunking" A short duration (20 seconds) Without rehearsal, the average person retains only about 4 chunks in short-term memory

conditions of worth

the conditions a person must meet in order to regard himself or herself positively feelings being evaluated as a person, rather than action

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

Extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

Proactive Interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information As you collect more info, your mental attic never fills but gets cluttered

psychodynamic theories

the diverse theories, decided from the work of Sigmund Freud, that focus on unconscious mental forces - psychoanalysis

psychological dependence

the feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being absence of drug --> negative feelings

Glucose

the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, making us feel hungry - Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines - They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain - The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously

Attachment theory

the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life proposed as one way to understand social development Attachment: deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space

Albert Bandura

the importance of conscious thoughts and emotions The social cognitive perspective of personality: emphasizes the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes Emphasized the importance of social learning or learning through observation - social cognitive approach - reciprocal determinism - self-efficacy

Anterograde Amnesia

the inability to create new memories

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

cognitive neuroscience

the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)

Retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information contains cells that convert light energy to nerve impulses to process visual info made of 3 cell layers: receptor, bipolar, ganglion receives an upside-down image

Relearning

the measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

positive psychology

the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive what makes life good, fulfilling, positive?

retinal ganglion cells

the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain break down visual stimuli into small components and have receptive fields with center surround organization

Psycophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

evolutionary psychologists

the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

closure

the tendency to look at the whole by filling in the gaps in a perceptual field

false consensus effect

the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

continuity

the tendency to perceive that movement of an object continues once it appears to move in a particular direction

proximity

the tendency to place items that are physically close to each other in a group

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green suggests color perception is controlled by activity of 2 opponent systems can't see certain colors in a combo

gate control theory of pain

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

ear drum

the tissue barrier that transfers sound vibration from the air to the tiny bones of the middle ear. -can be damaged by objects in the ear and exceptionally loud noises

hertz

the unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second measures number of sound wave peaks/second -determines pitch

Gestalt Psychology

the whole or the organizational patterns that we tend to perceive

Yerkes-Dodson Law

theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only up to a certain point - Optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task - Each person has an optimum level of stimulation they like to maintain

EMDR

therapist waves a finger inferno of the eyes of the client to unlock and reprocess previously frozen traumatic memories Francine Shapiro (1989, 2007) developed EMDR while walking in a park and observing that anxious thoughts vanished as her eyes spontaneously darted about.

Dualists

thought gives humans free will. consciousness is external and continues after the body and brain die

Ossicles

three tiny bones in the middle ear that transfer sound waves from the eardrum to the cochlea (hammer, anvil, stirrup)

personal dispositions

traits unique to the individual - A person's inherent qualities of mind and character Influence behavior only in relevant situations Can lead to behaviors that alter situations which promotes other behaviors People choose to be in situations that are in accord with them They are more important in some situations than others

school psychologist

treats students for mild disorders and work for the school district

tend-and-befriend

under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)

Methadone

used as a substitute drug in the treatment of morphine and heroin addiction

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

used for severely depressed patients who do not respond to drugs Patients is anesthetized and given a muscle relaxant Usually get a 100 volt shock that relieves them of depression Shock induced seizures calm neural centers where over activity produces depression Goal: produce a seizure

antipsychotic drugs

used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis Chlorpromazine (therazine): remove a number of positive symptoms associated w/schizophrenia such as agitation, delusions, and hallucinations Most antipsychotic drugs are antagonist: similar enough to molecules of dopamine to occupy receptor sites and block its activity

Standardization

utilizing scores from a representative sample to determine how well an individual did on the test relative to other test takers, create similar testing conditions for all

Dream content

varies by culture, gender and age. Frequently connects with recent experience, may help us to form memories

How have researchers, through experimentation, demonstrated the power of emotions/motivation on our perception of things?

walking destinations look farther away to those who have been fatigued by prior exercise. a hill looks steeper to those who are wearing a heavy backpack or have just been exposed to sad, heavy classical music rather than light, bouncy music. As with so many of life's challenges, a hill also seems less steep to those with a friend beside them. a target seems farther away to those throwing a heavy rather than a light object at it. Desired objects, such as a water bottle when thirsty, seem closer Spouses who feel loved and appreciated perceive less threat in stressful marital events—"He's just having a bad day"

Warning signs of schizophrenia & treatments

warning signs: - Mother's long lasting schizophrenia - Birth complications, oxygen deprivation, low birth weight - Short attention span and poor muscle coordination - Disruptive and withdrawn behavior - Emotional unpredictability - Poor peer relations and solo play treatments: Lobotomies, insulin shock therapy Current treatment: therapy and medication

Construct validity

whether a test is really evaluating on abstract psych