AP Psych Exam review
According to Carl Rogers, when we are in a good marriage, a close family, or an intimate friendship, we are free to be spontaneous without fearing the loss of others' esteem. What did he call this accepting attitude? A peak experience Unconditional positive regard Self-transcendence Humanistic psychology Our self-concept
Unconditional positive regard
Assimilation
interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Music-color synesthesia
specific tones or songs associated with specific colors
hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
pitch
the highness or lowness of sound determined by its frequency of sound wave
Levels of Consciousness
-conscious -non conscious -preconscious -subconscious -unconscious
decibles
A unit used to measure the loudness of a sound -measures the height of the sound wave
Stage 4: concrete operational (7-11)
Child can reason more logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets
choice blindness
Failing to notice a change in a previously selected item
The more often the stimulus is presented, the weaker the response becomes. What do developmental researchers call this decrease in response intensity due to repeated stimulation? Stagnation Attachment Autonomy Imprinting Habituation
Habituation
Which of the following theories offers a special focus on the potential for healthy personal growth? Neo-Freudian Psychodynamic Humanistic Behavioral Functionalist
Humanistic
Which of the following is best defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience? Acquisition Stimulus Learning Habituation Response
Learning
moral action
doing the right thing
Cerebellum
Neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories created by classical conditioning Helps explain infantile amnesia: we recall no skills (explicitly) we learned during infancy
Which of the following would indicate that a child understood conservation? -- She would continue to seek a toy hidden under a blanket. She would "hide" in a game of hide-and-seek by covering her eyes with her hands. She would believe that a clay snake would have the same amount of clay as the clay ball that was used to make it. She would recognize that 7 + 3 involves the same mathematical relationship as 10 - 7. She would be able to comprehend the logic of if-then statements.
She would believe that a clay snake would have the same amount of clay as the clay ball that was used to make it.
Cultural norms related to when to leave home, get a job, or marry are referred to as what? Social clock Midlife crisis Critical period Life span Theory of mind
Social clock
outer ear
The part of the ear that collects sound waves; consists of the pinna, the ear canal, and the eardrum.
physical development (adulthood)
The peak of physical performance-muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output Occurs around 20 years of age, after which it declines imperceptibly for most of us
dark adaptation
The process in which the eyes become more sensitive to light in low illumination.
Classical conditioning is the type of learning in which a person links two or more stimuli and forgets about them. lays them out in sequence. shuts down. anticipates events. receives a reward.
anticipates events
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
Negative correlation
as one variable increases, the other decreases
Which of the following phrases accurately describes top-down processing? a. The entry-level date captured by our various sensory systems b. The effect that our experiences and expectations have on perception c. Our tendency to scan a visual field from top to bottom d. Our inclination to follow a predetermined set of steps to process sound e. The fact that information is processed by the higher regions of the brain before it reaches the lower brain
b. The effect that our experiences and expectations have on perception
Which of the following carries the information necessary to activate withdrawal of the hand from a hot object? a. sensory neuron b. motor neuron c. interneuron d. receptor neuron e. reflex
b. motor neuron
ultradian rhythms
biological rhythms that occur more than once each day -90 min sleep cycles
motor neurons
carry info from CNS to muscles and glands
taste
chemical sense
id
contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy basic sexual and aggressive drives. The id operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification basic and foundational - present at birth, the "animal" in you - is entirely stupid "I want it right now!"
Which division of the nervous system produces the startle response? a. parasympathetic b. central c. somatic d. sympathetic e. autonomic
d. sympathetic
bottom-up processing (pain)
damage to a portion of the body sends signals to the sensory cortex (parietal lobe) indicating a problem
CBT may be useful for
emotional disorders (regulation) OCD, anxiety, depression, anorexia
Types of skin
hairy and glabrous
benefits of group therapy
it saves the therapist's time and client's money. It offers a social laboratory for exploring social behaviors and developing social skills. It enables people to see that others share their problems. It provides feedback as clients try out new ways of behaving.
left hemisphere
language, math, logic
skin
largest organ of the body
imitation onset
learning by observation begins early in life
Dysthymic Disorder
lies b/t blue mood and major depressive disorder Characterized by daily depression lasting 2 years or more Down in the dumps mood - Chronic low energy, low self-esteem, difficulty concentrating, and sleep eat too little or too much
ALS
loss of motor neurons
Validity
measure what it was designed to measure
secondary sex characteristics
nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair
Unjustifiable
not easy to explain to most people (psych disorder)
Chunking
organizing items into a familiar, manageable unit. ex) acronyms
threshold
point at which sensory info is strong enough to be noticed
neurons do what?
receive info, carry info, pass info to next neuron
retinal bipolar cells
receive messages from photoreceptors and transmit them to ganglion cells which are part of the optic nerve
sex
refers to the strictly biological traits that define male and female
testosterone and estrogen
t= primarily male hormone e= primarily female hormone males and females have both in their system
pain
tells the body that something has gone wrong -usually results from damage to the skin or other tissues
primary sex characteristics
the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age
menarche
the first menstrual period
brightness constancy
the tendency to perceive the apparent brightness of an object as the same even when the light conditions change depends on relative luminance: the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
hypnosis weakness
there's no reliable way to tell if a person is hypnotized
hippocampus
wraps around back of thalamus; memory relay station
What is the absolute threshold for hearing?
zero decibels
Which of the following is the primary purpose of the DSM? -- Diagnosis of mental disorders Selection of appropriate psychological therapies for mental disorders Placement of mental disorders in appropriate cultural context Selection of appropriate medicines to treat mental disorders Understanding the causes of mental disorders
Diagnosis of mental disorders
Middle Adulthood (post 40)
For women 35-39: aging means a gradual decline in fertility where they are half as likely to produce offspring Around age 50 women go through menopause the ending of the menstrual cycle Men experience no equivalent to menopause- no decrease in fertility drop in sex hormones but do experience a gradual decline in sperm count, speed of erection, and testosterone level
Most adolescents can ponder and debate human nature, good and evil, truth and justice. According to Piaget, this thinking ability is due to the emergence of which stage? Concrete operational Sensorimotor Preoperational Formal operational Accommodation
Formal operational
Which of the following reflects the notion that pitch is related to the number of impulses traveling up the auditory nerve in a unit of time? - Place theory - Frequency theory - Volley principle - Sound localization - Stereophonic hearing
Frequency theory
What developmental stages did Freud propose?
Freud believed children pass through five psychosexual stages (oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital). Unresolved conflicts at any stage can leave a person's pleasure-seeking impulses fixated (stalled) at that stage.
Psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions
the work of Ivan Pavlov and John Watson fits best into which of psychology's perspectives? Humanism Gestalt psychology Trait theory Behaviorism Neuropsychology
Behaviorism
IQ (intelligence quotient)
a fixed and objectively real trait we commit to reasoning error called reification
Taijin-kyofusho
a form of social anxiety common in Japan involving a fear of offending or embarrassing others with one's odor, eye contact, or appearance.
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
phantom sounds
a ringing in the ears sensation known as tinnitus
rite of passage
a ritual that serves to mark the movement and transformation of an individual from one social position to another
Of the following, which term best describes the condition in which a person with limited mental ability excels at a specific skill such as computation? Savant syndrome g factor Creative intelligence Emotional intelligence Street smarts
Savant syndrome
A split from reality that shows itself in disorganized thinking, disturbed perceptions, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotions is associated with which psychological disorder? Schizophrenia Phobias Depression Bipolar disorder Anxiety
Schizophrenia
Hans Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome
Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.
To what extent is intelligence related to brain anatomy?
Some studies have found a positive correlation between intelligence score and brain size and activity, especially in the frontal and parietal lobes. Ample gray matter and white matter enable efficient communication between brain circuits.
shape constancy
a tendency to see an object as the same shape no matter what angle it is viewed from
aptitude test
a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn
negative reinforcement
anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with the removal of an undesirable event or state - something the subject doesn't like is removed - will strengthen behavior Negative in psychology does not mean negative ex) aspirin relieves headaches and makes it more likely that aspirin will be taken in the future
temporal lobe
auditory info processing, differentiate between sounds
agonist
drug that mimics neurotransmitters effects
scientific theory
explanation of some aspect of natural world using scientific method; repeatedly tested
experimental group
exposed to independent variable
terminals
form junctions with other cells
The maturation of the brain's __________ lags behind the development of the limbic system, which may explain the impulsivity of teenagers compared with adults. frontal lobes temporal lobes occipital lobes parietal lobes corpus collosum
frontal lobes
fMRI
functional magnetic resonance imaging measures activity by detecting changes in blood flow active regions: blood flow increases show brain function and structure
color defects
genetically transmitted
LOC: Subconscious
information we aren't currently aware of, but we know must exist due to behavior ex) mere-exposure effect
handedness
inherited 90% of people are right handed
social anxiety disorder
intense fear of social situations, leading to avoidance of such. (Formerly called social phobia.)
Francis Galton
interested in link between heredity and intelligence; founder of the eugenics movement
taste receptor cells
located primarily in the tongue and mouth
Brainstem
located where spinal cord swells and brain just begins responsible for automatic survival functions
intelligence
mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
relative height
method of determining depth by noting that distant objects appear higher in your field of vision than do closer objects
relative clarity
method of determining depth by noting that distant objects are less clear than nearby objects Tends to work outdoors where distant objects have a bluish, hazy appearance due to moisture in the air
Undifferentiated Schizophrenia
mixture of symptoms and does not meet the diagnostic criteria for any one type of schizophrenia
Modern psychologists contend that all behavior, whether it is called normal or disordered, arises from the interaction of genetics and physiology. children and parents. experience and wisdom. inborn tendencies and drives. nature and nurture.
nature and nurture.
antisocial behavior
negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior unfortunately, Bandura's studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood, or TV) may have antisocial effects
naturalistic observation
observe subject in natural environment -not controlled
paul costa
psychologist associated with the five-factor model of personality, worked with Robert McCrae
Structuralism
psychology = a science uses introspection to reveal the mind's structure
2 categories of therapy
psychotherapy & biomedical therapy
Context Effects
putting yourself back in the context where you experienced something can prime your memory retrieval ex) scuba divers recall more words underwater if they learned the list underwater, while they recall more words on land if they learned that list on land
Reinforcement vs. Punishment
reinforcement increases behavior, punishment decreases behavior
Nocieptors
sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals
kinds of neurons:
sensory, motor, interneurons
How does sleep affect memory?
sleep helps us process and consolidate new memories rebuilds fading memories
LOC: Non Conscious
body processes controlled by your mind, usually not aware (heart beat, respiration...)
intersex
born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female physical features.
pituitary gland
controls other endocrine glands size of pea, aka "master gland" release sex hormones influencing brain and behavior located at base of brain and controlled by hypothalamus
somatic system
controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
longitudinal fissure
crevices that separates the two hemispheres
bias
current knowledge and beliefs distort our memories of the past
cerebral cortex
4 parts; wrinkled outer surface of the brain; control and info processing center each brain hemisphere ÷ into 4 lobes: frontal, occipital, parietal, temporal
DSM-5
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition; a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders.
Visual Encoding
the encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding
the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words
reliability
the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
conception
the moment at which a female becomes pregnant fertilization creates a zygote
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
relative size
using the perceived size of a familiar object to determine depth -The larger the object appears, the closer the object is to the viewer
Which is true of social relations during the teen years? -- As teens distance themselves from parents, peer relationships become more important. High school girls who have the poorest relationships with their mothers have the most intense friendships with peers. Parental influence peaks during mid to late adolescence. Most adolescents have serious disagreements with parents, leading to great social stress. Teens are generally more concerned with family relationships than peer relationships.
As teens distance themselves from parents, peer relationships become more important.
Boez is a 2-year-old boy who is in the process of potty training. When Boez urinates in the potty, he has a sense of pride. If Boez urinates in his pants, he runs and hides. According to Erikson, in which psychosocial stage is Boez? Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Competence versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
One of principal differences between the ethical guidelines for human and animal research is A) human participants can be deceived for experimental purposes and animals cannot. B) Animals can be placed at much greater physical risk than human C) Human participants must be chosen much more carefully than animal subjects D) if humans might physically suffer because of the study, the suffering must be minimum, in contrast to animal studies where any amount of suffering is ethical if it helps to further a clear scientific purpose E) environmental conditions for human studies must be monitored much more closely than they are in an animal study
B) Animals can be placed at much greater physical risk than human
Emma scores a perfect 100 on a test that everyone else fails. If we were to graph this distribution it would be A) Symmetrical B) Normal C) Positively skewed D) Negatively skewed E) Straight line
C) Positively skewed
difference threshold
"just noticeable difference" the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time size of a difference in a stimulus property needed to notice a CHANGE has occurred 50% of the time
Amphetamines
"speeder uppers" - drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes - includes Meth - suppress appetite and were once prescribed as diet pills - Increase concentration and reduce fatigue, can increase anxiety and irritability
anal
(18-36 months or 1-3 years) pleasure focuses on bowel and bladder elimination; coping with demands for control of bodily wastes
emerging adulthood
18-25 for some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-twenties, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood - during this time, young adults may live with their parents and attend college or work - On avg. emerging adults marry in their mid-twenties
Positive correlation
A correlation where as one variable increases, the other also increases, or as one decreases so does the other. Both variables move in the same direction.
Cognitive Approach
An approach to psychology emphasizing the mental processes involved in knowing: how we direct our attention, perceive, remember, think, and solve problems.
Phenotype
An organism's physical appearance, or visible traits -observable characteristics -characteristics may change over time or modified by environmental factors ex) born blonde but hair turns brown
What do mental health professionals call a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior? An interaction of nature and nurture A physiological state A genetic predisposition A psychological factor A psychological disorder
A psychological disorder
double-blind procedure
A research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control groups. -they cannot affect the outcome of the research
What are the four components of emotional intelligence?
Emotional intelligence, which is an aspect of social intelligence, is the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions. Emotionally intelligent people achieve greater personal and professional success. Some critics question whether calling these abilities "intelligence" stretches that concept too far.
Temperament refers to what aspect of an infant's development? Susceptibility to infection and disease Emotional reactivity General intelligence Level of optimism Ability to learn from situations
Emotional reactivity
Acetylcholine (ACh)
Enables muscle action, learning, and memory. With Alzheimer's disease, ACh-producing neurons deteriorate.
What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?
Erikson theorized that each life stage has its own psychosocial task, and that a chief task of adolescence is solidifying one's sense of self—one's identity. This often means "trying on" a number of different roles. Social identity is the part of the self-concept that comes from a person's group memberships.
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families
What's an example of how emotion can influence our perception?
Hearing sad rather than happy music can predispose people to perceive a sad meaning in spoken homophonic words—mourning rather than morning, die rather than dye, pain rather than pane
Amplitude
Height of a wave determines the brightness of light (taller=brighter)
Elizabeth Loftus
Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony
How is heritability defined?
Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability trait can vary depending on populations and environments.
Which of the following is one of the ways humanistic therapies differ from psychoanalytic therapies? -- Humanist therapies believe the past is more important than the present and future. Humanist therapies boost self-fulfillment by decreasing self-acceptance. Humanist therapies believe the path to growth is found by uncovering hidden determinants. Humanist therapies believe that unconscious thoughts are more important than conscious thoughts. Humanist therapies focus on promoting growth, not curing illness.
Humanist therapies focus on promoting growth, not curing illness.
Which of the following states of consciousness occurs when one person suggests to another that certain thoughts or behaviors will spontaneously occur? - Dreaming - Hypnosis - Daydreaming - Hallucination - Waking awareness
Hypnosis
How do cognitive processes affect classical and operant conditioning?
In classical conditioning, animals may learn when to expect a US and may be aware of the link between stimuli and responses. In operant conditioning, cognitive mapping and latent learning research demonstrate the importance of cognitive processes in learning. Other research shows that excessive rewards (driving extrinsic motivation) can undermine intrinsic motivation
unconditioned response
In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.
What is observational learning, and how do some scientists believe it is enabled by mirror neurons?
In observational learning, as we observe and imitate others we learn to anticipate a behavior's consequences, because we experience vicarious reinforcement or vicarious punishment. Our brain's frontal lobes have a demonstrated ability to mirror the activity of another's brain. The same areas fire when we perform certain actions (such as responding to pain or moving our mouth to form words), as when we observe someone else performing those actions.
Sensory abilities (adult)
After age 70, hearing, distance perception, and the sense of smell diminish, as do muscle strength, reaction time, and stamina After 80 neural processes slow down, especially for complex tasks
How does operant conditioning differ from classical conditioning?
In operant conditioning, an organism learns associations between its own behavior and resulting events; this form of conditioning involves operant behavior (behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing consequences). In classical conditioning, the organism forms associations between stimuli—events it does not control; this form of conditioning involves respondent behavior (automatic responses to some stimulus).
How did Sigmund Freud's treatment of psychological disorders lead to his view of the unconscious mind?
In treating patients whose disorders had no clear physical explanation, Freud concluded that these problems reflected unacceptable thoughts and feelings, hidden away in the unconscious mind. To explore this hidden part of a patient's mind, Freud used free association and dream analysis.
Baby Blues
Maternity (baby) blues: mild depression that lasts for one to two days after childbirth Marked by crying, fitful sleep, tension, anger, and irritability Brief and not too severe
What do we call a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior? Incentive Refractory period Emotion Motivation Instinct
Motivation
A test-developer defines uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group. Which of the following best describes this process? Reliability testing Validation Content validation Standardization Predictive validity
Reliability testing
How did humanistic psychologists assess a person's sense of self?
Some rejected any standardized assessments and relied on interviews and conversations. Rogers sometimes used questionnaires in which people described their ideal and actual selves, which he later used to judge progress during therapy.
How do we locate sounds?
Sound waves strike one ear sooner and more intensely than the other. The brain analyzes the minute differences in the sounds received by the two ears and computes the sound's source. As the placement of our eyes allows us to sense visual depth, so the placement of our two ears allows us to enjoy stereophonic ("three-dimensional") hearing.
What are standardization and the normal curve?
Standardization establishes a basis for meaningful score comparisons by giving a test to a representative sample of future test-takers. The distribution of test scores often forms a normal (bell-shaped) curve around the central average score, with fewer and fewer scores at the extremes.
social behavior
We aim to increase our feelings of belonging Gain acceptance we generally conform to group standards We monitor behavior, spend money on clothes... to gain acceptance Feelings of love activate brain's rewards and safety systems
Explain the current research regarding learning while we sleep.
We do not remember recorded information played while we are soundly asleep. Anything that happens during the 5 minutes just before we fall asleep is typically lost from memory.
Genders & emotion
Women are much better at discerning nonverbal emotions than men When shown sad, happy, and scary film clips women expressed more emotions than men
unconscious
according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. According to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware.
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
schema
an organized body of knowledge. They are not part of the inborn knowledge structures of children. - Once we develop schema, we spend a lot of time fitting new experiences into existing schema or assimilation - need to both accommodate and assimilate throughout life * Schemas developed through experience * Process of developing schemas is called accommodation
bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information processing focuses on raw material entering through the ears, eyes....
sleep deprivation
any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability as well as memory failures
positive reinforcement
anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior by following it with a desirable event or state- strengthens the behavior
Which of the following is most likely to influence our memory of a painful event? a. The overall length of the event b. The intensity of pain at the end of the event c. The reason for the pain d. The amount of rest you've had in the 24 hours preceding the event e. The scientific part of the body that experiences the pain
b. The intensity of pain at the end of the event
Interneurons are said to a. send messages from specific body parts to the brain b. transmit and process information within the brain and spinal cord c. act as connectors, supporting other neurons in the brain d. send messages from the brain to body parts e. influence the pituitary gland
b. transmit and process information within the brain and spinal cord
Dr. Welle tries to help her clients by teaching them to modify the things they do when under stress or experiencing symptoms. This means that Dr. Welle engages in _________ therapy. behavior cognitive group rational-emotive behavior client-centered
behavior
John B. Watson
behaviorism; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat
Provide an example of how hypnosis is believed to be a dissociated state of consciousness.
being hypnotized to be able to withstand pain without showing any outward signs of discomfort, however, when asked to signal if some part of his consciousness is aware of the pain, he raises his hand
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire
believed to be genetically influenced, categorized by 4 over arching traits extraversion-introversion & emotional stability-instability
approach-avoidance conflict
both options have their benefits and drawbacks. ex) telling your wife that her hair looks bad. The good is she'll fix it. The bad is she might be mad at you for a few hours.
anonymity/confidentiality
both protect privacy anonymity- no data that allows researchers to match the data with the person confidentiality- the source of any data will not be revealed
Central Nervous System
brain and spinal cord; brain: info processing, spine: road to or from the brain
Which of the following describes a perception process that the Gestalt psychologists would have been interested in? a. Depth perception and how it allows us to survive in the world b. Why we see an object near us as closer rather than larger c. How an organized whole is formed out of its component pieces d. What the smallest units of perception are e. The similarities between shape constancy and size constancy
c. How an organized whole is formed out of its component pieces
auditory nerve
bundle of axons from the hair cells in the inner ear carries neural impulses from the inner ear (via the thalamus) to the brain's temporal lobe, resulting in the perception of sound
major depressive disorder
a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either (1) depressed mood or (2) loss of interest or pleasure.
mania
a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state.
somatic symptom disorder
a psychological disorder in which the symptoms take a somatic (bodily) form without apparent physical cause.
mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
Learning
a relatively durable change in an organism's behavior due to experience
iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
continuous reinforcement
a schedule of reinforcement in which a reward follows every correct response; the most useful way to est. a behavior; the behavior will extinguish quickly once reinforcement stops ex) vending machines; teacher giving extra credit to students who participate
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings -instances of snoring/sleep apnea are much more frequent when sleeping on back -gravity forces base of tongue to collapse into the airway which obstructs breathing and creates extremely loud snoring
factor analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie a person's total score.
Factor Analysis
a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test, used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score Enables researchers to identify clusters of test items that measure a common ability
which of the following best describes genetic mutation a) random errors in gene replication b) the study of mind's evolution c) the study of behavioral evolution d) passing on successful, inherited traits e) survival of the genetically successful
a) random errors in gene replication
Allowing people to discover, in a social context, that others have problems similar to their own is a unique benefit of what kind of therapy? Psychodynamic Psychopharmacological Group Cognitive Humanistic
Group
Which of the following is true about daydreaming? - It occurs spontaneously. - It is physiologically induced. - It is psychologically induced. - It is considered the same as waking awareness. - It is more like meditation than it is like dreaming.
It occurs spontaneously.
David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel
Nobel-prize-winning researchers who discovered "feature detectors" within the visual system of the brain
What are the three major categories of drugs? - Hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants - Stimulants, barbiturates, and hallucinogens - Amphetamines, barbiturates, and opiates - MDMA, LSD, and THC - Alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine
Hallucinogens, depressants, and stimulants
Hypochondriasis
Now called Illness Anxiety Disorder Has frequent physical complaints for which medical doctors are unable to locate the cause Usually believe the minor issues (headache, upset stomach) are indicative are more severe illnesses Not faking sickness to get attention but actually believe that they are sick w/an illness that hasn't been diagnosed
Biomedical therapy: psychosurgery
PRESUMED PROBLEM: Brain malfunction AIM: Relieve severe disorders. TECHNIQUE: Remove or destroy brain tissue.
Discuss the evidence refuting some of the commonly held false beliefs about hypnosis.
Hypnosis cannot recall forgotten events because we do not record or store everything that occurs around us in our brain. We cannot retrieve memories that are not stored. Through a research study where the control group pretended to be hypnotized, the researchers found that hypnosis cannot force people to act against their will.
Therapy: Group and family
Presumed Problem: Stressful relationships Therapy Aim: Heal relationships. Therapy Technique: Develop an understanding of family and other social systems, explore roles, and improve communication.
How and why do racial and ethnic groups differ in mental ability scores?
Racial and ethnic groups differ in their average intelligence test scores. The evidence suggests that environmental differences are largely, perhaps entirely, responsible for these group differences. 64-3
pancreatic gland
regulates level of blood sugar in the blood
partial reinforcement
reinforcing a correct response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement -includes following types (fixed interval and variable interval, fixed ratio and variable ratio) ex) lottery tickets: people don't expect to win every time they buy a ticket, therefore they continue to buy them
randomized clinical trials
researchers randomly assign people on a waiting list to therapy or no therapy and later evaluate everyone, using tests and the reports of people who don't know whether therapy was given
experimenter bias
researchers treat members of experimental/control groups differently to increase chance of confirming hypothesis
ecology of eating
social facilitation: eat more in presence of others unit bias: when the portion size is larger, people will eat more food variety: when foods are abundant and varied, we tend to eat more
According to Erikson, you develop your __________, a part of who you are, from your group memberships. self-interest social identity social self self-esteem self-consciousness
social identity
Situational context
social situation, behavioral setting, or general circumstances in which an action takes place
How do culture, gender, and values influence the therapist-client relationship?
Therapists differ in the values that influence their goals in therapy and their views of progress. These differences may create problems if therapists and clients differ in their cultural, gender, or religious perspectives.
Mary Ainsworth
studied attachment differences by observing mother-infant pairs during their first 6 months Found that sensitive, responsive mothers had infants who exhibited secure attachment Insensitive, unresponsive mothers had infants who often became insecurely attached During studies, she developed a procedure for observing/assessing the quality of attachment in relationships between caregiver and mother
psychopharmacology
study of drug effects on mind and behavior
stress inoculation training
teaching people to restructure their thinking in stressful situations "Relax. The test may be hard, but it will be hard for everyone else, too. I studied harder than most people. Besides, I don't need a perfect score to get a good grade in this class." After being trained to dispute their negative thoughts, depression--prone children, teens, and college students exhibit a greatly reduced rate of future depression
Alternate form reliability
testing the same individual twice but giving a different version on retake date
cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem coordinates voluntary mvmts like balancing controls memories for knowing how to use body like walking if damaged: people can perform basic movements but lose fine coordination
social identity
the "we" aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to "Who am I?" that comes from our group memberships
emotional intelligence
the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions perceive: recognize in faces, music, and stories understanding: to predict them and how they change and blend use: to enable adaptive or creative thinking
relative luminance
the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity.
psychodynamic perspective
the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by unconscious inner forces over which the individual has little control behavior is explained through unconscious motivation and unresolved inner conflicts
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
What are the goals and techniques of cognitive therapy and of cognitive-behavioral therapy?
The cognitive therapies, such as Aaron Beck's cognitive therapy for depression, assume that our thinking influences our feelings, and that the therapist's role is to change clients' self-defeating thinking by training them to view themselves in more positive ways. Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a confrontational cognitive therapy that actively challenges irrational beliefs. The widely researched and practiced cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) combines cognitive therapy and behavior therapy by helping clients regularly act out their new ways of thinking and talking in their everyday life.
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month
Neurogenesis
the development of new neurons promoted by increased serotonin
How does the difference threshold change with the stimulus?
the difference threshold increases with the size of the stimulus. ex. if you add 1 ounce to a 10-ounce weight, you will detect the difference; add 1 ounce to a 100-ounce weight and you probably will not.
cognitive perspective
how we take in, process, store, and retrieve information behavior is explained by how a person interprets the situation
hypo and hyper thyroidism
hypo: under-active thyroid (too little) hyper: overactive thyroid (make too much)
All or none principle
if a neuron fires, it will ALWAYS fire at the same intensity; it doesn't matter if there is a strong or weak stimulation at dendrites
encoding failure
the inability to recall specific information because of insufficient encoding of the information for storage in long-term memory we cannot remember what we do not encode because the info never enters long-term memory We selectively attend to a few sights and sounds continually occurring around us Some info gets automatically encoded and some take effort
interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
suggestibility
the tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections implanted memories that never occurred
Adela regularly interprets ordinary physical symptoms like stomach cramps and headaches as serious medical problems. Her doctor is unable to convince her that her problems are not serious. Adela suffers from illness anxiety disorder. conversion disorder. fugue state. dissociative identity disorder. anorexia nervosa.
illness anxiety disorder.
confounding variable
in an experiment, a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
self
in contemporary psychology, assumed to be the center of personality, the organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
model
in observational learning, the person whose behavior the subject watches and imitates
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
Texture Gradient
method of determining depth by noting that distant objects have a smoother texture than nearby objects - The closer you get to these items, the more detail or texture you notice they have
Iconic memory
momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
Rorschach test
most widely used projective test. Set of 10 inkblots was designed by Hermann Rorschach. Seeks to identify people's inner feeling by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
Aron Ralston
motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down
In classical conditioning, the unconditioned stimulus naturally triggers a response. is a naturally occurring response. is initially irrelevant, and then comes to trigger a response. objectively studies psychology. is Pavlovian.
naturally triggers a response
Somatic Symptom Disorder
occur when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological symptom Symptoms take a "somatic" (bodily) form w/o physical causes 2 main types: hypochondriasis & conversion disorder
Opiates
opium and its derivatives (such as morphine and heroin) depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety - HIGHLY addictive user's pupils constrict, breathing slows, pleasurable feeling replaces pain and anxiety -short term pleasure --> long-term cravings, need for larger doses, extreme discomfort of withdrawal -artificial opiate overuse --> brain stops producing natural endorphins
autonomic nervous system
controls breathing, blood pressure, and digestive processes, glands/muscles of internal organs divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
Expressed emotion
people's expressive behavior reveals their emotion Emotions are expressed on the face, by the body, and by the intonation of voice
The process by which rods and cones change electromagnetic energy into neural messages is called what? a. Adaption b. Accommodation c. Parallel processing d. Transduction e. Perceptual setting
d. Transduction
According to Freud, which of the following defense mechanisms underlies all of the others? -- Repression Reaction formation Displacement Projection Regression
Repression
According to Sigmund Freud, which of the following defense mechanisms buries threatening or upsetting events in the unconscious? Regression Displacement Repression Projection Rationalization
Repression
In general, damage to ________ disrupts speaking, while damage to ________ disrupts understanding of language. a. the frontal lobe; the occipital lobe b. the temporal lobe; the occipital lobe c. the occipital lobe; the temporal lobe d. Wernicke's area; Broca's area e. Broca's area; Wernicke's area
e. Broca's area; Wernicke's area
Bulimia Nervosa
eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating Usually overeat high calorie foods Overeating is followed by vomiting, using laxatives, fasting, or excessive exercise
Anorexia Nervosa
eating disorder in which normal weight people suffer delusions of being overweight - May put themselves on self-starvation diet and exercise regimens - My become dangerously underweight - Usually in adolescent females
Which of the following is an example of a primary sex characteristic? Nonreproductive traits such as breasts and hips in girls Facial hair in boys Deepened voice in boys Pubic and underarm hair in both sexes Reproductive organs in both sexes
Reproductive organs in both sexes
Humanism
emphasizes the unique qualities of humans and their potential for human growth carl rogers, Maslow
operant conditioning
enable therapists to use behavior modification in which desired behaviors are rewarded and undesired behaviors are un-rewarded/punished
stages of memory
encoding --> storage --> retrieval * similar to cell phone
Why do we forget?
encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure Forgetting can occur at any memory stage We filter, alter or lose much information during these stages
Semantic encoding
encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words
Shallow
encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Deep
encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words-yields the best retention
what can affect epigenetic molecules?
environmental factors such as diet, drugs, stress
Maladaptive
everyday life difficult, interferes with ability to lead normal life (psych disorder)
inferiority complex
exaggerated feelings of weakness and inadequacy
Seasonal Affective Disorder
experience depression during the winter months Based not on temperature but on amount of sunlight Treated w/light therapy
General intelligence
factor according to Spearman and others that underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test Proposed g factor is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed by factor analysis ex) athleticism, like intelligence, is many things
STAGE 1:
falling to sleep "transition stage" -lasts between 1-5 min (2-5% of the night) -eyes begin to roll slightly -consists mostly of THETA waves (high amp, low frequency), brief periods of alpha waves-similar to those present while awake
delusions
false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders.
hallucination
false sensory experience, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
Learning perspective of anxiety
fear conditioning leads to anxiety Anxiety then becomes w/other objects or events and is reinforced Investigators believe that dear responses are inculcated through observational learning
Karen Horney
felt that sex and aggression were not the primary constituents for determining personality Considered founder of humanistic psychoanalysis and feminist psychology
Bryanna and Charles are in a dancing competition. It is easy for spectators to see them against the dance floor because of - the visual cliff. - the phi phenomenon. - color constancy. - sensory restriction. - figure-ground relationships.
figure-ground relationships
In what two ways do people learn to cope with personal problems?
We use problem-focused coping to change the stressor or the way we interact with it. We use emotion-focused coping to avoid or ignore stressors and attend to emotional needs related to stress reactions.
empiricism
the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
Stanford-Binet
the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test
Flynn effect
the worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance has been increasing over the years
gate-control theory
theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain Melzak/Wall proposed that our spinal cord contains neurological gates that either block pain or allow it to be sensed through the brain
cognitive therapy
therapy that teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions Behavioral therapy treat specific and problem behaviors - Cognitive therapy helps deal w/things like depression and anxiety that are clearly defined problems Focus on teaching patients new ways of thinking
Family therapy
therapy that treats the family as a system. Views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by, or directed at, other family members We live and grow in relation to others, especially our families. We struggle to differentiate ourselves from our families, but we also need to connect with them emotionally. Some of our problem behaviors arise from the tension between these two tendencies, which can create family stress. therapists work with multiple family members to heal relationships and to mobilize family resources. They tend to view the family as a system in which each person's actions trigger reactions from others, and they help family members discover their role within their family's social system
what is the significance of the trichromatic and opponent process theories of color?
they are both needed to explain color
parts of the mind
think of an iceberg conscious, preconscious, unconscious conscious: what you're currently aware of preconscious: info not in conscious but is able to be retrieved when needed unconscious: massive amount hidden from view (irrational fears, thoughts...)
Egocentrism
thinking characterized by a limited ability to share another person's viewpoint If you ask a pre-operational boy whether his brother has a brother, he'll probably say no if they only have 2 boys in the family. He's unable to view brotherhood from his brother's perspective. Three mountain problem
A teacher used distortion goggles, which shifted the wearer's gaze 20 degrees, to demonstrate an altered perception. A student wearing the goggles initially bumped into numerous desks and chairs while walking around, but chose to wear the goggles for a half hour. After 30 minutes, the student was able to smoothly avoid obstacles, illustrating the concept of - perceptual adaptation. - visual interpretation. - sensory restriction. - perceptual constancy. - binocular cues.
perceptual adaptation
Dichromat
person who has trouble seeing one of the primary colors (red, blue, or green); caused by a form of color deficiency have 1 malfunctioning cone system; various colors won't be perceived, the inability to see blue is the rarest
projective tests
personality assessments that present ambiguous visual stimuli to the client and ask the client to respond with whatever comes to mind Critics argue that projective tests lack both reliability (consistency of results) and validity (predicting what it is supposed to) R: May diagnose a normal person as having a disorder V: Even trained raters evaluating the same patient can come up with different interpretations ex) Rorschach & TAT tests
Synesthesia
phenomenon in which stimulation of one sensory pathway leads to automatic experiences in a second sensory pathway; up to 1 in 23 people experience this almost any 2 senses can be linked via synesthesia
Social Phobia
phobias which produce fear in social situations Fear of speaking in public ex) grocery store, public restrooms, eating in front of others
fetal alchohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, signs include a small, out-of-proportion head and abnormal facial features
James Lange Theory
physiological activity precedes the emotional experience William James and Carl Lange proposed an idea that was diametrically opposed to the common sense view ex) sight of oncoming car (perception of stimulus) → pounding heart (arousal) → fear (emotion)
The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion states that emotional response occurs before cognition. physiological response occurs before emotional response. emotional response occurs before physiological response. cognition occurs before emotional response. physiological response and emotion occur independently and simultaneously.
physiological response and emotion occur independently and simultaneously.
Sex
physiologically based motive, like hunger, but it is more affected by learning and values Sex is a need and a desire
social cognitive perspective
views behavior as influenced by the interaction between people's traits (including their thinking) and their social context.
subliminal threshold
when stimuli are below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness -some people respond to stimuli below absolute threshold (people have different thresholds at different levels)
State-dependent memory
when we learn in one state (joy, sad, drunk, sober) and is more easily recalled when we are again in that state
The purpose of Alfred Binet's early intelligence test was to -- predict how children would do in school. identify differences among ethnic and racial groups. help French graduates find the occupation in which they were most likely to succeed. establish the scientific definition of intelligence. facilitate "genetic breeding" experiments.
predict how children would do in schoo
Aptitude test
predicts one's ability to learn a new skill
conservation
principle that things stay the same no matter if the form changes.
effortful processing
encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Leads to durable and accessible memories
cognitive behavior therapy
aims to alter way people act and alter the way they think Successful for treating anxiety, mood disorders, OCD, depression, and eating disorders
excessive optimism
can blind us to real risks
acoustical transduction
conversion of sound waves into neural impulses in the hair cells of the inner ear
What methods did Sigmund Freud use for his studies?
free association and dream analysis to explore the unconscious (controversal)
What does individual pain sensitivity depend on?
genes, physiology, experience, attention, and surrounding culture
biopsychosocial method
gives more complete photo of behavior and mental processes and utilizes all 7 approaches
Abraham Maslow
humanistic psychologist who developed the hierarchy of needs, stating that some needs take priority over others known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization"
social influence theory
hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role- motivated to demonstrate hypnotic behavior
The 3 levels of awareness are divided into what 3 components?
id, ego, and superego id is entirely unconscious but the ego and superego operate at all 3 levels of awareness
Psychodynamic Conflicts
id, ego, superego have different agendas (constant give and take) sometimes reasonable outcomes-sometimes neurotic ones
Discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal a US
conditioned response
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing
interpretation
in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
defense mechanisms & examples
in psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality repression: little boy reverts to oral comfort of thumb sucking i the car on the way to his first day at school reaction formation: repressing angry feelings, a person displays exaggerated friendliness projection: the thief thinks everyone else is a thief rationalization: a habitual drinker says she drinks with her friends just to be sociable displacement: a little girl kicks the family dog after her mother sends her to her room sublimation: a man with aggressive urges becomes a surgeon denial: a partner denies evidence of his loved one's affair
consciousness
independent awareness of your unique thoughts, memories, feelings, sensations, and environment conscious experiences are constantly shifting and changing
vicarious learning
learning by seeing the consequences of another person's behavior
secure self-esteem
less fragile and less dependent on external evaluation
The growth of __________ around axons speeds neurotransmission, enabling better communication between the frontal lobe and other brain regions. neurons the cell body dendrites myelin synapses
neurons
mirror neurons are
neurons in the brain that are activated when one observes another individual engage in an action and when one performs a similar action
inferential statistics
numerical data that allow one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
crystallized intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age
aaron beck
pioneer in Cognitive Therapy. Suggested negative beliefs cause depression. sought to reverse clients' catastrophizing beliefs about themselves, their situations, and their futures Gentle questioning seeks to reveal irrational thinking, and then to persuade people to remove the dark glasses through which they view life
Alfred Binet
pioneer in intelligence (IQ) tests, designed a test to identify slow learners in need of help-not applicable in the U.S. because it was too culture-bound (French)
Leptin
protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger hormone that signals the hypothalamus and brain stem to reduce appetite and increase the amount of energy used
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep -most common sleep disorder -NOT just once in a while, having trouble falling asleep b/c you have a big test -NOT defined by # of hours you sleep
Self Reference Effect
relating learned material to yourself helps to remember the information
enforphins
released in response to pain or vigorous exercise "runner's high"
manifest content of dreams
remembered STORYLINE of a dream
Discuss the behavioral and emotional effects of sleep loss.
sleep can make us sleepy, and drain us of energy and feelings of well-being. Sleep loss cannot be repaid by one long sleep.
physiological influences on drug use
stress, psychological disorders can bring need to medicate through drugs in an attempt to reduce the impact
Gestalt psychologists
stressed that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts By breaking experiences into their basic parts, something important is lost
infantile amnesia
the inability to remember events from before the age of 3
dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
Richard Lazarus
theorized that our brains process and react to information without our conscious awareness and that some emotional responses don't require conscious thinking
perceptual organization
the process by which stimuli are organized into meaningful units when vision competes w/other senses, vision usually wins
Epigenetics
the study of heritable changes in gene expression that occur without a DNA change
behavior geneticists
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior
blocking
the temporary inability to remember something
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
Behaviorism
theoretical orientation based on the premise that scientific psychology should study only observable behavior
psychodynamic therapy
therapy deriving from the psychoanalytic tradition that views individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and that seeks to enhance self-insight
ringing in the ears
tinnitus ringing after exposure to loud music/machinery indicates we've been bad to our hair cells. As pain alerts us to possible bodily harm, ringing of the ears alerts us to possible hearing damage. It is hearing's equivalent of bleeding.
angular gyrus
translates writing into speech near superior edge of temporal lobe involved in recognition of visual symbols; not found in non-human species
psychotherapy
treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth
family therapy
treats family as a system Guides members toward positive relationships and improve communication
Sound comes from
vibrations
occipital lobe
visual processing
space (memory)
visualizing the location of something (i.e. where a certain piece of info is in your notes) to recall the info
Anger and its causes
People generally become angry with friends and loved ones who commit wrongdoings, especially if they are willful, unjustified, and avoidable People are also angered by foul odors, high temperatures, traffic jams, and aches/pains
Dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
theory
a system of interrelated ideas used to EXPLAIN a set of observations; must be TESTABLE, support/fail to support hypothesis
antagonist
drug that blocks neurotransmitter effects
Depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
agonist and antagonist
drugs that affect neurotransmitters
Albert Bandura proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which -- explains the nature-nurture debate. predicts human behavior. focuses on how our environment controls us. explains human motivation. emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations.
emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations
pain is a
product of both bottom-up and top-down processing
Hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
What does detecting a weak stimulus depend on?
signal strength our psychological state (our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness)
negative after image
colors you see are inverted from original image
reliable
can be replicated, consistent
psychokinesis
"mind over matter," such as levitating a table or influencing the roll of a die
antidepressant drugs
(prozac, zoloft and paxil) selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) that improve the mood by elevating levels of serotonin by inhibiting reuptake Used to treat: depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD
ostracism
exclusion from a group
As telomeres shorten, aging cells may die without being replaced with perfect genetic replicas. This process is slowed by smoking. obesity. stress. aging. exercise.
exercise
Mary Cover Jones helped a little boy named Peter overcome his fear of rabbits by gradually moving a rabbit closer to him each day while he was eating his snack. This was one of the first applications of group therapy. virtual reality exposure therapy. aversive therapy. exposure therapy. cognitive therapy.
exposure therapy.
Which parent determines the sex of the child?
father
Aaron Beck
father of cognitive therapy, believed changing people's thinking could change functioning Sought to reverse client's beliefs about themselves
insecure avoidant attachment
feeling such discomfort over getting close to others that they employ avoidant strategies to maintain their distance
Neo-Freudians
followers of Freud who developed their own competing psychodynamic theories
Experimental research
gathering primary data by selecting matched groups of subjects, giving them different treatments, controlling related factors, and checking for differences in group responses -CAUSE AND EFFECT
socio-cultural perspective
how behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures behavior is influenced by other people
variation
how similar or diverse the scores are
sensory memory
immediate brief recording of sensory information in the memory system - iconic and echoic
embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments
nervous system
includes peripheral and central systems
Why does synesthesia occur?
increased communication between specialized parts of the brain
Placebo
inert substance that takes the place of the independent variable in a control group (identical substance)
Achievement test
intended to reflect what you have already learned
Why is the pituitary gland referred to the as the master gland?
it is the most influential gland. It regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
Cultural relativity
judgements are made relevant to one's culture
electromagnetic energy
light energy transmitted through space in the form of electromagnetic waves. light enters the eye as waves of electromagnetic energy, a small portion of the varying wave ranges that produces light humans can see
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds
Howard Gardner
multiple intelligences Supports the idea that intelligence comes in different packages Brain damage may diminish one type of ability but not others Different abilities enabled our ancestors to cope with different environmental changes Argues that we don't have AN intelligence but instead have multiple intelligences, each independent of each other 8 intelligences
control group
not exposed to independent variable/treatment
Interposition
objects that occlude (block) other objects tend to be perceived as closer, aka overlap
superego
part of the personality that acts as a moral center - the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations. internalized rules of society and parents Terribly stupid according to Freud "Stop! You're disgusting, you should be ashamed of yourself!" or "good people don't think about those things."
phantom limb sensation
patients who have had a limb amputated may still experience sensations such as itching, pressure, tingling, or pain as if the limb were still there
Happiness
people who are happy perceive the world as being safer Make decisions easier, are more cooperative, live healthier, energized
skinner
people's characteristic response tendencies are shaped by reinforcers and other consequences that follow behavior ex) if your joking around leads to attention and compliments, your tendency to be witty and humorous will be strengthened
case study
person or situation observed in depth - difficult to generalize - highly subjective
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Reasons for sleep
preservation restoration memory creative thinking supports growth
the sense of touch is a mix of what 4 distinct skin senses?
pressure, warmth, cold, pain -w/in the skin are different types of specialized nerve endings -only pressure has identifiable receptors -all other skin sensations are variations of pressure, warmth, cold, and pain
reuptake
process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action
accomodation
process relies on the notion that we develop a series of schemas to ease adaptation process adapting our current understandings (schema) to incorporate new info
stratified sampling
process that allows a researcher to ensure that the sample represents the population on some criteria (different races, genders, etc.)
mood disorders
psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. See major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder. come in two principal forms: (1) major depressive disorder, with its prolonged hopelessness and lethargy, and (2) bipolar disorder (formerly called manic-depressive disorder), in which a person alternates between depression and mania, an overexcited, hyperactive state.
Behaviorism
psychology should be an objective science that studies observable behavior without reference to mental processes
Korsakoff's Syndrome
related to alcohol consumption over a number of years Alcohol doesn't cause disease directly; lack of vitamin B leads to disorder Those with alcohol dependence tend to have poor eating habits → vitamin deficiency Patients tend to confabulate (make up info that fill in memory gaps )
roger sperry
scientist who won a Nobel Prize for work with split brain patients
Orexin
secreted by the hypothalamus; triggers hunger
olfactory cells
sensitive nerve cells in nasal passages. alert the brain through their axon fibers
thalamus
sits atop brainstem "relay station" brain's sensory switchboard: incoming fibers of all senses except smell funnel into thalamus which distributes info to regions of brain for processing
glabrous skin
skin that does not contain hair; found on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet the receptors in glabrous skin are more sensitive
subliminal
stimuli below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness stimuli is too weak for you to notice them
Nerman Ebbinghaus
studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables (TUV YOF GEK XOZ)
self-help groups
studies show that self-help groups focus on stigmatized or hard to discuss illness ex) AIDS patients are more likely to be in a group than hypertension patients Alcoholics anonymous (AA) has more than 2 mil. Members worldwide
Psychosurgery
surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior
What are the 5 taste sensations?
sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami (savory)
germinal stage
the 2-week period of prenatal development that begins at conception zygote is created through fertilization. within 36 hours, rapid cell division begins - becomes microscopic mass of multiplying cells - many zygotes are rejected at this point placenta
Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
medical model
the concept that diseases, in this case psychological disorders, have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured, often through treatment in a hospital.
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
drive-reduction theory
the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need - the physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis
self-actualization
the process by which people achieve their full potential
stress
the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging
spacing effect
the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice
regression toward the mean
the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average.
size constancy
the tendency to interpret an object as always being the same actual size, regardless of its distance
similarity
the tendency to place items that look similar into a group. ex) shapes
Generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses
Xavier, who has a negative explanatory style, is most likely to get depressed after failing a math test if he believes that he failed because -- he is not good at math and never will be. his teacher made it impossible to learn the material. he was sick on the day he took the test. his parents have been putting too much pressure on him and he panicked on the test. the testing room was very hot and stuffy.
the testing room was very hot and stuffy.
behavior modification
the use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior reinforcing desired behaviors, and withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors
Behavior therapy
therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors
light exposure therapy
therapy that involves a timed daily dose of intense light; used for SAD
psychosurgery
used as a last resort in alleviating psychological disturbances Irreversible Removal of brain tissue changes the mind Although used sparingly today, 200 such operations to take place in US alone
mood-stabilizing drugs
used to treat mood instability and bipolar disorders; an example is lithium after suffering mood swings for years, about 7 in 10 people with bipolar disorder benefit from a long-term daily dose of this cheap salt, which helps prevent or ease manic episodes and, to a lesser extent, lifts depression (Solomon et al., 1995). It also protects neural health, thus reducing bipolar patients' vulnerability to significant cognitive decline. Lithium also reduces bipolar patients' risk of suicide
humanistic theorists
view personality with a focus on the potential for healthy personal growth carl rogers & abraham maslow
Spillover Effect
when one emotion continues from one situation to another; more happy about getting job after running as opposed to just waking up
avoidance-avoidance conflict
you must choose between 2 equally unattractive options
Developing self motivation
- Associate your high achievement with positive emotions - Connect your achievement with your effort - Raise your expectations
5 major views of function of dreams:
- Freud's wish-fulfillment: Dreams provide a psychic "safety valve," with manifest content (story line) acting as a censored version of latent content (underlying meaning that gratifies our unconscious wishes). - Information-processing: Dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate them in memory. - Physiological function: Regular brain stimulation may help develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain. - Neural activation: The brain attempts to make sense of neural static by weaving it into a story line. - Cognitive development: Dreams reflect the dreamer's level of development. Most sleep theorists agree that REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation in humans and other species.
How many chromosomes does each parent contribute?
23
full term
37-40 weeks - fingernails/toenails -skull is fully developed - once birth occurs, neural development slows -pruning
Retinal Disparity
A binocular depth cue resulting from slightly different images produced by the separation of the retinas in the left and right eye -It is most effective when the item is quite close to the person
hippocampus (memory)
A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. - Damage to left hemisphere: trouble remembering verbal info, but they have no trouble recalling visual designs and locations - Damage to right hemisphere: trouble recalling visual designs and locations, no trouble with verbal info - Active during slow-wave sleep, as memories are processed and filed for later retrieval - Serves as "loading dock" for storing memories and eventually they get filed and stored elsewhere
What should a person look for when selecting a therapist?
A person seeking therapy may want to ask about the therapist's treatment approach, values, credentials, and fees. An important consideration is whether the therapy seeker feels comfortable and able to establish a bond with the therapist.
Does research support the consistency of personality traits over time and across situations?
A person's average traits persist over time and are predictable over many different situations. But traits cannot predict behavior in any one particular situation.
explanatory style
A person's characteristic way of explaining his experiences. Consistently attributing bad experiences to internal, global, and stable causes may increase vulnerability to depression.
Which of the following illustrates generalization? A rabbit that has been conditioned to blink to a tone also blinks when a similar tone is sounded. A dog salivates to a tone but not to a buzzer. A light is turned on repeatedly until a rat stops flexing its paw when it's turned on. A pigeon whose disk-pecking response has been extinguished is placed in a Skinner box three hours later and begins pecking the disk again. A child is startled when the doorbell rings.
A rabbit that has been conditioned to blink to a tone also blinks when a similar tone is sounded.
Functionalism
A school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable us to adapt, survive, and flourish.
cognitive revolution
A shift in psychology, beginning in the 1950s, from the behaviorist approach to an approach in which the main thrust was to explain behavior in terms of the mind. One of the outcomes of the cognitive revolution was the introduction of the information-processing approach to studying the mind.
What are the 5 critical terms that make up classical conditioning?
Acquisition Extinction Spontaneous Recovery Generalization Discrimination
Which of the following is a feature of client-centered therapy? Free association Active listening Resistance Freudian interpretation Medical/biological treatment
Active listening
inferiority complex
Adler's conception of a basic feeling of inadequacy stemming from childhood experiences
rational-emotive behavior therapy
Albert ellis: many problems arise from irrational thinking REBT: confrontational cognitive therapy that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes -stated therapy could challenge illogical thinking and enable healthier ind. Thought stopping (hear irrational thought, therapist yells, "stop!", reframing (look at situation at positive angle), etc. CBT v. REBT: c= common r = rough (yelling etc.)
Albert Bandura
American psychologist who has done major studies in observational learning Known for his social learning theory Studies the consequence a model has on subjects
Give an example of agonist and describe how it functions in the nervous system.
An example of an agonist is opioids . Agonist molecules bind to its receptor and mimic its effects (stimulate a response). Opioids produce a temporary "high" by amplifying the feelings of pleasure.
Give an example of antagonist and describe how it functions in the nervous system.
An example of antagonist is botox or botulin. It causes paralysis by blocking ACh release. Antagonist bind to receptors and block a neurotransmitter's functioning.
Which personality disorder is associated with a lack of regret over violating others' rights? Antisocial personality disorder Avoidant personality disorder Schizoid personality disorder Histrionic personality disorder Narcissistic personality disorder
Antisocial personality disorder
General Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
Anxiety and worry that is excessive and difficult to control and that occurs more days than not for a period of at least 6 months Includes symptoms of fatigue, restlessness, irritability, sleep disturbances, decreased concentration and memory, and muscle tension
Sigmund Freud
Austrian physician whose work focused on the unconscious causes of behavior and personality formation; founded psychoanalysis.
Which of the following is an example random sampling I. picking out a hat to sign each of the three classes to an experimental condition II. Having a computer generate a random list of 100 high school students III. Approaching any 50 students during 6 period lunch A) I only B) II only C) III only D) I and II E) I, II, and III
B) II only
Talia collects survey data that indicates that students who spend more time preparing for the AP test to score better than other students. Talia can now conclude that A) Studying improves exam grades B) a relationship exists between studying and exam grades C) a scientific correlation exists between studying and exam grades D) Anyone who does not said he will do poorly on the exam E) Better students tend to study more
B) a relationship exists between studying and exam grades
In an effort to help a child overcome a fear of dogs, a therapist pairs a trigger stimulus (something associated with dogs) with a new stimulus that causes a response that is incompatible with fear (for example, an appealing snack or toy). Which clinical orientation is this therapist using? Psychodynamic Behavioral Biomedical Client-centered Humanistic
Behavioral
clinical decision making
Careful reasoning so that the best options are chosen for the best outcomes
collective unconscious
Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history
object permanence
Child recognizes that objects exist even when they are no longer visible. lack of object permanence is why babies love the game peekaboo.
Deprivation of Attachment
Children become: withdrawn, frightened, unable to develop speech
Stage 2: Pre-operational stage (2-7)
Children gradually improve their use of mental images child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic. - Have not yet mastered principle of conservation: awareness that physical quantities remain constant in spite of changes in their shape or appearance Inability to understand this is caused by basic flaws in pre-operational thinking. - These flaws include centration, irreversibility, and egocentrism
What is the impact of prosocial modeling and of antisocial modeling?
Children tend to imitate what a model does and says, whether the behavior being modeled is prosocial (positive, constructive, and helpful) or antisocial. If a model's actions and words are inconsistent, children may imitate the hypocrisy they observe.
Does psychotherapy work? Who decides?
Clients' and therapists' positive testimonials cannot prove that therapy is actually effective, and the placebo effect and regression toward the mean (the tendency for extreme or unusual scores to fall back toward their average) make it difficult to judge whether improvement occurred because of the treatment. Using meta-analyses to statistically combine the results of hundreds of randomized psychotherapy outcome studies, researchers have found that those not undergoing treatment often improve, but those undergoing psychotherapy are more likely to improve more quickly, and with less chance of relapse.
Which of the following does the text's author call psychology's most powerful tool for sorting reality from wishful thinking? ESP or "psychic powers" Regression toward the mean Client perception Control group Placebo effect
Control group
Which level of moral reasoning includes a focus on upholding laws in order to gain social approval? Collectivist Preconventional Conventional Postconventional Formal operational
Conventional
What do we call the transparent, protective layer that light passes through as it enters the eye? - Pupil - Iris - Cornea - Lens - Fovea
Cornea
Olivia, a nursery school student, hypothesizes that boys have fights with the finger paint more than girls do. She test is her hypothesis by casually watching the finger painting table for 3 Days of Nursery School. What method is she using? A) Field experiment B) Informal survey C) Case study D) Naturalistic observation E) Ethnography
D) Naturalistic observation
Some patients whose depression resists drugs have benefited from which experimental treatment? Transference Meta-analysis Antipsychotic drugs Deep-brain stimulation Resistance
Deep-brain stimulation
Which of the following is seen as an effective treatment for severe depression that does not respond to drug therapy? Lobotomy Token economy ECT Crisis debriefing EMDR therapy
ECT
Psychologists who study the brain's activity during sleep are most likely to use which of these technologies? - MRI - CT scan - PET scan - EEG - EKG
EEG
Max Wertheimer
Gestalt psychologist who believed that consciousness is best understood by observing the whole experience
Which of the following explains reversed-color afterimages? - Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory - The blind spot - Hering's opponent-process theory - Feature detectors - Parallel processing
Hering's opponent-process theory
List ways in which hypnosis is used today in therapy and for pain reduction.
Hypnotherapists use posthypnotic suggestions to help alleviate headaches, asthma, and stress-related disorders. These types of suggestions are used to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors. Although hypnosis has been proven to help with obesity, it has not been able to alleviate drug, alcohol, or smoking addictions. Hypnosis can help relieve pain because it inhibits pain-related brain activity. In surgical experiments, hypnotized patients required less medication, recovered sooner, and left the hospital earlier than unhypnotized control patients.
What would happen if we stopped our eyes from moving?
Imagine that we have fitted a volunteer, Mary, with one of these instruments—a miniature projector mounted on a contact lens When Mary's eye moves, the image from the projector moves as well. So everywhere that Mary looks, the scene is sure to go. At first, she will see the complete image. But within a few seconds, as her sensory system begins to fatigue, things get weird. Bit by bit, the image vanishes, only to reappear and then disappear—often in fragments.
1st stage: Sensorimotor (0-2 years)
Infants are developing the ability to coordinate their sensory input with their motor actions Major development during: gradual appearance of symbolic thought Beginning of stage: child's behavior is dominated by innate reflexes End of stage: child can use mental symbols to represent objects (mental image of a toy) * Key to this transition is the acquisition of the concept of object permanence
What is the role of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in sleep? - It induces REM sleep approximately every 90 minutes during sleep. - It causes the pineal gland to increase the production of melatonin. - It causes the pituitary gland to increase the release of human growth hormone. - It causes the pituitary gland to decrease the release of human growth hormone. - It causes the pineal gland to decrease the production of melatonin.
It causes the pineal gland to decrease the production of melatonin.
Hans Eysenck
Launching a spirited debate, he summarized studies showing that two-thirds of those receiving psychotherapy for nonpsychotic disorders improved markedly. To this day, no one disputes that optimistic estimate. Eysenck also reported similar improvement among untreated persons, such as those who were on waiting lists. With or without psychotherapy, he said, roughly two-thirds improved noticeably. Time was a great healer.
Brain scans and EEG recordings indicate that positive emotions are associated with high levels of activity in which brain section? right temporal lobe Cerebellum Left frontal lobe Left temporal lobe Right parietal lobe
Left frontal lobe
Social Development (adult)
Many differences between the young and old are not simply based on physical and cognitive abilities, but may instead be based on life events associated with family, relationships, and work
Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow's pyramid of human needs begins at the base with physiological needs, and the proceeds through safety needs to psychological needs Higher-level needs won't become active until lower-level needs have been satisfied
Clinical psychologists
Most are psychologists with a Ph.D. (includes research training) or Psy.D. (focuses on therapy) supplemented by a supervised internship and, often, postdoctoral training. About half work in agencies and institutions, half in private practice.
Explain how age and experience alter our circadian rhythms.
Most teens and young adults are energized at night and their performance improves as the day goes on. They are considered night owls. Older adults are generally early-birds, and experience performance decline as the day goes on.
Pitch depends on which of the following? - Amplitude of a sound wave - Number of hair cells stimulated - Strength of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve - Number of sound waves that reach the ear in a given time - Decibels of a sound wave
Number of sound waves that reach the ear in a given time
Biomedical therapy: drug therapies
PRESUMED PROBLEM: Neurotransmitter malfunction AIM: Control symptoms of psychological disorders. TECHNIQUE: Alter brain chemistry through drugs.
Therapy: Psychodynamic
Presumed Problem: Unconscious conflicts from childhood experiences Therapy Aim: Reduce anxiety through self-insight. Therapy Technique: Interpret patients' memories and feelings.
STAGE 5:
REM, most active stage of sleep -20-25% of the night -vivid dreams occur -breathing, heart rate, and brain waves quicken, decrease in muscle tone/control (impossible to sleep walk) From REM, you go back to stage 2
Which of the following is not recommended by therapists as a way to help prevent or get over depression? Recovered-memory therapies Aerobic exercise Light exposure Increased social connections Antirumination strategies
Recovered-memory therapies
Color processing occurs in two stages
Retina's red, green, and blue cones respond in varying degrees to different color stimuli, as the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory suggested. Cones' responses are then processed by opponent-process cells, as Hering's theory proposed.
Susto (Latin America)
Severe anxiety, rapid heartbeat, and fear of black magic - Supernatural beings, strangers
Which of the following best describes a discriminative stimulus? Something that elicits a response after association with a reinforcer An innately reinforcing stimulus Something that when removed increases the likelihood of the behavior An event that decreases the behavior it follows An amplified stimulus feeding back information to responses
Something that elicits a response after association with a reinforcer
What is the pineal gland's role in sleep? - Activating the suprachiasmatic nucleus - The production of melatonin - The location of hypnagogic images - Remembering dreams upon waking - Emitting alpha waves
The production of melatonin
What is emerging adulthood?
The transition from adolescence to adulthood is now taking longer. Emerging adulthood is the period from age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many young people are not yet fully independent. But critics note that this stage is found mostly in today's Western cultures.
How does the endocrine system's release of hormones influence us?
They influence our interest in sex, food, and aggression.
humanistic therapies
Treatments, unique in their emphasis on people's self-healing capacities, that encourage clients to understand themselves and to grow personally.
Which of the following statements is true? We eat less dessert when there are three different desserts available. Serving sizes in France are generally larger than in the United States. Offered a super-sized portion, most of us consume fewer calories. We eat more when we're around others. Food variety generally decreases appetite.
We eat more when we're around others.
How does an infant's developing brain begin processing memories?
We have no conscious memories of events occurring before about age 3½, in part because major brain areas have not yet matured.
How much information do we consciously attend to at once?
We selectively attend to, and process, a very limited portion of incoming information, blocking out much and often shifting the spotlight of our attention from one thing to another. Focused intently on one task, we often display inattentional blindness (including change blindness) to other events and changes around us.
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake
mental age
a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance. thus, a child who does well as the avg. 8 year old is said to have a mental age of 8.
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
a noninvasive procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain to improve symptoms of depression
schizophrenia
a psychological disorder characterized by delusions, hallucinations, disorganized speech, and/or diminished or inappropriate emotional expression.
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
statistical significance
a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
activation-synthesis theory
a theory of dreaming; this theory proposes that the brain tries to make sense of random brain activity that occurs during sleep by synthesizing the activity with stored memories dreams may be a way to make sense of neural activity -Hobson and McCarley: dreams are side effects of the neural activation seen during REM sleep -when we dream, our brain is as active as while we're awake -we experience sensations.... that we synthesize into a dream
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. dependent on 4 factors: signal (target stimulation), noise, sensitivity, response criterion
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. - a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequence that follows the behavior - reinforcer/punisher -frequency will increase if consequence is reinforcing the subject -will decrease if the consequence is not reinforcing to the subject
subliminal persuasion
a type of persuasion that occurs when stimuli are presented at a very rapid and unconscious level may produce a fleeting, subtle, but not powerful, enduring effect on behavior
quasi-experiment
a type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs
technique: take appropriate responsibility
aim: change beliefs therapists' directives: Challenge total self-blame and negative thinking, noting aspects for which you may be truly responsible, as well as aspects that aren't your responsibility.
technique: resist extremes
aim: change beliefs therapists' directives: Develop new ways of thinking and feeling to replace maladaptive habits. For example, change from thinking "I am a total failure" to "I got a failing grade on that paper, and I can make these changes to succeed next time."
applied research
aims to solve practical problems and provide solutions
The general adaptation syndrome (GAS) begins with resistance. appraisal. exhaustion. alarm. challenge.
alarm
Panic Disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by minutes-long episode of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking and other frightening sensations
panic disorder
an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations. Often followed by worry over a possible next attack.
virtual reality exposure therapy
an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking
teratogens
any external agents, such as drugs or viruses, that can harm an embryo or fetus. can cause malfunction of fetus. monster-maker agents
psychological disorders
any pattern of behavior that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm others, or harms their ability to function in daily life a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.
What is descriptive research?
any research you can observe and record; AKA "statistical research"
retroactive interference
backward-acting; the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information ex) learning new students' names typically interferes with a teacher's recall of the names of previous students Retroactive interference can be minimized by reducing the number of interfering events shortly after learning new info (take a walk, nap) Sleep prevents retroactive interference - hour before a night's sleep is a good time to commit info to memory
exposure therapy
behavioral techniques such as systematic desensitization and virtual reality, that treat anxieties by exposing patients to things they fear and avoid Through repeated exposures anxiety lessons because they habituate to the things feared Suggested by joseph wolpe
what are the 3 main levels of behavior and mental processes?
biological, psychological, and social-cultural
Alzheimer's disease
brain disease that causes a slow decline in memory, thinking and reasoning skills. Cell death leads to loss of functioning Lack of neurotransmitter acetylcholine
Signal detection theory is most closely associated with which perception process? a. Vision b. Sensory adaption c. Absolute thresholds d. Smell e. Context effects
c. Absolute thresholds
sensory neurons
carry info from sense receptors to CNS
SSRI
class of drugs used to relieve anxiety by limiting reuptake of a neurotransmitter
evaluating psychotherapies
cognitive therapies are most widely used, followed by psychoanalytic and family/group therapies
Joseph Wolpe
described use of systematic desensitization to treat phobias
antianxiety drugs
(xanax and ativan) depress the central nervous system and reduce anxiety and tension by elevating the levels of the Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter Usually used w/psychological therapy Can be addicting and lead to severe withdrawal symptoms
Piage's stages of development
1. sensorimotor period 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational
Atkinson-Schiffrin three-stage model of memory
1. sensory memory 2. short-term memory 3. long-term memory Sensory input from external events→ sensory memory → encoding (attention to important info)→ short-term → retrieving → long-term memory
How do parent-infant attachment bonds form?
At about 8 months, soon after object permanence develops, children separated from their caregivers display stranger anxiety. Infants form attachments not simply because parents gratify biological needs but, more important, because they are comfortable, familiar, and responsive. Ducks and other animals have a more rigid attachment process, called imprinting, that occurs during a critical period.
problem-focused coping
Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. If our impatience leads to a family fight, we may go directly to that family member to work things out. We tend to use problem-focused strategies when we feel a sense of control over a situation and think we can change the circumstances, or at least change ourselves to deal with the circumstances more capably.
Psychologists generally prefer the experimental method to other research methods because: A) Experiments are more likely to support psychologist hypothesis B) Experiment can show cause-effect relationships it is easier to obtain a random sample for an experiment C) Double-blind designs are unnecessary in an D) Experiments are more likely to result in statistically significant findings
B) Experiment can show cause-effect relationships it is easier to obtain a random sample for an experiment
Some psychologists consider Stanley Milgram's obedience studies to be unethical because of which ethical consideration? A) Improper sampling procedure B) Risk of long-term harm C) Clear scientific purpose D) Debriefing E) Anonymity
B) Risk of long-term harm
atypical antipsychotic
Clozapine (clozaril): blocks receptors for dopamine and serotonin to remove the negative symptoms of schizophrenia
A psychotherapist states, "Getting people to change what they say to themselves is an effective way to change their thinking." This statement best exemplifies which kind of therapeutic approach? Behavioral Psychodynamic Biomedical Cognitive Active listening
Cognitive
What aspect of development did Jean Piaget's development theory focus on? Social Moral Cognitive Physical Ego
Cognitive
How do alternative therapies fare under scientific scrutiny?
Controlled research has found some benefits of eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR) therapy for PTSD, though possibly for reasons unrelated to eye movements. Light exposure therapy does seem to relieve depression symptoms for those with a seasonal pattern of major depressive disorder by activating a brain region that influences arousal and hormones.
Broca's area
Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech -damage can cause person to have trouble speaking.
Sleep deprivation can lead to weight gain, reduced muscle strength, suppression of the cells that fight common colds, and most likely which of the following? - Increased productivity - Depression - Decreased mistakes on homework - Increased feeling of well-being - Sleep apnea
Depression
How do we use binocular and monocular cues to perceive the world in three dimensions and perceive motion?
Depth perception is our ability to see objects in three dimensions and judge distance. The visual cliff and other research demonstrate that many species perceive the world in three dimensions at, or very soon after, birth. Binocular cues, such as retinal disparity, are depth cues that rely on information from both eyes. Monocular cues (such as relative size, interposition, relative height, relative motion, linear perspective, and light and shadow) let us judge depth using information transmitted by only one eye. As objects move, we assume that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching. A quick succession of images on the retina can create an illusion of movement, as in stroboscopic movement or the phi phenomenon.
Which of the following is the term most closely associated with the split in consciousness that allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others? - Consciousness - Hypnosis - Hallucination - Dissociation - Meditation
Dissociation
What are some gender similarities and differences in aggression, social power, and social connectedness?
Gender refers to the socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines "male" and "female." We are more alike than different, thanks to our similar genetic makeup—we see, hear, learn, and remember similarly. Males and females do differ in body fat, muscle, height, age of onset of puberty, life expectancy, and vulnerability to certain disorders. Men admit to more aggression than women do, and they are more likely to be physically aggressive. Women's aggression is more likely to be relational. In most societies, men have more social power, and their leadership style tends to be directive, whereas women's is more democratic. Women focus more on social connectedness, and they "tend and befriend."
According to Charles Spearman and others, which of the following underlies specific mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test? Savant syndrome General intelligence (g) Factor analysis Intelligence Emotional intelligence
General intelligence (g)
students are accustomed to a bell ringing to indicate the end of a class period. The principal decides to substitute popular music for the bell to indicate the end of each class period. Students quickly respond to the music in the same way they did to the bell. What principle does this illustrate? Acquisition Habituation Generalization Functional fixedness Stimulus
Generalization
Which of the following drugs is classified as an opiate? - Nicotine - Marijuana - Heroin - Methamphetamine - Cocaine
Heroin
How have humanistic theories influenced psychology? What criticisms have they faced?
Humanistic psychology helped renew interest in the concept of self. Critics have said that humanistic psychology's concepts were vague and subjective, its values self-centered, and its assumptions naively optimistic.
Which of the following is true of suicide? -- Marijuana use is related to suicide, but alcohol use is not. Women are more likely to end their lives than men. Suicide is a bigger problem among the poor than the rich. In the United States, suicide is more common among Whites than Blacks. Married individuals are more likely to commit suicide than single people.
In the United States, suicide is more common among Whites than Blacks.
What would be true of a thermometer that always reads three degrees off? -- It is valid but not reliable. It is both reliable and valid. It is neither reliable nor valid. It is not valid, but you cannot determine if it is reliable from the information given. It is reliable but not valid.
It is reliable but not valid.
According to Freud, which of the following is true of the ego? -- It focuses on how we ought to behave. It is the source of guilt. It is the part of the personality present at birth. It strives to satisfy basic drives. It operates under the reality principle.
It operates under the reality principle.
Which of the following is an example of unconditional positive regard? -- Mr. and Mrs. Prohaska, who have been married for 37 years, credit the success of their marriage to the fact that each has been able to accept the faults of the other without criticism. Seven-year-old Michaela gets her allowance each week whether she does her chores or not. Ms. Lopez, a second grade teacher, puts a smiley face sticker on her students' papers when they have done a good job. John got a promotion and a raise at work after filling in for a sick manager one day and doing a better job than the manager had done previously. Chen's parents usually praise him when he does well and ignore him when he engages in minor misbehavior.
Mr. and Mrs. Prohaska, who have been married for 37 years, credit the success of their marriage to the fact that each has been able to accept the faults of the other without criticism.
Explain how night terrors differ from nightmares
Night terrors usually occur during the first few hours of NREM-3 while nightmares (like other dreams) occur during early morning REM sleep.
Which of the following is a current belief of researchers that differs from Piaget's original theories? -- Infants simply have less information about the world than older children and adults. Object permanence develops earlier than Piaget believed. Infants learn more by verbal explanations than Piaget believed. Accommodation is a process that doesn't occur in young children. Schemas don't form until later than Piaget believed.
Object permanence develops earlier than Piaget believed.
What do we call the kind of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer? Operant conditioning Respondent behavior Classical conditioning Shaping Punishment
Operant conditioning
Explain how the brain's dual processing incorporates sensory stimuli into the dream
Our mind monitors our environment while we sleep. Sensory stimuli such as a particular odor or a phone's ringing may be instantly woven into the dream story. In an experiment, researchers lightly sprayed cold water on dreamers' faces. Compared with sleepers who didn't get the cold-water treatment, these people were more likely to dream about a waterfall, leaky roof, or about being sprayed by someone.
What three steps are basic to all our sensory systems?
Our senses (1) receive sensory stimulation (often using specialized receptor cells); (2) transform that stimulation into neural impulses; and (3) deliver the neural information to the brain. Transduction is the process of converting one form of energy into another. Researchers in psychophysics study the relationships between stimuli's physical characteristics and our psychological experience of them.
How do our senses interact?
Our senses can influence one another. This sensory interaction occurs, for example, when the smell of a favorite food amplifies its taste. Embodied cognition is the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgments.
Biomedical therapy: Brain stimulation
PRESUMED PROBLEM: Severe, "treatment-resistant" depression AIM: Alleviate depression that is unresponsive to drug therapy. TECHNIQUE: Stimulate brain through electroconvulsive shock, magnetic impulses, or deep-brain stimulation.
Jarod's muscles are relaxed, his body is basically paralyzed, and he is hard to awaken. Which sleep state is Jarod probably experiencing? - Sleep apnea - Hypnagogic - Paradoxical - Delta - Sleep deprivation
Paradoxical
What are three parenting styles, and how do children's traits relate to them?
Parenting styles—authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative—reflect varying degrees of control. Children with high self-esteem tend to have authoritative parents and to be self-reliant and socially competent, but the direction of cause and effect in this relationship is not clear.
A loved one's death triggers what range of reactions?
People do not grieve in predictable stages, as was once supposed. Strong expressions of emotion may not purge grief, and bereavement therapy is not significantly more effective than grieving without such aid. Erikson viewed the late-adulthood psychosocial task as developing a sense of integrity (versus despair).
Discuss the difference in sleep patterns and the need for sleep among humans.
People require different amounts of sleep. Some people can work with less than 6 hours of sleep, while other people require at least 9. Newborns tend to sleep ⅔ of the day while some adults sleep no more than ⅓ of the day.
What are reliability and validity?
Reliability is the extent to which a test yields consistent results (on two halves of the test, or when people are retested). Validity is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. - A test has content validity if it samples the pertinent behavior (as a driving test measures driving ability). - It has predictive validity if it predicts a behavior it was designed to predict. (Aptitude tests have predictive ability if they can predict future achievements.)
Explain the correlation between sleep and learning.
Rober Stickgold states, "If you don't get enough good sleep and enough sleep after you learn new stuff, you won't integrate it effectively into your memories." This explains why high school students with high grades have averaged 25 min. More sleep a night than their lower-achieving classmates.
What are the characteristics of air pressure waves that we hear as sound, and how does the ear transform sound energy into neural messages?
Sound waves are bands of compressed and expanded air. Our ears detect these changes in air pressure and transform them into neural impulses, which the brain decodes as sound. Sound waves vary in amplitude, which we perceive as differing loudness, and in frequency, which we experience as differing pitch. The outer ear is the visible portion of the ear. The middle ear is the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea. The inner ear consists of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs. Through a mechanical chain of events, sound waves traveling through the auditory canal cause tiny vibrations in the eardrum. The bones of the middle ear (the hammer, anvil, and stirrup) amplify the vibrations and relay them to the fluid-filled cochlea. Rippling of the basilar membrane, caused by pressure changes in the cochlear fluid, causes movement of the tiny hair cells, triggering neural messages to be sent (via the thalamus) to the auditory cortex in the brain. Sensorineural hearing loss (or nerve deafness) results from damage to the cochlea's hair cells or their associated nerves. Conduction hearing loss results from damage to the mechanical system that transmits sound waves to the cochlea. Cochlear implants can restore hearing for some people.
What is the course of prenatal development, and how do teratogens affect that development?
The life cycle begins at conception, when one sperm cell unites with an egg to form a zygote. The zygote's inner cells become the embryo, and in the next 6 weeks, body organs begin to form and function. By 9 weeks, the fetus is recognizably human. Teratogens are potentially harmful agents that can pass through the placental screen and harm the developing embryo or fetus, as happens with fetal alcohol syndrome.
heritability
The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
What effects does the release of endorphins have on the body?
The release of endorphins can create runner's high. Endorphins can ease pain and lead to feelings of pleasure. They are natural opiates.
fetal stage
The third stage of prenatal development, lasting from weeks 9-36 9-12: fetal head/half of fetal body - eyelids, upper limbs --> normal proportions -male/female genitalia recognizable by 12 weeks 13-16: rapid fetal growth - fetus doubles in size 17-23: fetal growth slows - heartbeat 24-27: skin growth is rapid. eyes open. viable at 27 weeks 28-36: weight gain is steady. has good chance of survival
Mental retardation
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound mild: 50-70, moderate: 35-50, severe: 20-35, profound: below 20
Down Syndrome
a condition of retardation and associated psychical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup, 47 instead of 46
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake - Has an edge over extrinsic motivation in some areas - Results in higher achievement
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining results of many different research studies
A split-brain patient has a picture of a dog flashed to his right hemisphere and a cat to his left hemisphere. He will be able to identify the a. cat using his right hand b. dog using his right hand c. dog using either hand d. cat using either hand e. cat using his left hand
a. cat using his right hand
forensic psychologist
applies psychological concepts to legal issues
Ebinghaus retention curve
as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases
Psychoanalytic theory
attempts to explain personality, motivation, and mental disorders by focusing on unconscious determinants of behavior resumes that healthier, less anxious living becomes possible when people release the energy they had previously devoted to id-ego-superego conflicts Freud's therapy aimed to bring patients' repressed or disowned feelings into conscious awareness. - By helping them reclaim their unconscious thoughts and feelings and giving them insight into the origins of their disorders, he aimed to help them reduce growth-impeding inner conflicts.
Source Amnesia
attributing an event to the wrong source that we experienced, heard, read, or imagined (aka source misattribution) The heart of many false memories Authors and songwriters sometimes suffer from source amnesia as they think an idea came from their own imagination when in fact they were un-intentionally plagiarizing something they read or heard earlier
one reason that identical twins might show slight differences at birth is a) they did not develop from a single fertilized egg b) one twin's placenta may have provided slightly better nourishment c) the develop from different sperm d) one twin gestated much longer in the uterus than the other e) their relative positions in the uterus
b) one twin's placenta may have provided slightly better nourishment
exposure therapies
behavioral techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid
Edward Thorndike
behaviorism Author of Law of Effect: behaviors with favorable consequences will occur more frequently; Behaviors w/unfavorable consequences will occur less frequently created puzzle boxes for research on cats
B. F. Skinner
behaviorism; developed the fundamental principles and techniques of operant conditioning and devised ways to apply them in the real world -Designed the Skinner Box or operant chamber to study operant conditioning Operant chamber: comes w/bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer Also invented the "baby tender"
The key difference between obsessions and compulsions is that compulsions involve repetitive thoughts. experiences. behaviors. memories. concerns.
behaviors
Which of the following might result from a disruption of you vestibular sense? a. Inability to detect the position of your arm without looking at it b. Lost of ability to detect bitter taste c. Dizziness and a loss of balance d. An inability to detect pain e. Loss of color vision
c. Dizziness and a loss of balance
sona
cell body that maintains the health of the neuron
Wernicke's area
controls language reception - a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe -damage can cause person to speak meaningless words
right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body; creative, intuitive, spacial
Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret. when appropriate stimulus reaches sense organ, it activates receptors
Ebinghaus forgetting curve
course of forgetting is initially rapid, then levels off with time
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon
created test for french school children to test their "mental age" theorized mental aptitude is a general capacity that shows up in various ways. identified items that would predict how well French children would handle their schoolwork. purpose: identify French schoolchildren needing special attention.
Which of the following best represents an absolute threshold? a. A guitar player knows that his D string has just gone out of tune b. A photographer can tell that the natural light available for a photograph has just faded slightly c. Your friend amazes you by correctly identifying unlabeled glasses of Coke and Pepsi d. A cook can just barely taste the salt she has added to her soup
d. A cook can just barely taste the salt she has added to her soup
Phrenology has been discredited, but which of the following ideas has its origins in phrenology? a. Brain lateralization b. Brain cavities contributing to sense of humor c. Bumps in the left hemisphere leading to emotional responses d. Brain function localization e. Belief that the mind pumps warmth and vitality into the body
d. Brain function localization
Neurons that fire in response to specific edges, lines, angles, and movements are called what? a. Rods b. Cones c. Ganglion cells d. Feature detectors e. Bipolar cells
d. Feature detectors
Which perception process are the hammer, anvil, and stirrup involved in? a. Processing intense colors b. Processing information related to our sense of balance c. Supporting a structural frame to hold the eardrum d. Transmitting sound waves to the cochlea e. Holding hair cells that enable hearing
d. Transmitting sound waves to the cochlea
rejection
disguise threatening impulses and attributing them to others Involves taking our own unacceptable qualities or feelings and ascribing them to other people .works by allowing the expression of the desire or impulse, but in a way that the ego cannot recognize, therefore reducing anxiety. ex) Want to break up with a boyfriend but accuse them of wanting to break up with you
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions).
The hypothalamus is a(n) ______ center for the brain. a. positioning b. aggression c. balance d. memory e. reward
e. reward
Subjective discomfort
feelings of anxiety, depression, and emotional distress
PTSD
following a person's involvement in or observation of an extremely stressful event Four or more weeks of the following symptoms constitute PTSD: - Haunting memories/flashbacks - Nightmares - Social withdrawal - Jumpy anxiety - Sleep problems
transcience
forgetting over time
learning by observation
higher animals, especially humans, learn through observing and imitating others Mirror neurons (frontal lobe adjacent to motor cortex) provide a neural basis for observational learning
Catatonic Schizophrenia
immobility or excessive purposeless movement Flat affect, negativism, parrot like repeating of another's speech/mvmts
mood-stabilizing medications
lithium carbonate, a common salt, has been used to stabilize manic episodes in bipolar disorders Moderates the levels of norepinephrine and glutamate neurotransmitters
larernal fissure
marks upper limits of temporal lobes and bottom limits of frontal lobe
The three small bones of the ear are located in the - cochlea. - outer ear. - inner ear. - middle ear. - auditory nerve.
middle ear
Phobic Disorder
occurs when a phobia- an irrational fear of an object or situation- becomes so disruptive that it interferes w/normal functioning Most people have some form of phobia, but it does not interfere w/their lives to a large degree
Normal Distribution
of scores form symmetrical bell-shaped curves in which the mean, median, and mode are equal, 68% in 1 std. Deviation, 95% in 2 std. Deviation, and 98% in 3 std. Deviations
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
LOC: Unconscious
psychoanalytic psychologists believe some events and feelings are unacceptable to our conscious mind and are repressed *psychologists object this concept b/c its difficult to prove
Applications of Operant Conditioning
school, sports, work, home, self-improvement
reality principle
seeks to delay gratification of the id's urges until appropriate outlets and situations can be found make your way in the world and satisfy your pleasures or how to give up on them entirely
Colorblind people
simply lack cone receptor cells for one or more of these primarily colors (red, blue, green)
Sleep: restoration
sleep allows us to recuperate from the wear and tear of the day
primary reinforcer
something that is naturally reinforcing (food, warmth, water...) The item is reinforcing in and of itself
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos
identification
the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos end of phallic stage Children cope with the threatening feelings by repressing them and by identifying with the rival parent - if you can't beat them, join them approach
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior Requirements: attention, retention, ability to reproduce the behavior, motivation
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously the brain divides the visual scene into subdivisions such as color, depth, form, and movement
lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina focus incoming light rays into an image on the retina
According to the text, many research psychologists think of _____________ as an information processor that works without our awareness. the TAT the id repression defense mechanisms the unconscious
the unconscious
electra complex
the unconscious desire of girls to replace their mother and win their father's romantic love
latent content of dreams
the underlying MEANING of a dream
Double blind procedures
to test effectiveness of a drug, patients are tested w/the drug and a placebo 2 groups of patients and health professionals are unaware of who's taking the drug and who's taking the placebo
Catharsis
venting anger through action or fantasy achieves an emotional release Expressing anger can be temporarily calming if it does not leave us feeling guilty or anxious - Often times, expressing anger breeds more anger, and through reinforcement it is habit-forming
approach-approach conflict
when we have 2 desirable things to choose from
Serial Position Effect
when your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items
indivualism
giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications
The Flynn effect refers to the -- superiority of certain racial and ethnic groups on intelligence tests. extreme scores (very high and very low scores) that are more common for males than females on math tests. stereotype threat that might cause some Black students to underperform on standardized tests. predictive ability of intelligence tests. gradual improvement in intelligence test scores over the last several decades.
gradual improvement in intelligence test scores over the last several decades.
Bringing order and form to stimuli, which illustrates how the whole differs from the sum of its parts, is called - grouping. - monocular cue. - binocular cue. - disparity. - motion.
grouping
feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement found in the occipital lobe's visual cortex; receive information from individual ganglion cells in the retina; pass info to other cortical areas where teams of cells (supercluster) respond to more complex patterns
reticular formation
nerve network that extends up and down the spinal cord to the brain controls level of alertness/arousal damage can lead to coma
excitatory effect
neurotransmitter effect that makes it more likely that receiving neuron will generate action potential
sorotonin
neurotransmitter involved with mood regulation and is linked to depression
working memory
newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information and of information retrieved from long term memory - fades unless we use it - we actively associate new and old info and solve problems
Athletes who often privately credit their victories to their own abilities, and their losses to bad breaks, lousy officiating, or the other team's exceptional performance, are exhibiting which psychological concept? A low self-esteem The self-serving bias Pessimism The spotlight effect Incompetence
The self-serving bias
evidence-based practice
clinical decision making that integrates the best available research with clinical expertise and patient characteristics and preferences
nearsightedness
close objects are seen clearly but distant objects appear blurry
Limits on Classical Conditioning
conditioning relevant to natural selection are more easily learned, associations irrelevant to ecology are harder to learn
interneurons
connect 2 neurons and make reflexes happen
Disorganized Schizophrenia
disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion
audition
the sense or act of hearing
What's an example of inattentional blindness?
video of basketball players and the gorilla
Reification
viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing
Homozygous
2 genes in pair are the same
Ghrelin
A hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach
Which of the following is the best term or phrase for the body's resting rate of energy expenditure? Hunger Set point Basal metabolic rate Body chemistry Settling point
Basal metabolic rate
Which of the following is an aroused motivational state created by a physiological need? Drive Instinct Incentive Reflex Motive
Drive
Which theory explains that physiological needs create an aroused state that motivates an organism to reduce the need? Instinct theory Drive-reduction theory Achievement motivation Arousal theory Hierarchy of needs
Drive-reduction theory
Humanistic Perspective
How healthy people strive to reach their full potential
Abraham Maslow
Humanistic psychologist known for his "Hierarchy of Needs" and the concept of "self-actualization" - humanistic theory - actualizing tendency - conditions of worth - deficiency orientation - growth orientation - peak experiences
Biological basis of hunger
Hunger does not come from our stomach; it comes from our brain (hypothalamus)
The effect of facial expression
If facial expressions are manipulated, like furrowing brows, people feel sad while looking at sad pictures Expressions not only communicate emotion, but also amplify and regulate it The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals by Darwin contended that "the free expression of outward signs of an emotion intensifies it..." He who gives way to violent gestures will increase rage.
How is intelligence defined?
Intelligence is a mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations. An intelligence test aims to assess these qualities and compare them with those of others, using a numerical score.
hypnotic pain relief
It can-tends to lessen pain. For some, can deeply hypnotize so to as avoid anesthesia during major surgery.
Which of the following is the defining characteristic of antisocial personality disorder? Violence Lack of conscience Mood swings Unexplained physical symptoms Committing serial murders
Lack of conscience
What is lateralization, and why is it important in the way our brain functions.
Lateralization means that the 2 brain hemispheres each have different functions.
How and why do the genders differ in mental ability scores?
Males and females tend to have the same average intelligence test scores. They differ in some specific abilities. Girls are better spellers, more verbally fluent, better at locating objects, better at detecting emotions, and more sensitive to touch, taste, and color. Boys outperform girls at spatial ability and related mathematics, though girls outperform boys in math computation. Boys also outnumber girls at the low and high extremes of mental abilities. Psychologists debate evolutionary, brain-based, and cultural explanations of such gender differences.
Detecting and Computing Emotion
Most people find it difficult to detect deceiving emotions Even trained professionals like police officers, psychiatrists, judges, and polygraphists detected deceiving emotions only 54% of the time.
In which stage of sleep are you likely to experience hypnagogic sensations of falling? - Alpha sleep - NREM-1 - NREM-2 - NREM-3 - REM
NREM-1
Which of the following can be used to demonstrate that only about 2 percent of the population scores are at least two standard deviations above the mean on an intelligence test? Reliability test Aptitude test Predictive validity test Test-retest procedure Normal curve
Normal curve
Bandura's famous Bobo doll experiment is most closely associated with which of the following? Latent learning Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Cognitive maps Observational learning
Observational learning
cognitive processes of operant conditioning
Organisms develop expectation that a response will be reinforced or punished; they also exhibit latent learning, without reinforcement.
Biomedical therapy: therapeutic lifestyle change
PRESUMED PROBLEM: Stress and unhealthy lifestyle AIM: Restore healthy biological state. TECHNIQUE: Alter lifestyle through adequate exercise, sleep, and other changes.
Which of the following is one of Robert Sternberg's types of intelligence? Naturalistic intelligence General intelligence Practical intelligence Savant intelligence Kinesthetic intelligence
Practical intelligence
Carol Gilligan
Presented feminist critique of Kohlberg's moral development theory; believed women's moral sense guided by relationships rather than laws and principles. Their reasoning was merely different, not better or worse. primary focus: moral development in girls
Therapy: client-centered
Presumed Problem: Barriers to self-understanding and self-acceptance Therapy Aim: Enable growth via unconditional positive regard, genuineness, and empathy. Therapy Technique: Listen actively and reflect clients' feelings.
Two factor theory
Proposed a theory which suggests our physiology and cognitions create emotions Emotions have 2 factors: physical arousal and cognitive label Presumed our experience of emotion grows from our awareness of the body's arousal and the emotional experience requires a conscious interpretation of the arousal
talk therapies
Psychotherapies that focus on communicating and verbalizing emotions and motives to understand their problems.
According to research, which of the following are we most likely to experience after sleep deprivation? - Night terrors - Sleep apnea - Manifest content dreams - Narcolepsy - REM rebound
REM rebound
Although some psychological disorders are culture-bound, others are universal. Which of the following disorders is found in every known culture? Bulimia nervosa Anorexia nervosa Susto Schizophrenia Taijin-kyofusho
Schizophrenia
What did Abraham Maslow call the process of fulfilling our potential? Love needs Self-esteem Self-actualization Self-transcendence Hierarchy of needs
Self-actualization
What do we call the process of fulfilling our potential? Free association Self-transcendence Unconditional positive regard Self-concept Self-actualization
Self-actualization
Which term is defined as all the thoughts and feelings we have in response to the question, "Who am I?" Self-concept Ideal self Self-esteem Empathy Self-acceptance
Self-concept
What do we call the sleep disorder that causes you to stop breathing and awaken in order to take a breath? - Narcolepsy - Insomnia - Sleep apnea - Nightmares - Night terrors
Sleep apnea
Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: student performance in school
Sleep deprivation can cause difficulty studying, diminished productivity, tendency to make mistakes, irritability, and fatigue.
How do social-cognitive researchers explore behavior, and what criticism have they faced?
Social-cognitive researchers tend to believe that the best way to predict someone's behavior in a given situation is to observe that person's behavior in similar situations. They have been faulted for underemphasizing the importance of unconscious dynamics, emotions, and inner traits. Their response is that the social-cognitive perspective builds on psychology's well-established concepts of learning and cognition and reminds us of the power of situations.
Problems with Atkinson-Schiffrin's three-stage model
Some info skips first 2 stages and enters long-term memory automatically We cannot focus all the sensory info in the environment, we select info (through attention) that is important to us The nature of short-term memory is more complex
Reflecting real personalities
Some people are not being truthful online in profiles, websites, social media ect. Portraying perfect life instead of real life
What is the Popout Effect?
Some stimuli are strikingly distinct causing us to feel popout. We don't choose to attend to those stimuli; they draw our eye and demand our attention.
Chromosones
Strands of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules that carry genetic information.
Neuroscientific Perspective
Studies how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences. To understand behavior, the psychological underpinnings must be understood
overjustification effect
Studies show that if you externally reward someone (excessively) for something they love doing, they will lose their intrinsic desire for doing it.
Stage 5: Formal Operational stage (11 through adulthood)
The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways
In general, what are the functions of the brainstem structures?
The brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
What role does the corpus callosum play in relation to the two hemispheres?
The corpus callosum connects the two brain hemispheres and carries messages between them.
What do we call an optimal window of opportunity for proper development? Attachment The critical period The social period Imprinting Mere exposure
The critical period
What are some examples of Weber's law?
The exact proportion varies, depending on the stimulus. Two lights, for example, must differ in intensity by 8 percent. Two objects must differ in weight by 2 percent. And two tones must differ in frequency by only 0.3 percent For example, to be perceptibly different, a 50-ounce weight must differ from another by about an ounce, a 100-ounce weight by about 2 ounces.
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
What are the four lobes of the cortex and what basic function does each serve?
The four lobes are frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal. The frontal lobe is involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments. The parietal lobe receives sensory input for touch and body position. The occipital lobe processes visual information. The temporal lobe processes auditory information.
hair cells
The hairlike sensory receptors for sound, which are embedded in the basilar membrane of the cochlea.
Discuss the function of dreams according to the information-processing perspective.
The information-processing perspective proposes that dreams may help sift, sort, and fix the day's experiences in our memory.
acquisition
The initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating an NS with a US so that the NS comes to elicit a CR, thus becoming the CS.
In general, what are the functions of the limbic system structures?
The limbic system regulates memory, aggression, fear, hunger, and thirst. It is associated with emotions and drives.
Death and Dying
There is no normal reaction or series of grief stages after the death of a loved one Grief is more sudden if death occurs unexpectedly People who reach a sense of integrity in life see life as meaningful and worthwhile
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
What determines our perceptual set?
Through experience we form concepts, or schemas, that organize and allow us to interpret unfamiliar information Preexisting schemas influence top-down processing of ambiguous sensation interpretation, including gender stereotypes (blue=boy, pink=girl, an infant named David=bigger/stronger than an infant named Diana).
Which of the following was the purpose of lobotomies? -- To alleviate depression To minimize delusions and hallucinations To "erase" troubling memories To recover repressed memories To separate the reasoning centers of the brain from the emotional centers
To separate the reasoning centers of the brain from the emotional centers
What term describes the brain's adaptation to a drug's chemistry, requiring larger and larger doses to experience the same effect? - Withdrawal - Tolerance - Addiction - Substance use disorder - Disinhibiting
Tolerance
Are there genetic influences on schizophrenia? What factors may be early warning signs of schizophrenia in children?
Twin and adoption studies indicate that the predisposition to schizophrenia is inherited, and environmental factors influence gene expression to enable this disorder, which is found worldwide. No environmental causes invariably produce schizophrenia. Possible early warning signs of later development of schizophrenia include both biological factors (a mother with severe and long-lasting schizophrenia; oxygen deprivation and low weight at birth; short attention span and poor muscle coordination) as well as psychological factors (disruptive or withdrawn behavior; emotional unpredictability; poor peer relations and solo play).
What principle states that to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a minimum percentage rather than a constant amount? -Absolute threshold -Different threshold -Signal detection theory -Priming -Weber's law
Weber's law
Culture and emotional expression
When culturally diverse people were shown basic facial expressions, they did fairly well at recognizing them
Electronic communication
When we communicate online vs. face to face we often are less focused on others' reactions, less self-conscious, and thus less inhibited we are more willing to share joys, worries, and vulnerabilities
What is the prenatal development sequence? - Zygote, embryo, fetus - Fetus, zygote, embryo - Embryo, zygote, fetus - Zygote, fetus, embryo - Fetus, embryo, zygote
Zygote, embryo, fetus
rooting reflex
a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple. Finding one, they automatically close on it and begin sucking—which itself requires a coordinated sequence of reflexive tonguing, swallowing, and breathing. Failing to find satisfaction, the hungry baby may cry—a behavior parents find highly unpleasant and very rewarding to relieve.
therapeutic alliance
a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client, who work together constructively to overcome the client's problem
therapeutic lifestyle change
a lifestyle modification that includes diet, physical activity, and weight loss
self-serving bias
a readiness to perceive oneself favorably
Which of the following is most likely to be a function or the left hemisphere? a. speech b. evaluating perceptual tasks c. making inferences d. identifying emotion in other people's faces e. identifying one's sense of self
a. speech
12-week training program with the following goals
aerobic exercise adequate sleep light exposure social connection anti rumination nutritional supplements 77 percent of those who completed the program experienced relief from depressive symptoms, compared with 19 percent in those assigned to a treatment-as-usual control condition.
The basic idea behind classical conditioning is that the organism associates events. associates behavior and resulting events. voluntarily operates on the environment. associates response with a consequence. quits responding when reward stops.
associates events
The way we explain negative and positive events is called personal control. reciprocal determinism. positive psychology. attributional style. situational assessment.
attributional style
clinician's perceptions
believe in therapy's success. believe client is better off after therapy than if client had not taken part in therapy 1. clinicians are aware of failures, but they believe failures are the problems of other therapists 2. if a client seeks another clinician, the former therapist is more likely to argue that the client has developed another psychological problem 3. clinicians are likely to testify to the efficacy of their therapy regardless of the outcome of treatment
infradian rhythms
biological rhythms that occur once a month or once a season - menstrual cycles
why do researchers find the study of fraternal twins important a) they share similar environment and the same genetic code b) data collected concerning their similarities is necessary for calculating heritability c)they are the same age and are usually raised in similar environment, but they do not have the same genetic code d) results allow us to determine exactly how disorders ranging from heart disease to schizophrenia are inherited e) they are typically raised in less similar environments than non-twin siblings
c)they are the same age and are usually raised in similar environment, but they do not have the same genetic code
autonomic system
controls self-regulated action of internal organs and glands
Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux
demonstrated that some emotional responses, especially simple likes, dislikes, and fears-involve no conscious thinking ex) we may fear a spider even if we "know" it is harmless
Elizabeth Kubler-Ross's Stages of Dying
denial , anger, bargaining, depression, acceptance
Social Cognitive: depression
depression arises partly from self-defeating beliefs and negative explanatory styles
Major Depressive Disorder
depression is the "common cold" of psychological disorders - Leading cause of disability worldwide Major depressive disorder occurs when sign of depression last 2 or more weeks and are not caused by drugs or medical conditions Signs include: - Lethargy and fatigue - Feelings of worthlessness - Loss of interest in family and friends - Loss of interest in activities
monocular cues
depth cues that require the use of only one eye Include relative size, relative motion, relative height, texture gradient, relative clarity, linear perspective, interposition
trait theorists
describe individual personality as the sum of a person's characteristic behaviors Attempt to measure personality through personality inventories such as the MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) Most interested in knowing where a person fits on each of the Big 5 personality factors Most criticized for underestimating the variability of behavior from situation to situation
PYY
digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain
Socrates believed in ___ which means __
dualism: mind and body are separate
agoraphobia
fear or avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control and panic.
what are the chromosome patterns of girl/boy
girl= XX boy= XY
Mandela Effect
happens when someone has a clear memory of something that never happened in this reality
The risk of major depression and bipolar disorder dramatically increases if you -- have suffered a debilitating injury. have an adoptive parent that has the disorder. have a parent or sibling with the disorder. have a life-threatening illness. have above-average intelligence.
have a parent or sibling with the disorder.
Hypnosis Myths
hypnosis can make you remember things you have forgotten hypnosis can make you act totally against your will
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).
Drives
impulse to reduce discomfort aroused tension states created by internal imbalances - prompt an organism to restore the balance, typically reducing the drive - hunger example: you miss breakfast because you woke up late-by 10 am you are starving. Skipping breakfast creates an internal, physiological NEED for food, which leads to hunger, a psychological drive. The drive to eat and need for food is gone once you eat lunch
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
behavioral approach
in personality theory, this perspective focuses on the effects of learning on our personality development
neural network
interconnected neural cells, networks can learn as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results
Psychometrics research
measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
Mnemonics
memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices 2 helpful devices: method of loci and link method - Link Method: form a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together - Loci method: technique of associating items with specific places
Male vs. Female leaders
men to be more directive, even autocratic (making managerial decisions without consulting others) women tend to be more democratic- welcoming of subordinates' input in decision making
Skin contains
millions of sensory receptors which form combinations of receptor activation --> different types of touch
Aristotle believed in ___ which means ___
mind and body are one
person-centered perspective
people are basically good, and given the right environment their personality will develop fully and normally
Arousal Theories
people are driven to perform actions in order to maintain an optimum level of physiological arousal. Some people may require a higher level of arousal, which might motivate them to seek out exciting and stimulating activities. - Sensation-seeking scale
heredity
physical characteristics (eye color, hair color, height)
How does the place theory, frequency theory explain how we sense pitch?
place theory best explains high pitches frequency theory best explains low pitches combo of place and frequency explains pitches in the intermediate range
Alcohol is a teratogen that can slip through the __________ and damage the fetus or embryo. placenta nervous system womb brainstem zygote
placenta
PET scan
position emission tomography uses radioactive glucose to see functioning in brain and sees metabolic activity
posttraumatic growth
positive psychological changes as a result of struggling with extremely challenging circumstances and life crises.
lobotomies
psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollable emotional or violent patients Cut the nerves connecting frontal lobes to inner brain Modern methods use stereotactic neurosurgery and radiosurgery that refine older methods of psychosurgery
valid
research measures what researcher set out to measure; accurate
APA national guidelines
research must be proposed to ethics board (IRB)
Konrad Lorenz
researcher who focused on critical attachment periods in baby birds, a concept he called imprinting Imprinting: newborn of a species follows and becomes bonded to the first moving object they encounter - Imprinting can involve more than one sense: sight, sound, smell & is stronger when the animal is under stress - There is a stringent critical period for imprinting to take place Imprinting process is irreversible - Phenomenon is species specific
variable-ratio schedule
rewards an unpredictable number of correct responses; do not know when reinforcement will occur; very persistent to extinction Similar to the slot machine (aka gambler's schedule)
Variable interval schedule
rewards the first correct response after an unpredictable amount of time; rat learns to respond at a moderate, steady rate; fast responses don't get extra rewards so speed isn't important ex) pop quiz
non-split brains
right = art/creativity left = logic
limbic system
ring of structures around thalamus that regulates memory, aggression, fear, hunger, thirst includes hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala
positive after image
same color as the previously seen stimulus
self actualization vs self transcendence
self actualization: people seek to realize their own potential self transcendence: people strive for meaning, purpose, and communication that is beyond the self
binge-eating disorder
significant binge-eating episodes, followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without the compensatory purging or fasting that marks bulimia nervosa.
Day care
some studies suggest that extensive time in day care can increase aggressiveness and defiance in children Some working mothers make up by sacrificing time to participate in activities with their children
Criteria validity
test scores should correlate highly with the actual skill
selective attention
the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input -focus on a particular conversation in a noisy and crowded room
depth perception
the ability to see in 3 dimensions and judge distances
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters controls the amount of light entering the eye bright: iris expands, pupil gets smaller dark: iris contracts, pupil gets larger
psychosexual stages
the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phallic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on sensitive body areas called erogenous zones
survey
the collection of data by having people answer a series of questions
William Wundt developed what?
the concept of introspection (looking inward)
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the 2 brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them; sometimes cut to prevent seizures
median
the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it
What did Aristotle and Locke believe about the formation of ideas?
the mind is a blank slate
Testosterone
the most important of the male sex hormones. Both males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. Originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.
Rorschach inkblot test
the most widely used projective test, a set of 10 inkblots, designed by Hermann Rorschach; seeks to identify people's inner feelings by analyzing their interpretations of the blots
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
Retrieval
the process of getting information out of memory storage
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred; the CR returns
Long-Term Memory
the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.
storage
the retention of encoded information over time - heart of memory - 3 stores of memory: sensory, working, long-term memory
Cornea
the transparent outer covering of the eye clear bulge on front of the eyeball that protects the eye
Fear
the usual reaction when a stressor involves real or imagined danger Fear can torment us, rob us of sleep, and preoccupy our thinking Fear can be adaptive- it makes us run away from danger, brings us closer as groups, and protects us from injury and harm We learn fear in 2 ways: conditioning and/or observation
pseudotherapies
therapies with no scientific basis to suggest they are effective
group therapy
therapy conducted with groups rather than individuals, permitting therapeutic benefits from group interaction
Weber's Law
to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage rather than a constant amount - if mass is doubled, the difference threshold also doubles
Overcompensation
to conceal, even from themselves, the feelings of inferiority
counseling
treat without medicine and instead use talk/insight therapy to solve everyday problems
memory construction
we filter information and fill in missing pieces with plausible guesses and assumptions
limits on operant conditioning
we most easily learn and retain behaviors that reflect our biological predispositions - natural behaviors are easier to teach than unnatural you could easily teach pigeons to flap their wings to avoid being shocked, and to peck to obtain food: Fleeing with their wings and eating with their beaks are natural pigeon behaviors. However, pigeons would have a hard time learning to peck to avoid a shock, or to flap their wings to obtain food
Grapheme-color synesthesia
written letters or numbers are associated with specific colors
Vygotsky called the space between what a child could learn with and without help the theory of mind. zone of abstract logic. zone of abstract reasoning. zone of proximal development. zone of developmental readiness.
zone of proximal development.
brain plasticity
The brain's ability to rearrange the connections between its neurons ability to change throughout life
phallic
(3-5 years) pleasure zone is the genitals; coping with incestuous sexual feelings
latency
(5-12 years) suppress sexual interest, play mostly with same-sex peers
genital stage
(adolescence and up) adult sexuality. Feeling more comfortable with the mature understanding of what sex means and what is about
amygdala
2 almond shaped structures center for emotion and fear
empirically deprived
A test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups.
hypothesis
A testable prediction
Which of the following actions is a violation of Maslow's heirarchy of needs? A person who moves to a new city gets an apartment before beginning to make friends. A very hungry reality show contestant searches for food before trying to win a competition. A professor spends time socially with her colleagues before she works on her own research. An artist works to win a local award before spending time on his own personal projects. An athlete follows a "no pain, no gain" motto rather than stopping for rest and nourishment.
An athlete follows a "no pain, no gain" motto rather than stopping for rest and nourishment
How does memory change with age?
As the years pass, recall begins to decline, especially for meaningless information, but recognition memory remains strong. Developmental researchers study age-related changes (such as memory) with cross-sectional studies (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same people over a period of years). "Terminal decline" describes the cognitive decline in the final few years of life.
motor abilities (adult)
At age 70, out motor abilities also decline 70 year old is no match for a 20 year old individual Fatal accidents also increases around this age
Which of the following is a similarity between humanistic and psychoanalytic therapies? -- Both approaches focus on the present more than the past. Both approaches are more concerned with conscious than unconscious feelings. Both approaches focus on taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings. Both approaches focus on growth instead of curing illness. Both approaches are generally considered insight therapies.
Both approaches are generally considered insight therapies.
Rob conducts an experiment to see whether fear makes mice run through mazes faster. He first select a sample of 60 mice and then divide them into a control group and experimental group. Which cannot be a confounding variable? A) How fast the mice are at the start B) When the mice run the maze C) The population from which he selected his subjects D) How frightened the mice are before the experiment E) Where the mice run the Maze
C) The population from which he selected his subjects
How do biological constraints affect classical and operant conditioning?
Classical conditioning principles, we now know, are constrained by biological predispositions, so that learning some associations is easier than learning others. Learning is adaptive: Each species learns behaviors that aid its survival. Biological constraints also place limits on operant conditioning. Training that attempts to override biological constraints will probably not endure because animals will revert to predisposed patterns.
Which of the following is true of depression? -- Depression usually develops during middle age. Depression usually happens without major cognitive or behavioral changes. A major depressive episode usually gets worse and worse unless it's treated. True depression is usually not related to stress in one's work or relationships. Compared with men, nearly twice as many women have been diagnosed with depression.
Compared with men, nearly twice as many women have been diagnosed with depression.
Megan, a third grader, is having trouble with math. She is starting to do poorly in other subjects, because she feels she cannot master math. Based on Erikson's stages of psychosocial development, which stage is Megan in? -- Autonomy versus shame and doubt Initiative versus guilt Competence versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation
Competence versus inferiority
highway hypnosis
Condition in which a driver is lulled into an inattentive, drowsy state one's consciousness seems to be divided between driving and one's conscious train of thought phenomenon consistent idea that hypnosis is a dissociated state of consciousness
William Wundt
Conducted first psychology experiments in first psych laboratory
According to Mary Ainsworth's research on attachment, what would a child need most to become "securely attached"? Consistent, responsive caregivers The right temperament A terry cloth-wrapped "surrogate" mother An imprinting experience shortly after birth Enriched motor development experiences
Consistent, responsive caregivers
Some people think development occurs much in the way a tree grows, slowly and steadily adding one ring each year. Others think that there are rather abrupt developmental jumps, like the transformation of a tadpole into a frog. Which of the following issues would this difference of opinion relate to? - Nature and nurture - Maturation and learning - Prenatal and neonatal - Stability and change - Continuity and stages
Continuity and stages
What is the correct term for a period of time when certain events must take place in order to facilitate proper development? Conservation stage Preoperational stage Attachment period Critical period Assimilation step
Critical period
How stable are intelligence scores over the life span?
Cross-sectional studies (comparing people of different ages) and longitudinal studies (retesting the same cohort over a period of years) have shown that fluid intelligence declines in older adults, in part because neural processing slows. Crystallized intelligence tends to increase. The stability of intelligence test scores increases with age. - At age 4, scores fluctuate somewhat but begin to predict adolescent and adult scores. - By early adolescence, scores are very stable and predictive.
Which of the following statements is most accurate regarding emotion? Smiles are neither social nor emotional events. Inhabitants of individualist countries are more likely to display nonverbal emotions than inhabitants of collectivist countries. Mouths convey more emotion than eyes. Natively blind people who have never seen a smile will never generate a smile. Cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions.
Cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions.
Theoretically, random assignment should eliminate A) Sample error B) The need to use statistics C) Concern of validity D) Many confounding variables E) The need for representative sample
D) Many confounding variables
What is the most common reason people seek mental health services? Depression Bipolar disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder Dissociative identity disorder Illness anxiety disorder
Depression
Which psychotherapy would be most effective for treating particular problem?
Depression: behavior, cognition, interpersonal Anxiety: cognition, exposure, stress inoculation Bulimia: cognitive-behavior Phobia: behavior Bed-wetting: behavior modification
Most antipsychotic drugs mimic a certain neurotransmitter by blocking its activity at the receptor sites. These drugs affect which one of the following neurotransmitters? Adrenaline Epinephrine Serotonin Dopamine Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Which neurotransmitter is affected by antipsychotic medications? Epinephrine Dopamine Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Serotonin
Dopamine
Stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
Critics of humanistic psychology have suggested that this theory fails to appreciate the reality of our human capacity for which of the following? Empathy Love Negativity Evil Laziness
Evil
Which of Freud's ideas did his followers accept or reject?
Freud's early followers, the neo-Freudians, accepted many of his ideas. They differed in placing more emphasis on the conscious mind and in stressing social motives more than sexual or aggression motives. Contemporary psychodynamic theorists and therapists reject Freud's emphasis on sexual motivation. They stress, with support from modern research findings, the view that much of our mental life is unconscious, and they believe that our childhood experiences influence our adult personality and attachment patterns.
What development in adolescents allows for greater impulse control? -- The hormonal surge of early adolescence Hindbrain changes associated with the onset of puberty Frontal lobe maturation in late adolescence Limbic system development in mid-adolescence A decrease in myelin production throughout adolescence
Frontal lobe maturation in late adolescence
Summarize how Ernest Hilgard's work supports the idea of hypnosis as a divided consciousness.
Hilgard viewed hypnotic dissociation as a form of everyday mind splits such as doodling while listening to a lecture or typing the end of a sentence while starting a conversation. He also felt that hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the pain stimulus from the emotional suffering that defines a person's experience of pain.
Which of the following is most likely to be true of a person from an individualistic culture? -- His behavior would be a reflection of his personality and attitudes. He would cope by accommodating to reality. He would view his life task as fitting in and maintaining connections. He would strive to develop a few close and enduring relationships. He would focus on his duty to his family
His behavior would be a reflection of his personality and attitudes.
criteria for intellectual disability
IQ below 70 and difficulty meeting routine needs like self care
light and shadow
Nearby objects reflect more light to eyes. Given two identical objects, the dimmer one seems farther away
Which of the following words or phrases best identifies our gauge of how valued and accepted we feel? Hope Autonomy Competence Self-esteem Ostracism
Self-esteem
actualizing tendency
according to Rogers, an innate inclination toward growth that motivates people
Pollyanna Principle
aka "Positivity Bias" A person regarded as being foolishly or blindly optimistic States that pleasant items and events are usually processed more efficiently and accurately than less pleasant items
Implicit memory
aka "procedural memory" involves learning an action while the individual does not know or declare what she knows Skills we learn
Conversion disorder
aka functional neurological symptom disorder Report existence of severe physical problems w/no biological reason - Like blindness, deafness, or paralysis Usually appears in childhood or adolescence under extreme ex) my head hurts ... i think i have a brain tumor
anorexia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly (15 percent or more) underweight.
bulimia nervosa
an eating disorder in which a person alternates binge eating (usually of high-calorie foods) with purging (by vomiting or laxative use), excessive exercise, or fasting.
cannon-bard theory
an emotion-triggering stimulus and the body's arousal takes place simultaneously Walter and Philip Bard questioned the James Lange Theory Emotion triggering stimulus i routed in the brain's cortex, causing subjective awareness of the emotion, and to the sympathetic nervous system, causing the body's arousal
Forgetting
an inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval
optic chaism
area where optic nerves cross and carry info to brain
Which branch of the nervous system calms a person? a. central b. sympathetic c. parasympathetic d. somatic e. endocrine
c. parasympathetic
positive effects of punishment
can effectively control certain behaviors, especially useful in teaching a child not to do a dangerous behavior, most still suggest reinforcing an incompatible behavior rather than using punishment
risk
cannot be harmed or have mental/physical risks
types of descriptive research
case study, survey, naturalistic observation
insecure anxious attachment
constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection
Dependence and addiction of drugs
continued use of a psychoactive drug produces tolerance. With repeated exposure to a drug, the drug's effect lessons. Thus it takes bigger does to get the desired effect
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
Sleep: growth
during sleep, the pituitary gland releases growth hormone
crossed eyes
eyes don't line up properly; eyes look in different directions
divided consciousness theory
hypnosis is a special state of dissociated (divided) consciousness behavior occurs on autopilot
resistance
in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
toxical-gustatory synesthesia
individual words or sounds associate with the experience of specific tastes - very rare
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).
latent learning
learning that occurs but isn't apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it ex) children learning from watching a parent, demonstrate learning much later than needed (peeling an orange) There is more to learning than associating a response with a consequence
adrenal gland
located above kidneys endocrine glands that arouse body in times of stress release adrenaline and noradrenaline
Misattribution
mistakenly attributing a memory to the wrong source
precognition
perceiving future events, such as an unexpected death in the next month or a sporting event's outcome
Paranoid Schizophrenia
preoccupations w/delusions or hallucinations ex) John Nash- A Beautiful Mind or "Somebody's out to get me!"
schedules of reinforcement
specific patterns that determine when a behavior will be reinforced
Frequency Theory
the entire cochlea is believed to vibrate at a particular frequency, thus sending the signal of the quality of sound to the brain
fraternal twins
two zygotes genetic relatedness = 50%
All of our senses do what?
-Receive sensory stimulation, often using specialized receptor cells -Transform that stimulation into neural impulses -Deliver the neural information to our brain
Storing Memories in the Brain
-memories are distributed, not localized Through electrical stimulation of the brain Forgetting occurs as new experiences interfere with our retrieval
Which of the following would help determine what stimuli an organism can distinguish between? Negative reinforcement A variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement A fixed-ratio schedule of reinforcement Extinction A discriminative stimulus
A discriminative stimulus
Gender and Social Connectedness
A gender difference in social connectedness surfaces early in children's play. Boys typically play in large groups with an activity focus and little intimate discussion. Girls usually play in smaller groups, often with one friend. Their play is less competitive and more imitative of social relationships. - Both in play and other settings, females are more open and responsive to feedback than are males. Females are more interdependent than males. - As teens, girls spend more time with friends and less time alone. - - As adolescents, they spend more time on social networking sites. - As adults, women take more pleasure in talking face to face and tend to use conversation more to explore relationships. These gender differences are sometimes reflected in patterns of phone-based communication.
Which of the following is a longitudinal study? -- Researchers test the intelligence of all the students in a high school. Intelligence tests are given to the residents of a nursing home. Researchers randomly select 50 students from a high school with 2000 students. The 50 students are given intelligence tests. A group of college juniors is given an extensive battery of tests over a period of 2 days. A group of kindergartners is given an intelligence test. They are retested every other year for 30 years.
A group of kindergartners is given an intelligence test. They are retested every other year for 30 years.
Glutamate
A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory. oversupply can overstimulate the brain, producing migraines or seizures
GABA
A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Which of the following is an application of shaping? A mother who wants her daughter to hit a baseball first praises her for holding a bat, then for swinging it, and then for hitting the ball. A pigeon pecks a disk 25 times for an opportunity to receive a food reinforcement. A rat presses a bar when a green light is on but not when a red light is on. A rat gradually stops pressing a bar when it no longer receives a food reinforcement. A gambler continues to play a slot machine, even though he has won nothing on his last 20 plays, and he has lost a significant amount of money.
A mother who wants her daughter to hit a baseball first praises her for holding a bat, then for swinging it, and then for hitting the ball.
zygote
A one-celled organism formed by the union of a sperm and an egg. - fertilized egg. it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo all of the other cells in your body developed from this single cell each of cells contain messages from your parents carried on the chromosomes that lie within its nucleus each chromosome houses many genes
Social development researchers suggest that infancy's major social achievement is attachment. Childhood's major social achievement is developing which of the following? Basic trust Into a sexually mature person Intimacy A positive sense of self Object permanence
A positive sense of self
Insulin
A protein hormone secreted by the pancreas that is essential for the metabolism of carbohydrates and the regulation of glucose levels in the blood.
Narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times. -marked by sudden and irresistible bouts of sleep that can strike at any time -poor control of sleep-wake cycles -sleep attacks usually last a few seconds to several minutes -do not sleep any more or less than normal
placenta
A structure that allows oxygen and nutrients to pass into the fetus from the mother's bloodstream and bodily wastes to pass out to the mother.
Which of the following is an example of an assessment likely to be used by a social-cognitive psychologist? -- A student teacher is formally observed and evaluated in front of the classroom. A person applying for a managerial position takes the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. A defendant in a criminal case is interviewed by a court-appointed psychologist. In a premarriage counseling session, a young couple responds to ambiguous inkblots. A depressed young man is asked by his therapist to relax on a couch and talk about whatever comes to mind.
A student teacher is formally observed and evaluated in front of the classroom.
Little Albert Experiment
A study in which a white rat (NS) was paired with a loud sudden noise in order to condition a fear response in an infant. The child eventually became fearful of related stimuli (generalization)
normal curve
A symmetrical, bell-shape that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68 percent fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer and fewer near the extremes.
trichromatic theory
A theory of color vision that says cones are sensitive to red, green, or blue light- the three colors that combine to create millions of color combinations
How might REM sleep function to develop and preserve neural pathways?
A theory suggests that dreams serve a physiological function by providing the sleeping brain with periodic stimulation. Stimulating experiences preserve and expand the brain's neural pathways.
Clinical or psychiatric social workers
A two-year master of social work graduate program plus postgraduate supervision prepares some social workers to offer psychotherapy, mostly to people with everyday personal and family problems. About half have earned the National Association of Social Workers' designation of clinical social worker.
systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias. flooding: patient is immersed in the feared object or situation
Systematic desensitization
A type of exposure therapy that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. Commonly used to treat phobias.
after image
A visual image that remains after a stimulus is removed.
Which of the following best describes meta-analysis? -- Evidenced-based practice A treatment versus no treatment group A tendency for smaller scores to move toward the average Regressing from unusual to usual A way to combine the results of lots of studies
A way to combine the results of lots of studies
Intellectual disability is defined by both IQ and which of the following? Chronological age Mental age Adaptive ability Physical condition Heritability
Adaptive ability
Which of the following statements is true of alcohol? - Alcohol is a stimulant because it produces insomnia. - Alcohol is a depressant because it produces bipolar disorder. - Alcohol is a stimulant because people do foolish things while under its influence. - Alcohol is a depressant because it calms neural activity and slows body function. - Alcohol is a stimulant because it increases instances of casual sex.
Alcohol is a depressant because it calms neural activity and slows body function.
What are the traits of those at the low and high intelligence extremes?
An intelligence test score of or below 70 is one diagnostic criterion for the diagnosis of intellectual disability (others are limited conceptual, social, and practical skills). People with this diagnosis vary from near-normal to requiring constant aid and supervision. Down syndrome is a developmental disorder caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21. -- High-scoring people tend to be healthy and well-adjusted, as well as unusually successful academically. - Schools sometimes "track" such children, separating them from students with lower scores. - Such programs can become self-fulfilling prophecies as both groups live up to—or down to—others' perceptions and expectations.
participant-relevant confounding variables
Any differences amongst participants that may skew results -random assignment so that people cannot choose groups
Which theory explains why, even when our biological needs are satisfied, we may still feel driven to experience stimulation? Incentive Homeostasis Instinct Arousal theory Physiology
Arousal theory
Which of the following is the best example of kinesthesia? - Awareness of the smell of freshly brewed coffee - Ability to feel pressure on your arm - Ability to hear a softly ticking clock - Ability to calculate where a kicked soccer ball will land from the moment it leaves your foot - Awareness of the position of your arms when swimming the backstroke
Awareness of the smell of freshly brewed coffee
Bobo Doll Experiments
Bandura's bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments Children watched an adult model show aggressive behavior towards a bobo doll - 3 experimental conditions: model was praised, model was punished, model received no consequences for the aggressive behavior
Classical and operant conditioning are based on the principles of which psychological perspective? Cognitive Biological Behaviorist Evolutionary Humanist
Behaviorist
Latent learning is evidence for which of these conclusions? Punishment is an ineffective means of controlling behavior. Negative reinforcement should be avoided when possible. Cognition plays an important role in operant conditioning. Conditioned reinforcers are more effective than primary reinforcers. Shaping is usually not necessary for operant conditioning.
Cognition plays an important role in operant conditioning.
What's an example of how perceptual set can affect what we hear?
Consider the kindly airline pilot who, on a takeoff run, looked over at his depressed co-pilot and said, "Cheer up." Expecting to hear the usual "Gear up," the co-pilot promptly raised the wheels—before they left the ground
Jose hypothesize is that a new drug he has just invent will enhance my mice memories. He sees the drug to the experimental group and give the control group a placebo. He then times the mice as they learn to run through a maze. In order to know whether his hypothesis has been supported, Jose would need to use A) Scatter Plots B) Descriptive statistics C) histograms D) Inferential statistics E) Means end analysis
D) Inferential statistics
chromosomes
DNA molecules that carry genetic info
Stressful events
Daily stress (locker jams, traffic, lost keys) Persistent daily hassles can lead to burnout (physical, emotional, and mental exhaustion) Significant changes (death of loved one, living on own, divorce) Catastrophes (earthquake, flood, war)
The most widely used modern intelligence test was developed by Alfred Binet. Louis Terman. Robert Sternberg. David Wechsler. Howard Gardner.
David Wechsler
How does fluid intelligence change as we age? Decreases slowly with age Has not been measured over time Increases slowly with age Does not change until about age 75 Remains unchanged if we exercise
Decreases slowly with age
Repression
Defense mechanism by which anxiety-provoking thoughts and feelings are forced to the unconscious.
Deep sleep occurs in which stage? - Hypnagogic - REM - Alpha - NREM-1 - Delta
Delta
Which of the following is the best term or phrase for a false belief, often of persecution, that may accompany psychotic disorders? Psychosis Schizophrenia Delusion Split mind Dissociative identity disorder
Delusion
context effects
Describes how the context in which a stimulus occurs can contribute to how people perceive that stimulus
Lynn is teaching learning. Every time she claps her hands, Charlie turns off the light. When Randy claps in approval of Lynn's presentation, Charlie does not turn the light off. What concept has Charlie demonstrated? Habituation Discrimination Spontaneous recovery Extinction Habituation
Discrimination
What term did Ernest Hilgard use to describe a split between different levels of consciousness? - Hypnagogic imagery - REM sleep - Delta waves - Spindles - Dissociation
Dissociation
active listening
Empathic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. A feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy. Active listening is now an accepted part of therapeutic counseling practices in many high schools, colleges, and clinics.
Which psychological concept would predict that smiling warmly on the outside would cause you to feel better on the inside? Relative deprivation Mimicry Empathy Facial feedback Catharsis
Facial feedback
What do we call the tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness? Culture-specific expression Moebius syndrome Botox Facial feedback effect Culturally universal expression
Facial feedback effect
Which of the following is the major source of energy in your body? PYY Arcuate nucleus Hypothalamus Ghrelin Glucose
Glucose
Which of the following best represents crystallized intelligence? -- Jake can solve math word problems quickly. Grandpa Milt is good at crossword puzzles. Aliyah has a knack for training dogs. Anna writes creative computer programs. Heng bakes excellent chocolate chip cookies.
Grandpa Milt is good at crossword puzzles.
What are the aims and benefits of group and family therapy?
Group therapy sessions can help more people and costs less per person than individual therapy would. Clients may benefit from exploring feelings and developing social skills in a group situation, from learning that others have similar problems, and from getting feedback on new ways of behaving. Family therapy views a family as an interactive system and attempts to help members discover the roles they play and to learn to communicate more openly and directly.
Which of the following's primary function is processing memories? Cerebral cortex Medulla Corpus callosum Hippocampus Hypothalamus
Hippocampus
what term refers to the ability of the body's physiological processes to maintain a balanced or constant internal state? Hierarchy of needs Basal metabolic rate Homeostasis Instinct Motivation
Homeostasis
According to Erikson's psychosocial theory of development, the crisis that needs resolution for adolescents involves the search for what? Trust Identity Autonomy Initiative Worth
Identity
Recurring problems in falling asleep or staying asleep are characteristic of which sleep disorder? - Sleep apnea - Narcolepsy - Insomnia - Sleep talking - Sleepwalking
Insomnia
The perception that we control our own fate is also called what? Self-control Learned helplessness Internal locus of control External locus of control Emotion-focused coping
Internal locus of control
What are some of the ways that sexual development varies?
Intersex individuals are born with intermediate or unusual combinations of male and female characteristics. Research suggests sex-reassignment surgery can be problematic.
One night Samar became frightened when she was startled by a noise while walking down the street alone. Which theory of emotion would say that her fear resulted from the startle response alone? James-Lange Cannon-Bard Two-factor Lazarus Schachter-Singer
James-Lange
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely is known as what? Law of effect Operant conditioning Shaping Respondent behavior Discrimination
Law of effect
Classical conditioning techniques
Learning theorist O.H. Mower though reconditioning could be a solution; developed a successful conditioning therapy for chronic bedwetters Child sleeps on liquid-sensitive pad connected to alarm. Moisture on pad triggers alarm, waking the child. w/sufficient repetition, this association of bladder relaxation w/waking up stops the bed wetting. In three out of 4 cases the treatment is effective. types: flooding, systematic desensitization, aversive conditioning
Which of the following is a "Big Five" personality factor? Seriousness Neuroticism Dutifulness Dominance Abstractedness
Neuroticism
Monochromats
People who cannot perceive any color, usually because their retinas lack cones. have no or only 1 functioning cone; respond to light like a black and white film
How do our expectations, contexts, emotions, and motivation influence our perceptions?
Perceptual set is a mental predisposition that functions as a lens through which we perceive the world. Our learned concepts (schemas) prime us to organize and interpret ambiguous stimuli in certain ways. Our physical and emotional context, as well as our motivation, can create expectations and color our interpretation of events and behaviors.
Which of the following is a conclusion that can be drawn from the Yerkes-Dodson law? Performance on easy tasks is best when arousal is low. Performance is best when arousal is extremely high. Performance is best when arousal is extremely low. Performance on difficult tasks is best when arousal is high. Performance is best when arousal is moderate.
Performance is best when arousal is moderate.
Stages of aging
Psychologists doubt that adults pass through an orderly sequence of stages Mid-life crisis: at 40 are less likely to occur than crisis triggered by major events (divorce, new marriage); not necessarily bad- reevaluation of life Social clock: culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement
Which of the following best describes the extent to which a test yields consistent results upon retesting? Content validity Validity Reliability Predictive validity Normal curve
Reliability
case study limitations
Reported by biased observers Relies on subjective evidence Has low internal validity difficult to generalize Has low external validity researchers may overinflate importance
After an alarming event, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration are high, and you have an outpouring of hormones. Hans Seyle would most likely guess that you are in which general adaption syndrome phase? Exhaustion Resistance Immobilization Collapse Shock
Resistance
What do we call the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished response? Acquisition Spontaneous recovery Discrimination Operant conditioning Classical conditioning
Spontaneous recovery
What evidence points to a genetic influence on intelligence, and what is heritability?
Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees indicate a significant hereditary contribution to intelligence scores. Intelligence seems to be polygenetic, and researchers are searching for genes that exert an influence. Heritability is the proportion of variation among individuals that can be attributed to genes.
Which of the following is produced by perceptual set? - Not noticing that the songs change in a restaurant - Noticing a difference in the weight of a friend from one week to the next - Moving an arm quickly so that a mosquito flies away - Surprise at hearing an Oklahoma cowboy speak with a British accent - Not noticing a watch on your wrist as the day goes on
Surprise at hearing an Oklahoma cowboy speak with a British accent
Based on brain scans, which of the following is true of brain function and mood? -- The brain is more active during manic episodes and less active during depressive episodes. The brain is less active during manic episodes and more active during depressive episodes. There is no consistent relationship between brain activity and mood. The brain is more active than normal during both manic and depressive episodes. The brain is less active than normal during both manic and depressive episodes.
The brain is more active during manic episodes and less active during depressive episodes.
In what way do brain scans confirm the link between REM sleep and memory?
The brain regions that buzz as rats learn to navigate a maze, or as people learn to perform a visual-discrimination task, buzz again during later REM sleep.
Which of the following is the most likely consequence of the brain's tendency to vicariously experience something we observe? Actual physical injury The risk of misremembering our own actions Interference with associative learning The elimination of classically conditioned responses to stimuli A confusion between reinforcers and rewards in an operant conditioning setting
The risk of misremembering our own actions
embryonic stage
The second stage of prenatal development, lasting from week 3-8 development of neural tube (day 18) & blood circulation (day 24) weeks 4-8: formation of head, tail, lateral folds, & primitive gut - heart moves to normal position - appearances of brain, limbs, eyes, ears, and nose - development of human-like appearances sensitivity is greatest during this stage teratogens
What do we call the conversion of stimulus energies, like sights and sounds, into neural impulses? - Transduction - Perception - Priming - Signal detection theory - Threshold
Transduction
Which of the following cognitive abilities is possible only at the formal operational stage? -- Reversing arithmetic operations Using a theory of mind to predict the behavior of others Using hypothetical situations as the basis of moral reasoning Using symbolic thinking for pretend play Understanding basic physics to recognize impossible situations
Using hypothetical situations as the basis of moral reasoning
down syndrome
a condition of mild to severe intellectual disability and associated physical disorders caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea can help restore hearing for people with nerve deafness The latest cochlear implants can help restore hearing for most adults. However, the implants will not enable normal hearing in adults if their brain never learned to process sound during childhood.
Obesity
a disorder characterized by being excessively overweight Increases the risk for health issues like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, and back problems
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
a disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience
conversion disorder
a disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found. (Also called functional neurological symptom disorder.)
visual cliff
a lab device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals - Infants are reluctant to crawl past the edge of the visual cliff; animals showed similar results Shows that depth perception, to some extent, is inborn
meta-analysis
a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies
aversive conditioning
a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol) Reverse of systematic desensitization
The most noticeable difference between human brains and other mammalian brain is the size of the a. association areas. b. frontal lobe. c. glial cells d. reticular activating system e. visual cortex
a. association areas.
fixate
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psycho-sexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved
fixation
according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved - You move on in life but may have issues that arise from the struggles during that stage - May occur due to traumatic events Could become an "oral fixation": seek expressive oral contact through smoking, drinking, eating. Either passive or biting sarcasm to act tough Anal fixation or retentive: overly controlled and orderly Anal expulsive: very messy and disorganized
Priming
activation of particular associations in memory Often "memoryless memory"- memory without explicit remembering, invisible memory
Echoing, restating, and seeking clarification of what a person expresses (verbally or nonverbally) in a therapy session is called active listening. virtual reality exposure therapy. systematic desensitization. family therapy. classical conditioning.
active listening.
Lewis Terman
adapted Binet's test for American School Children, adapted original items, added others, est. new age norms, extended the upper end of the test's range from teenager's to "superior adult," renamed it "Stanford-Binet test"
the stress horomnes epinephrine and norepinephrine are released from where? Parasympathetic nervous system Hippocampus Brain stem Adrenal glands Hypothalamus
adrenal glands
Technique: question your interpretations
aim: reveal beliefs therapists' directives: Explore your beliefs, revealing faulty assumptions such as "I must be liked by everyone."
The aging brain may help nurture positive feelings that are reported by many older adults. Brain scans of older adults show that the _________, a neural processing center for emotions, responds less actively to negative events (but not to positive events), and it interacts less with the hippocampus, a brain memory-processing center. amygdala hypothalamus pineal gland thyroid gland thalamus
amygdala
generalized anxiety disorder
an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; neural basis for learning and memory
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats
token economy
an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats ex) students getting stamps each time they read a book. when they get 5 stamps, they can turn them in to get a toy.
transgender
an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth sex
motor cortex
area at rear of frontal lobes; controls voluntary movement of body parts; left hemisphere motor cortex controls right side of body and vice versa
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking located in all 4 lobes
Assessing Intelligence
assess a person & compare it to other people
Your friend's baby brother, Matt, loves to play with his pet cat. When he sees a puppy, he points and calls it "Mi Mi," which is what he calls his cat. Matt is demonstrating Piaget's process of conservation. accommodation. cognition. object permanence. assimilation.
assimilation
emotion-focused coping
attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction use when we believe we cannot change a situation If, despite our best efforts, we cannot get along with that family member, we may search for stress relief by reaching out to friends for support and comfort.
which of the following is most closely associated with the idea of epigenetics a) eye color b) gene display based on environmental factors c) IG as a function of educational experiences d) height at birth e) shoe size
b) gene display based on environmental factors
morphine elevates mood and eases pain, and is most similar to which of the following? a. Dopamine b. Serotonin c. Endorphins d. Acetylcholine e. GABA
c. Endorphins
Stimulation at a point on which the following may cause a person to report being touched on the knee? a. motor cortex b. cerebellum c. somatosensory cortex d. temporal lobe e. thalamus
c. somatosensory cortex
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that travel across the synapse from one neuron to the next; can influence whether or not a 2nd neuron can generate an action potential
myelin sheath
covers the axon of some neurons and helps speed neural impulses
Dementia
damage to the brain cells, causing mental erosion caused by strokes, brain tumors, or alcoholism With increasing age, the risk of dementia also increases Not a normal part of growing old
prenatal development
development from conception to birth zygote: conception to 2 weeks embryo: 2 to 9 weeks fetus: 9 weeks to birth
Farsightedness
distant objects are seen clearly but close objects appear blurry
compensation
efforts to overcome imagined or real inferiorities by developing one's abilities
separation anxiety
emotional distress seen in many infants when they are separated from people with whom they have formed an attachment developmental stage during which the child experiences anxiety when separated from the primary caregiver - Separation anxiety peaks at 13 months of age
Mood Disorders
emotional extremes of mood disorders come in 2 principle forms: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions is called interpersonal intelligence. general intelligence. practical intelligence. emotional intelligence. adaptive intelligence.
emotional intelligence.
Phases of sex
excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
Sensory experiences without sensory stimulation are called word salads. delusions. paranoid thoughts. ruminations. hallucinations.
hallucinations
Hyperalgesia
increased sensitivity to pain -extreme sensitivity to something that others find mildly painful
Test norms
info about where a score on a psychological test ranks in relation to other scores on that test
word salad
jumble of incoherent speech as sometimes heard in schizophrenia
Circadian Rhythms: light
light triggers the suprachiasmatic (cluster of 20k cells that control circadian clock) nucleus to decrease (in the morning) melatonin from the pineal gland and increase (evening) it at nightfall the sleep-wake cycle can be altered by artificial light (lamps, phones, tv)
oval window
membrane at the entrance to the cochlea through which the ossicles transmit vibrations; the point on the surface of the cochlea which receives the sound vibration from the ossicles. as the oval window vibrates, the fluid in the cochlea vibrates
False Memories
memories of imagined experiences are more restrict to the gist of the supposed event-the meanings and feelings we associate with it Gist memories are durable so children's false memories sometimes outlast their true memories
what happens if the hippocampus is damaged?
memory damage; inability to learn new things.
Postpartum Depression
moderately severe depression that begins w/in 3 months following childbirth Marked by mood swings, despondency, feelings of inadequacy, and in inability to cope w/the new baby May last from 2 months to one year Part of problem may be hormonal
fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
axons
pass messages to other neurons, muscles, or glands
Somatization disorder
patients under 30 years of age will exhibit a variety of unexplained physical symptoms
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging even as illumination and retinal images change we can recognize objects without being deceived by changes in their color, brightness, shape, or size top-down process
clarivoyance
perceiving remote events; example: sensing a friend's house is on fire
types of punishment
positive punishment and negative punishment positive: undesirable event following a behavior negative: desirable state or event ends following a behavior ex) positive: someone burned by hot stove=less likely to touch it again or negative: a boy who loses tv privileges for pulling his sister's hair is less likely to pull her hair again
biomedical therapy
prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person's physiology
Eating disorders
prevalent among young adolescents May or may not be obvious Difficult to diagnose and treat People often hide their struggles rather than seek help
As the infant's brain develops, some neural pathways will decay if not used. This use-it-or-lose-it process is known as motor development. pruning. spacing. accommodation. maturation.
pruning
Psychosis
psychological disorder in which a person loses contact w/reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions
What is color?
reflected light ex) tomato is everything but red, because it rejects (reflects) the long wavelengths of red. the tomato's color is our mental construction.
hypothalamus
regulates appetite Damage: cause weight gain due to lack of restraint in eating serves as weight thermostat
Enthusiasm for treatment often diminishes after
researchers subtract the rates of: (1) normal recovery among untreated persons and (2) recovery due to the placebo effect, which arises from the positive expectations of patients and mental health workers alike.
Gender __________ are the social expectations that guide men and women's behavior. Gender __________ is a person's sense of being male or female. concepts; role preferences; role roles; preference roles; identity roles; preference
roles; identity
Shallow Processing vs Deep
shallow- reading material vs memorizing material
What did Socrates and Plato believe about the formation of ideas?
some ideas are inborn
Positive Transfer
sometimes old info can facilitate our learning of new information ex) knowing Latin may help you learn French
sensation
stimulation of sense organs the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
Retrieval Cues
stimuli that aid the recall or recognition of information stored in memory memories are held in storage by a web of associations - These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory
inhibitory effect
stops action potential
objective personality tests
structured tests, such as questionnaires, self-inventories, or rating scales, used in psychological assessment
eugenics
study of factors that influence the hereditary qualities of the human race and ways to improve those qualities measuring human traits and using the results to encourage only smart & fit people to reproduce
Diana Baumrind
suggested that the majority of parents display one of 3 different styles Authoritarian, authoritative, or permissive
Freud & anxiety
suggested that we repress our painful and intolerable ideas, feelings, and thoughts, resulting in anxiety
opponent process theory of emotion
suggests that any given emotion also has an opposed emotion (fear/relief or sadness/happiness) Activation of one member of the pair automatically suppresses the opposite emotion But the opposing emotion can serve to diminish the intensity of the initial emotion
Theory: Spearman's general intelligence (g)
summary: A basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas strengths: Different abilities, such as verbal and spatial, do have some tendency to correlate. other considerations: Human abilities are too diverse to be encapsulated by a single general intelligence factor.
Theory: Sternberg's triarchic theory
summary: Our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical. strengths: These three facets can be reliably measured. other considerations: 1) These three facets may be less independent than Sternberg thought and may actually share an underlying g factor. 2) Additional testing is needed to determine whether these facets can reliably predict success.
Theory: Thurstone's primary mental abilities
summary: Our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. strengths: A single g score is not as informative as scores for seven primary mental abilities. other considerations: Even Thurstone's seven mental abilities show a tendency to cluster, suggesting an underlying g factor.
kinesthetic sense
system for sensing body position and movement of individual body parts relies on receptor cells from the muscles and joints -2 types of specialized cells important for kinesthetic sense: in tendons, in muscles
Facial Feedback effect
tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls life supporting functions such as heart beat, breathing
genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein - hereditary blueprints
circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle humans experience 24 hour cycles of varying alertness (sleep), body temp, and growth hormone secretion
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
reciprocal determinism
the environment does determine behavior (as Skinner argued) however behavior also determines the environment behavior, the external environment, and personal factors interact to create our personality and define how we interact in the world
content validity
the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest
personal control
the extent to which people perceive control over their environment rather than feeling helpless
absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
Ebbinghaus findings
the more times the nonsense syllables were practiced on day 1, the fewer repetitions were required to remember them on day 2
olfactory nerve
the nerve that carries smell impulses from the nose to the brain
Frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time long waves = low frequency/low pitch Short waves= high frequency/high pitch
auditory canal
the opening through which sound waves travel as they move into the ear for processing; ends at the ear drum (tympanic membrane)
internal locus of control
the perception that you control your own fate
self-report inventory
type of psychological test in which a person fills out a survey or questionnaire with or without the help of an investigator Often ask questions about personal interests, values, symptoms, behavior
Irreversibility
unable to envision reversing an action Pre-operational children can't mentally "undo" something In the conservation of water, they don't think about what would happen if the water were poured back from the tall beaker into the original beaker
survey limitations
unreliable based on willingness of people to complete it risk of people lying can have low responses
social cognitive approach
views personality in terms of how the person thinks about the situations encountered in daily life and behaves in response to them Bandura's theory emphasized the role of conscious thoughts including self-efficacy or our own beliefs in our abilities. Thus people routinely attempt to influence their life circumstances and their outcomes. "People are self-organizing, proactive, self-reflecting and self-regulating."
we have a very sensitive absolute threshold for
vision
Clients' and therapists' perceptions of therapy's effectiveness
vulnerable to inflation from two phenomena. One is the placebo effect—the power of belief in a treatment. If you think a treatment is going to be effective, it just may be (thanks to the healing power of your positive expectations). The second phenomenon is regression toward the mean—the tendency for unusual events (or emotions) to "regress" (return) to their average state.
Light's _________ is the distance from one wave peak to the next. This dimension determines the _________ we experience. - hue; wavelength - wavelength; hue - hue; intensity - wavelength; intensity - intensity; wavelength
wavelength; hue
Nonverbal communication
we are good at deciphering emotions through nonverbal communication We can usually detect anger in another language We read anger and fear in the eyes and happiness in the mouth In a crowd of faces a single angry face will "pop out" faster than a single happy face
Time and memory
we unconsciously note the sequence of a day's events (i.e. retracing your steps when you lose your coat)
Mood-Congruent memory
we usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood
LOC: Conscious
what you're currently aware of, including yourself and your environment
drug dependence
when a person needs a drug in order to function absence of drug may lead to feelings of physical pain. Intense cravings (physical dependence) and negative emotions (psychological dependence)
Monists
when body and brain dies, consciousness dies too
industrial psychologist
work for large corporations to maximize employee output and input
sports psychologist
work for major league teams to maximize performance and minimize performance anxiety
Misinformation Effect
incorporating misleading info into one's memory of an event
perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another a set of mental tendencies and assumptions that greatly affects (top-down) what we perceive. Perceptual set can influence what we hear, taste, feel, and see.
one way to treat pain
activate long nerve fibers via massage, electric stimulation, or acupuncture
Coping
alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods
mean
average
what is the study of specific genes and teams of genes that influence behavior called a) molecular genetics b) evolutionary psychology c) behavior genetics d) heritability e) natural selection
c) behavior genetics
what do genes do?
they provide the code for proteins
oral
0-18 months or (0-1) pleasure centers on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing
dopamine
A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system. too much --> schitzophrenia; too little--> parkinsons
Homeostasis
A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state
What is the primary means by which parents influence the behavior of their children? Parenting style Genetic contributions Prenatal environment Teaching cooperation Rewarding achievement
Genetic contributions
extraneous variable
Something unwanted or unexpected that might affect the dependent variable.
smell and memories
The brain region for smell (in red) is closely connected with the brain regions involved with memory (limbic system). That is why strong memories are made through the sense of smell.
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
traits
a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports
stereotype threat
a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype
Why survey?
cheap easy diverse population know how people feel random sampling
Correlation and Causation
correlation does not equal causation
rationalization
create logical explanations of our behavior in order to justify it ex) student might blame a poor exam score on instructor rather than lack of preparation Not only prevents anxiety, may also protect self-esteem and self-concept
narcissim
excessive self-love and self-absorption
sympathetic nervous system
fight or flight
amok
in a frenzied or uncontrolled state
observational learning
learning by observing and watching others (model)
gonads
sex glands that influence emotion and physical development ovaries/testes
secondary reinforcer
something that a person has learned to value or finds rewarding b/c it is paired w/a primary reinforcer (money)
Fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
gender identity
the individual's sense of being male or female
Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
social learning theory
the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished ("Nicole, you're such a good mommy to your dolls"; "Big boys don't cry, Alex.").
sleep walking
walking during non-REM sleep -affects estimated 10% of all humans at least once in their life
Endocrine system
chemical communication carried out by set of hormones synthesized by set of glands
Pain disorder
complaints of severe pain w/o any particular physical condition
3 stages of general adaptation syndrome
1. Alarm: sudden activation of SNS-sympathetic nervous system (heart rate, blood flow) 2. Resistance: temperature and blood pressure are high, sudden outpour of hormones, it may deplete body of reserves if persistent 3. Exhaustion: more vulnerable to illness, in extreme cases death
What are the 3 major issues of developmental psychology?
1. Nature v. Nurture - the interaction between our genetic inheritance and our experiences 2. Continuity & Stages - whether development is gradual and continuous or a series of relatively abrupt changes 3. Stability & Change - whether our traits endure or change as we age
Why do we dream?
1. to satisfy our own wishes 2. to file away memories 3. to develop and preserve neural pathways 4. to make sense of neural static 5. to reflect cognitive development
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence
savant syndrome
a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing
scatterplots
comprised of points generated by values of two variables -slope depicts direction -amount of scatter=strength of relationship
convergence
A binocular cue for perceiving depth - When two eyes move inward (towards the nose) to see near objects and outward (away from the nose) to see faraway objects -neuromuscular cue
Hawthorne effect
A change in a subject's behavior caused simply by the awareness of being studied
Charlotte and Tamar are Lab Partners assigned to research who is friendlier girls our boys. after conversing with their first 10 participants they find at their friendliness ratings often differ. With which of the following should they be most concerned. A) Reliability B) Confounding variables C) Ethics D) Validity E) Assignment
A) Reliability
How does autism spectrum disorder affect development?
ASD is marked by social deficiencies and repetitive behaviors. Genetic influences contribute to ASD, as does the male hormone testosterone.
What's the difference between achievement and aptitude tests?
Achievement tests are designed to assess what you have learned. Aptitude tests are designed to predict what you can learn. The WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale), an aptitude test, is the most widely used intelligence test for adults.
According to Robert Sternberg, what kind of intelligence is assessed by traditional intelligence tests? Linguistic Practical Creative Spatial Analytical
Analytical
When hearing emotions conveyed in another language, what emotion can people most readily detect? Sadness Happiness Anger Fear Surprise
Anger
split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them
Adolescent mood swings might be misdiagnosed as which psychological disorder? Schizophrenia Temper tantrums Oppositional defiant disorder Bipolar disorder ADHD
Bipolar disorder
Elephants appear to have the capacity to remember large-scale spaces over long periods. Which of the following best identifies this capacity? Latent learning Insight Cognitive maps Intrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation
Cognitive maps
Reinforcement
any consequence that increases the likelihood of the behavior that follows
Professor Ma wants to design a project studying emotional response to date rape. He advertises for participants in the school newspaper, informs them about the nature of the study, gets their consent, conducts an interview, and debriefs them about the results when the experiment is over. If you were on the IRB, which ethical consideration would you most likely have the most concerned about and Professor Moss study. A) Conversion B) Deception C) Confounding variables D) Confidentiality E) Clear scientific purpose
D) Confidentiality
Memory Wonder Drug
Drugs that boost production of the protein CREB may help reshape short term memory (STM) turn into long-term memory (LTM) Drugs that boost Glutamate - Neurotransmitter enhances synaptic communication (LTP)
Which of the following hypotheses would be most difficult to test experimentally A) People exposed to the color red will be more aggressive than those exposed to the color blue B) Exercise improves mood C) Exposure to Violent television increases aggression D) Studying leads to better grades E) Divorce makes children more independent
E) Divorce makes children more independent
Which of the following identifies children's difficulty seeing another's perspective? -- Abstract thinker Role player Egocentric thinker A child who understands conservation A child who demonstrates high mental operations
Egocentric thinker
Which of the following provides the best evidence that race is more of a social construct than a biological category? -- People of varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race. The races arose in different continents. Behavior traits (like running speed) are associated with race. Skin cancer rates vary by race. The incidence of high blood pressure varies by race.
People of varying ancestry may categorize themselves in the same race
what are the 2 theories of hearing?
Place theory Frequency theory
Neurologically, what is the function of pruning? -- Pruning creates new connections between synapses through repeated experiences. Pruning reduces the negative effects of teratogens by eliminating neural waste. Pruning increases the weight of the brain through enriching experiences. Pruning creates areas in the brain used in learning mathematics. Pruning eliminates unused neural pathways.
Pruning eliminates unused neural pathways.
mental orthopedics
The exercises that Binet suggested for enhancing determination, attention, and discipline. These procedures would prepare a child for formal education.
latent content of dreams
The hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, as revealed by dream interpretation and analysis. symbolic meaning of dream images, what your unconscious mind is thinking
How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?
The humanistic psychologists' view of personality focused on the potential for healthy personal growth and people's striving for self-determination and self-realization. Abraham Maslow proposed that human motivations form a hierarchy of needs; if basic needs are fulfilled, people will strive toward self-actualization and self-transcendence. Carl Rogers' person-centered perspective suggested that the ingredients of a growth-promoting environment are genuineness, acceptance (including unconditional positive regard), and empathy. The self-concept was a central feature of personality for both Maslow and Rogers.
dependent variable
The measurable effect, outcome, or response in which the research is interested.
Which of the following are symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder? -- Unexplainable and continual tension Sudden episodes of intense dread Irrational and intense fear of a specific object or situation Repetitive thoughts or actions Nightmares for weeks after a severe, uncontrollable event
Unexplainable and continual tension
psychoanalytic therapy
Uses various methods to help a patient become aware of his/her unconscious motives, in order to help the patient be more able to choose behaviors consciously. Therapy sessions usually focus on patients talking about their lives and reducing anxiety through self insight through analysis and interpretation.
Mary checks her phone every 30 minutes for incoming text messages. Her behavior is being maintained by what kind of reinforcement schedule? Fixed-interval Variable-interval Variable-ratio Fixed-ratio Continuous
Variable-interval
pruning
When applied to brain development, the process by which unused connections in the brain atrophy and die.
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses major organ for hearing
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
a confrontational cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that vigorously challenges people's illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions Change people's thinking by revealing the "absurdity" of their self-defeating ideas, the sharp-tongued Ellis believed, and you will change their self-defeating feelings and enable healthier behaviors.
cohort
a group of people from a given time period
Caffeine
a mild stimulant found in coffee, tea, and several other plant-based substances causes increased alertness and wakefulness too much--> anxiety, insomnia, restlessness, uncomfortable withdrawal like nicotine, increases heart and breathing rates and other automatic functions to provide energy
emotions
a mix of physiological activation (heart pounding), expressive behaviors (quickened pace), and conscious experience (thoughts and feelings) They're our body's adaptive response
bipolar disorder
a mood disorder in which a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. (Formerly called manic-depressive disorder.)
motivation
a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior and directs it towards a goal
nerve vs neuron
a nerve is a bundle of neurons
Social-Cultural influences on drug use
availability of drugs, peer pressure
Repression
avoid painful thoughts by forcing them into the back of our mind Underlies all ofter defense mechanisms Ex) Witness murder, don't remember details when asked by police (unconscious)
A gymnast falls and hits her head on the floor. She attempts to continue practicing, but has trouble maintaining balance. What part of her brain has probably been affected? a. reticular formation b. cerebellum c. amygdala d. frontal lobe e. brainstem
b. cerebellum
Hormones are ______ released into the ________. a. neurons; neurotransmitters b. chemical messengers; bloodstream c. electrical messengers; bloodstream d. electrical messengers; synapse e. chemical messengers; synapse
b. chemical messengers; bloodstream
atypical
behavior is not just quirky, it is considered extremely odd
Split-half reliability
checking the consistency
rumination
compulsive fretting; overthinking about our problems and their causes.
Binocular Cues
depth cues that require the use of both eyes -the retina is a two-dimensional surface yet we use it to determine height, width, and depth -Eyes and brain work together and use a number of tricks to create the third dimension
Social nonconformity
disobeying social standards for normal conduct, usually leads to destructive or self-destructive behavior
wavelength determines
hue (color) the eye detects 7 million hues
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood
pons
located above medulla; coordinate movements on right/left side of body
Disorganized thinking
thinking of a person w/schizophrenia is fragmented and bizzare and distorted w/false beliefs Comes from a breakdown in selective attention- they cannot filter out info
situation-relevant confounding variables
when the situations into which the different groups of an experiment are put are not truly equivalent; can create invalid experiment results due to the situation rather than the independent variable
next-in-line effect
when we are next in line, we focus on our own performance and often fail to process the last person's words
Feel-Good-Do-Good Phenomenon
when we feel happy we are more willing to help others
The nearly 1-in-100 odds of any person being diagnosed with schizophrenia become about 1 in 10 among those -- who also suffer anxiety disorder. whose sibling or parent has the disorder. who have been diagnosed with depression. who live with someone diagnosed with schizophrenia. whose identical twin has schizophrenia.
whose sibling or parent has the disorder.
Is psychotherapy cost effective?
yes. Studies show that when people seek psychological treatment, their search for other medical treatment drops—by 16 percent in one digest of 91 studies. Given the staggering annual cost of psychological disorders and substance abuse—including crime, accidents, lost work, and treatment—psychotherapy is a good investment the claim—that psychotherapy, on average, is somewhat effective—refers to no one therapy in particular. It is like reassuring lung-cancer patients that "on average," medical treatment of health problems is effective
How does your brain recognize a face?
your brain integrates information projected by your retinas to several visual cortex areas, compares it with stored information, and enables you to recognize the face Scientists are debating whether this stored information is contained in a single cell or distributed over a network. Some supercells—"grandmother cells"—do appear to respond very selectively to 1 or 2 faces in 100
Sudden sleep attacks at inopportune times are symptomatic of which sleep disorder? - Sleep apnea - Insomnia - Night terrors - Sleepwalking - Narcolepsy
Narcolepsy
A student studies diligently to avoid the bad feelings associated with a previously low grade on a test. In this case, the studying behavior is being strengthened because of what kind of reinforcement? Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Delayed reinforcement Primary reinforcement Conditioned reinforcement
Negative reinforcement
OCEAN
Openness: curious, original, intellectual, creative, open to new ideas Conscientious: organized, systematic, punctual, dependable, achievement- oriented Extroversion: outgoing, talkative, sociable Agreeableness: trusting, kind, sensitive, warm Neuroticism: temperamental, moody, anxious
On which of the following are token economies based? Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Group therapy Cognitive therapy Cognitive-behavioral therapy
Operant conditioning
cognitive processes of classical conditioning
Organisms develop expectation that CS signals the arrival of US.
Why do some psychologists criticize the use of diagnostic labels?
Other critics view DSM diagnoses as arbitrary labels that create preconceptions which bias perceptions of the labeled person's past and present behavior. The legal label, "insanity," raises moral and ethical questions about whether society should hold people with disorders responsible for their violent actions. Most people with disorders are nonviolent and are more likely to be victims than attackers.
neophobia
dislike of things unfamiliar
social-cultural influences on pain
1. presence of others 2. empathy for others' pain 3. cultural expectations We tend to perceive more pain when others also seem to be experiencing pain. When feeling empathy for another's pain, a person's own brain activity may partly mirror that of the other's brain in pain.
How many receptor cells do we have in our nasal cavities?
5 million in the upper nasal passages can detect up to 10k molecules in the air
Children are said to have an intellectual disability if they have difficulty adapting to the demands of independent living and have IQ scores below 60. 70. 80. 90. 100.
70
taste aversion learning
A biological tendency in which an organism learns, after a single experience, to avoid a food with a certain taste, if eating it is followed by illness.
Melatonin
A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness. helps regulate daily biological rhythms and is linked to sleep-wake cycles melatonin level increases during the night and decreases with exposure to morning light
What does it mean to lesion the brain? Why is this procedure important to studying the brain?
A lesion is the destruction of brain tissue.
growth orientation
According to Maslow, a tendency to draw satisfaction from what is available in life, rather than to focus on what is missing
How should we draw the line between normality and disorder?
According to psychologists and psychiatrists, a psychological disorder is a syndrome marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior.
Piaget
All human beings pass through all stages in the same order.
What's an example of priming and what does it help reveal about us being able to evaluate a stimulus?
An unnoticed image or word can reach your visual cortex and briefly prime your response to a later question. In a typical experiment, the image or word is quickly flashed, then replaced by a masking stimulus that interrupts the brain's processing before conscious perception For example, one experiment subliminally flashed either emotionally positive scenes (kittens, a romantic couple) or negative scenes (a werewolf, a dead body) an instant before participants viewed slides of people The participants consciously perceived either scene as only a flash of light. Yet the people somehow looked nicer if their image immediately followed unperceived kittens rather than an unperceived werewolf. As other experiments confirm, we can evaluate a stimulus even when we are not aware of it—and even when we are unaware of our evaluation
When hearing emotions conveyed in another language, what emotion can people most readily detect?
Anger
paradoxial sleep
Another name for REM sleep, because internally the brain and body are active, but externally the body appears calm and inactive.
Which kind of drug is most closely associated with increasing the availability of norepinephrine or serotonin? Antidepressant Antipsychotic Antianxiety Mood-stabilizing Muscle relaxant
Antidepressant
Are intelligence tests inappropriately biased?
Aptitude tests aim to predict how well a test-taker will perform in a given situation. So they are necessarily "biased" in the sense that they are sensitive to performance differences caused by cultural experience. By "inappropriately biased," psychologists mean that a test predicts less accurately for one group than for another. In this sense, most experts consider the major aptitude tests unbiased. Stereotype threat, a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype, affects performance on all kinds of tests.
How have psychologists studied attachment differences, and what have they learned about the effects of temperament and parenting?
Attachment has been studied in strange situation experiments, which show that some children are securely attached and others are insecurely attached. Sensitive, responsive parents tend to have securely attached children. Adult relationships seem to reflect the attachment styles of early childhood, lending support to Erik Erikson's idea that basic trust is formed in infancy by our experiences with responsive caregivers. Yet it's become clear that temperament—our characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity—also plays a huge role in how our attachment patterns form.
Which of the following is NOT a symptom of major depressive disorder? Weight gain or loss Auditory hallucinations Sleep disturbance Inappropriate guilt Problems concentrating
Auditory hallucinations
How is our biological sex determined, and how do sex hormones influence prenatal and adolescent development?
Both sex chromosomes and sex hormones influence development. Biological sex is determined by the father's contribution to the twenty-third pair of chromosomes. - The mother always contributes an X chromosome. - The father may also contribute an X chromosome, producing a female, or a Y chromosome, producing a male by triggering additional testosterone release and the development of male sex organs. During puberty, both primary and secondary sex characteristics develop. Sex-related genes and physiology influence behavioral and cognitive gender differences between males and females.
Explain how bottom-up and top-down processes work together to help us decipher the world around us..
Bottom-up processing starts at the sensory receptors and works up to higher levels of processing. Top-down processing constructs perceptions from the sensory input by drawing on our experience and expectations.
Describe how Botulin as an agonist for acetylcholine.
Botulin or Botox smooths wrinkles by paralyzing underlying facial muscles. It causes paralysis by blocking ACh release.
Which of the following statements about mobile networks and social media is accurate? There are more home toilets in India than there are cell phones. Cell phones have been history's most rapidly adopted technology. Fewer than 75 percent of American youth are cell-phone users. Phone calling has displaced texting. Texting has declined in Canada and elsewhere because of e-mail.
Cell phones have been history's most rapidly adopted technology.
Pheromones
Chemical signals produced by the body that serve as a means of interpersonal communication
martin seligman
Conducted experiments with dogs that led to the concept of "learned helplessness"
In the attachment studies conducted with infant monkeys, what did the Harlows find? -- Nutrition was the most important factor in attachment. Contact comfort was the most important factor in attachment. The surrogate mother's appearance was the most important attachment factor. Monkeys were equally likely to become attached to either surrogate mother. The monkeys didn't form attachments to the surrogate mothers.
Contact comfort was the most important factor in attachment.
What are depressants, and what are their effects?
Depressants, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and the opiates (which include narcotics), dampen neural activity and slow body functions. Alcohol tends to disinhibit, increasing the likelihood that we will act on our impulses, whether harmful or helpful. It also impairs judgment, disrupts memory processes by suppressing REM sleep, and reduces self-awareness and self-control. User expectations strongly influence alcohol's behavioral effects.
Lily scored 145 on an IQ test with a mean of 100 and a standard deviation of 15 what is her Z score. A) -3 B) -1. 5 C) + . 67 D) 1. 5 E) + 3
E) + 3
What are dissociative disorders, and why are they controversial?
Dissociative disorders are conditions in which conscious awareness seems to become separated from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings. Skeptics note that dissociative identity disorder, formerly known as multiple personality disorder, increased dramatically in the late twentieth century, that it is rarely found outside North America, and that it may reflect role-playing by people who are vulnerable to therapists' suggestions. Others view this disorder as a manifestation of feelings of anxiety, or as a response learned when behaviors are reinforced by anxiety-reduction.
Which of the following is the diagnosis given to people with multiple personalities? Schizophrenia Antisocial personality disorder Fugue state Conversion disorder Dissociative identity disorder
Dissociative identity disorder
A psychotherapist who uses a blend of therapies is practicing what kind of approach? Eclectic Psychodynamic Cognitive Cognitive-behavioral Humanistic
Eclectic
Which of these drugs, which acts as both a stimulant and a hallucinogen, can also cause dangerous dehydration? - LSD - Ecstasy - Alcohol - Cocaine - Caffeine
Ecstasy
How are brain stimulation and psychosurgery used in treating specific disorders?
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient, is an effective treatment for severely depressed people who have not responded to other therapy. Newer alternative treatments for depression include repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and, in preliminary clinical experiments, deep-brain stimulation that calms an overactive brain region linked with negative emotions. Psychosurgery removes or destroys brain tissue in hopes of modifying behavior. Radical psychosurgical procedures such as the lobotomy were once popular, but neurosurgeons now rarely perform brain surgery to change behavior or moods. Brain surgery is a last-resort treatment because its effects are irreversible.
The effects of opiates are similar to the effects of which neurotransmitter? - Barbiturates - Endorphins - Tranquilizers - Nembutal - Acetylcholine
Endorphins
What's an example of sensory adaptation?
Entering your neighbors' living room, you smell a musty odor. You wonder how they can stand it, but within minutes you no longer notice it. When we are constantly exposed to a stimulus that does not change, we become less aware of it because our nerve cells fire less frequently.
Which of the following is true? -- Those born during winter and spring are less likely to develop schizophrenia later in life. People born in densely populated areas are less likely to develop schizophrenia later in life. Fetuses exposed to flu virus are more likely to develop schizophrenia later in life. Maternal influenza during pregnancy does not affect brain development in monkeys. The retrovirus HERV is found more often in people who do not develop schizophrenia.
Fetuses exposed to flu virus are more likely to develop schizophrenia later in life
How did Freud think people defend themselves against anxiety?
For Freud, anxiety was the product of tensions between the demands of the id and superego. The ego copes by using unconscious defense mechanisms, such as repression, which he viewed as the basic mechanism underlying and enabling all the others.
Which of the following represents Freud's Oedipus complex? -- Yutao has begun to suffer from the same recurrent nightmares he had as a child. Madeline manifests repressed anxiety because of guilt she experienced when she disappointed her parents during toilet training. Five-year-old Anagha is taking on many of her mother's values through a process of identification. Four-year-old Carlos is experiencing unconscious sexual desire for his mother and unconscious hatred for his father. Elle has begun to overeat and smoke cigarettes as a college student, indicating a degree of oral fixation.
Four-year-old Carlos is experiencing unconscious sexual desire for his mother and unconscious hatred for his father.
What was Freud's view of personality?
Freud believed that personality results from conflict arising from the interaction among the mind's three systems: the id (pleasure-seeking impulses), ego (reality-oriented executive), and superego (internalized set of ideals, or conscience).
mirror neurons
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy.
Which of the following is a primary sex characteristic that changes at puberty? -- A growth spurt in height, especially for boys Development of breasts for girls Full development of external genitalia in both sexes Facial hair and deepened voice for boys Appearance of pubic and underarm hair in both sexes
Full development of external genitalia in both sexes
Which neurotransmitter inhibits CNS activity in order to calm a person down during stressful situations? GABA Norepinephrine Acetylcholine Dopamine Serotonin
GABA
What are hallucinogens, and what are their effects?
Hallucinogens—such as LSD and marijuana—distort perceptions and evoke hallucinations—sensory images in the absence of sensory input. The user's mood and expectations influence the effects of LSD, but common experiences are hallucinations and emotions varying from euphoria to panic. Marijuana's main ingredient, THC, may trigger feelings of disinhibition, euphoria, relaxation, relief from pain, and intense sensitivity to sensory stimuli. It may also increase feelings of depression or anxiety, impair motor coordination and reaction time, disrupt memory formation, and damage lung tissue (because of the inhaled smoke).
According to research, which type of aggression is more common among males than females? Harmful physical aggression Indirect nonphysical aggression Verbal aggression Ostracism Spreading rumors
Harmful physical aggression
how does humanistic therapy differ from psychoanalytic therapy
Humanistic therapy aims to boost people's self-fulfillment by helping them grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance. Promoting this growth, not curing illness, is the focus of therapy. Thus, those in therapy became "clients" or just "persons" rather than "patients" (a change many other therapists have adopted). The path to growth is taking immediate responsibility for one's feelings and actions, rather than uncovering hidden determinants. Conscious thoughts are more important than the unconscious. The present and future are more important than the past. The goal is to explore feelings as they occur, rather than achieve insights into the childhood origins of the feelings.
Which of the following characterizes the "low road" neural pathway to emotions? Information travels directly from the thalamus to the amygdala. The emotion results more slowly than it would via the "high road." It is an example of top-down processing. It is more likely to be utilized for complex feelings. It passes through the brain's cortex.
Information travels directly from the thalamus to the amygdala.
a woman had been pondering a problem for days and was about to give up when, suddenly, the solution came to her. Her experience can be best described as what? Cognitive mapping Insight Operant conditioning Classical conditioning Unconscious associative learning
Insight
Who conducted a famous study of high IQ children? Lewis Terman David Wechsler Robert Sternberg Howard Gardner Alfred Binet
Lewis Terman
Counselors
Marriage and family counselors specialize in problems arising from family relations. Clergy provide counseling to countless people. Abuse counselors work with substance abusers and with spouse and child abusers and their victims. Mental health and other counselors may be required to have a two-year master's degree.
Who identified secure and insecure attachment? Sigmund Freud Konrad Lorenz Jean Piaget Mary Ainsworth Jerome Kagan
Mary Ainsworth
Intelligence
Mental quality consisting of the ability to learn from experience, solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations a concept and not a "thing" and is a socially constructed concept In research, intelligence is whatever the intelligence test measures. This tends to be "school smarts"
illusions
Misinterpreting sensory stimuli
Which of the following processes is the best term for explaining how we learn languages? Biofeedback Discrimination Modeling Insight Creativity
Modeling
What is molecular genetics? Why is it important to the study of human behavior?
Molecular genetics is the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes. It is important because scientists are curious whether or not genes can influence behavior. They want to find genes that put people at risk for genetically influenced disorders.
If you are trying to maintain a healthy balance between connecting with others online and a real-world perspective, which of the following suggestions should you follow? Monitor your feelings. Dismiss the notion of logging online time. Interact often with your more distracting online friends. Decrease physical activity. Try a social networking marathon.
Monitor your feelings.
Which of the following is the best synonym for social learning? Observational learning Modeling Mirror neuron imitation Prosocial model Imitation
Observational learning
A person troubled by repetitive thoughts or actions is most likely experiencing which of the following? Generalized anxiety disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder Panic disorder Obsessive-compulsive disorder Fear conditioning
Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Psychogenic Amnesia
Occurs when a person blocks out certain info, usually associated w/a stressful or traumatic event, leaving him or her unable to remember important personal info w/this disorder, the degree of memory loss goes beyond normal forgetfulness and includes gaps in memory for long period of time or of memories involving the traumatic event Not the same as amnesia, which involves a loss of info from the memory, usually as the result of disease or injury to the brain Memories still exist but are deeply buried w/in the person's mind and cannot be recalled - Memories might resurface on their own after being triggered in the person's surroundings
How do we sense touch?
Our sense of touch is actually several senses—pressure, warmth, cold, and pain—that combine to produce other sensations, such as "hot."
Dissociative Fugue
People w/this disorder temporarily lose their sense of personal identity and impulsively wander or travel away from their homes or places of work Often become confused about who they are and might even create new identities Show no signs of illness, such as a strange appearance or off behavior A fugue in progress often is difficult for others to recognize b/c the person's outward behavior appears normal Symptoms may include: - Sudden and unplanned travel away from home - Inability to recall past event or important info from person's life - Confusion or loss of memory about identity & possibly assuming a new identity to make up for the loss
To what extent is intelligence related to neural processing speed?
People who score high on intelligence tests tend also to have agile brains and score high in speed of perception and speed of neural processing. The direction of correlation has not been determined, and some third factor may influence both intelligence and processing speed.
According to research, which of the following has been identified as an early warning sign of schizophrenia? Emotional predictability Poor peer relations and solo play Long attention span Good muscle coordination High birth weight
Poor peer relations and solo play
According to Lawrence Kohlberg, what stage of moral development is exhibited when actions are judged "right" because they flow from basic ethical principles? Postconventional Preconventional Conventional Preoperational Formal operational
Postconventional
what are projective tests, how are they used, and what are some criticisms of them?
Projective tests attempt to assess personality by showing people vague stimuli with many possible interpretations; answers reveal unconscious motives. One such test, the Rorschach inkblot test, has low reliability and validity.
What do psychodynamic therapists call the blocking of anxiety-laden material from the conscious? Resistance Interpretation Transference Face-to-face therapy Interpersonal psychotherapy
Resistance
What do we call behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus? Respondent behavior Operant behavior Extinguished behavior Biofeedback conditioning Skinnerian conditioning
Respondent behavior
Scott Lilienfeld, James Wood, and Howard Garb (2001) wrote, "When a substantial body of research demonstrates that old intuitions are wrong, it is time to adopt new ways of thinking." What were they talking about? MRI test Rorschach inkblot test Freud's work on the id and ego Psychodynamic theories Modern views of the unconscious
Rorschach inkblot test
What patterns of thinking, perceiving, and feeling characterize schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia is a disorder that typically strikes during late adolescence, affects men slightly more than women, and seems to occur in all cultures. Symptoms are disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and diminished or inappropriate emotions. Delusions are false beliefs; hallucinations are sensory experiences without sensory stimulation.
How do chronic and acute schizophrenia differ?
Schizophrenia symptoms may be positive (the presence of inappropriate behaviors) or negative (the absence of appropriate behaviors). In chronic (or process) schizophrenia, the disorder develops gradually and recovery is doubtful. In acute (or reactive) schizophrenia, the onset is sudden, in reaction to stress, and the prospects for recovery are brighter.
What are sensation and perception? What do we mean by bottom-up processing and top-down processing?
Sensation is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment. Perception is the process of organizing and interpreting this information, enabling recognition of meaningful events. Sensation and perception are actually parts of one continuous process. Bottom-up processing is sensory analysis that begins at the entry level, with information flowing from the sensory receptors to the brain. Top-down processing is information processing guided by high-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions by filtering information through our experience and expectations.
Which of the following is true based on "Big Five" personality traits research? Highly conscientious people are likely to be evening people or "owls." Highly conscientious people get poor grades. Married partners scoring the same on agreeableness are more likely to experience marital dissatisfaction. Shy introverts are more likely to prefer communicating through e-mail instead of in person. Neuroticism predicts the use of positive-emotion words in text messages.
Shy introverts are more likely to prefer communicating through e-mail instead of in person.
What are somatic symptom and related disorders?
Somatic symptom disorder presents a somatic (bodily) symptom—some physiologically unexplained but genuinely felt ailment. With conversion disorder (also called functional neurological symptom disorder), anxiety appears converted to a physical symptom that has no reasonable neurological basis. The more common illness anxiety disorder is the interpretation of normal sensations as a dreaded disorder.
Which of the following statements is false? -- Many behavioral and cognitive changes accompany depression. Someone suffering from depression will get better only with therapy or medication. Compared with men, women are nearly twice as vulnerable to major depression. Stressful events related to work, marriage, and close relationships often precede depression. With each new generation, depression is striking earlier and affecting more people.
Someone suffering from depression will get better only with therapy or medication.
What does evidence reveal about environmental influences on intelligence?
Studies of twins, family members, and adoptees also provide evidence of environmental influences. Test scores of identical twins raised apart are slightly less similar (though still very highly correlated) than the scores of identical twins raised together. Studies of children raised in extremely impoverished environments with minimal social interaction indicate that life experiences can significantly influence intelligence test performance. No evidence supports the idea that normal, healthy children can be molded into geniuses by growing up in an exceptionally enriched environment.
What is the energy that we see as visible light, and how does the eye transform light energy into neural messages?
The hue we perceive in light depends on its wavelength, and its brightness depends on its intensity. After entering the eye and being focused by the lens, light energy particles (from a thin slice of the broad spectrum of electromagnetic energy) strike the eye's inner surface, the retina. The retina's light-sensitive rods and color-sensitive cones convert the light energy into neural impulses.
What did Robert Rescorla and Allan Wagner's experiments establish? That the acquisition of a CR depends on pairing the CS and the US That different species respond differently to classical conditioning situations The current belief that classical conditioning is really a form of operant conditioning That mirror neurons form the biological basis of classical conditioning The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning
The importance of cognitive factors in classical conditioning
How do the medical model and the biopsychosocial approach understand psychological disorders?
The medical model assumes that psychological disorders are mental illnesses with physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured through therapy, sometimes in a hospital. The biopsychosocial approach assumes that three sets of influences—biological (evolution, genetics, brain structure and chemistry), psychological (stress, trauma, learned helplessness, mood-related perceptions and memories), and social-cultural (roles, expectations, definitions of "normality" and "disorder")—interact to produce specific psychological disorders.
Explain the arguments that state hypnosis is a social phenomenon.
The more that a person trusts the hypnotist, the more they allow that person to direct their attention and fantasies. The hypnotists ideas become the subject's thoughts and the subject's thoughts produce the hypnotic experiences and behaviors. If an experimenter eliminates a subject's motivation to be hypnotized by saying that hypnosis reveals their gullibility, subjects become unresponsive. These experiments, support the idea that hypnotic phenomena are an extension of normal social and cognitive processes.
If the retina receives upside-down images, how do we see the world right side up?
The retina doesn't "see" a whole image. Rather, its millions of receptor cells convert particles of light energy into neural impulses and forward those to the brain. There, the impulses are reassembled into a perceived, upright-seeming image.
Flynn effect
The rise in average IQ scores that has occurred over the decades in many nations
persistence
The unwanted recurrence of memories of a traumatic event.
attributional style
The way a person typically explains the things that happen in his or her life optimism vs. pessimism
Compared with rats raised in an enriched environment, which of the following is true of rats raised in isolation? -- Their brain cortex is less developed. Though neurologically similar, they fear other rats. Their brains have more connections. They have a thicker brain cortex. The differences between the two groups are not statistically significant.
Their brain cortex is less developed.
Which of the following is the best phrase for a bond of trust and mutual understanding between a therapist and client who are working to overcome the client's problem? Therapeutic alliance EMDR Evidence-based practice Meta-analysis Outcome research
Therapeutic alliance
defensive self-esteem
This type of self-esteem focuses on sustaining itself, which makes failure and criticism feel threatening. It correlates with aggressive and antisocial behavior.
What is one of the principal functions of mirror neurons? To allow an organism to replace an unconditioned response with a conditioned response To help produce intrinsic motivation in some children To be the mechanism by which the brain accomplishes observational learning To produce the neural associations that are the basis of both classical and operant conditioning To explain why modeling prosocial behavior is more effective than modeling negative behavior
To be the mechanism by which the brain accomplishes observational learning
How do individualist and collectivist cultures influence people?
Within any culture, the degree of individualism or collectivism varies from person to person. Cultures based on self-reliant individualism, like those found in North America and Western Europe, tend to value personal independence and individual achievement. They define identity in terms of self-esteem, personal goals and attributes, and personal rights and liberties. Cultures based on socially connected collectivism, like those in many parts of Asia and Africa, tend to value interdependence, tradition, and harmony, and they define identity in terms of group goals, commitments, and belonging to one's group
dreams
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
gender schema
a set of behaviors organized around how either a male or female should think and behave form early in life
generatitivity
according to Erikson, the ability to create, originate, and produce throughout adulthood - being productive and supporting future generations
Ebbinghaus' Retention Curve
as rehearsal increases, relearning time decreases
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience - includes rapid development of cerebellum: readiness to learn walking at age 1
Guillian-Barre Syndrome
body paralysis
top-down processing (pain)
brain anticipates pain, body feels expected pain
Neural networks grow more complex by -- branching outward to form multiple connections. keeping the nervous system immature. controlling one another with a restricted response system. limiting connections. associating behaviors that would not normally be associated together.
branching outward to form multiple connections.
Binge-Eating Disorder
characterized by binge eating episodes followed by distress, disgust, or guilt, but without purging, fasting, or excessive exercise that is Bulimia.
hormones
chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and circulated in blood; slower communication system; influences interest in sex, food, aggression
smell
chemical sense processed near the prefrontal cortex throughout the olfactory bulb before its sent along
long nerve fibers
conduct most other sensory info; close the gate
collectivist
culture whose members focus more on the needs of the group and less on individual desires
Heritability relates to the -- percentage of a person's intelligence that is due to environmental influences. percentage of a person's intelligence that is due to genetics. correlation of intelligence test scores among family members. extent to which variability among individuals' intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic variation. genetic stability of intelligence over time.
extent to which variability among individuals' intelligence scores can be attributed to genetic variation.
bipolar cells
eye neurons that receive information from the retinal cells and distribute information to the ganglion cells
change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment around us
MRI
magnetic resonance imaging magnets/radiowaves see structure of soft tissue provides more detailed images of the human body than x-rays shows brain anatomy
reaction formation
make unacceptable impulses into their opposite, acceptable form ex) you dislike your psych teacher but tell everyone how much you love them or you really like another person but pretend to hate them Freud: using reaction formation to hide true feelings by behaving in the exact opposite way
Recent research about brain size and function suggests that -- the occipital lobe is more active when people are thinking about questions on intelligence tests. people who are smarter use less energy when solving problems. there is no correlation between processing speed and IQ scores. people with larger brains are always smarter than those with smaller brains. subjects with larger parietal lobes tended to process information more slowly.
people who are smarter use less energy when solving problems.
Supertasters
people with heightened sensitivity to taste - they have an abundance of taste receptors - appx. 25% of the population - less likely to become alcoholics
personality disorders
psychological disorders characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning.
Robert McCrae
psychologist associated with the five-factor model of personality, worked with Paul Costa
basic research
pure research that aims to confirm an existing theory or to learn more about a concept or phenomenon
back-to-sleep position
putting babies to sleep on their backs to reduce the risk of a smothering crib death
Evolutionary perspective
qualities have evolved through natural selection that have helped humans adapt combines aspects of biological, psychological, and social perspectives
Howard Gardner found evidence of multiple intelligences in individuals who scored low on intelligence but had an area of exceptional ability—for example, to make complex calculations. These people have the Flynn effect. savant syndrome. advanced mental age. Wechsler syndrome. intelligence heritability.
savant syndrome.
emotions are a mix of consciously experienced thoughts, expressive behaviors, and physiological arousal. Which theory emphasized the importance of consciously experienced thoughts? Facial feedback theory James-Lange theory Arousal and performance theory Fight-or-flight theory Schachter-Singer two-factor theory
schachter-Singer two-factor theory
In general, males score higher than females on tests of spelling. verbal fluency. emotion detection. spatial ability. sensitivity to touch, taste, and odor.
spatial ability.
Theory: Gardner's multiple intelligences
summary: Our abilities are best classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a broad range of skills beyond traditional school smarts. strengths: Intelligence is more than just verbal and mathematical skills. Other abilities are equally important to our human adaptability. other considerations: Should all of our abilities be considered intelligences? Shouldn't some be called talents?
self-control
the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards
gender typing
the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role
Maslows thoughts on free will
we are in complete control
Ethnic Similarities and Differences
- Racial groups differ - High level achievement comes from high level of education - Difference in race is largely based on environmental factors
Beck's Basics
Aaron Beck suggests that depression is a result of negative thinking which he called cognitive errors (errors in logic) Identified 3 negative thoughts that seemed to be automatic and occured w/o delay in depressed patients Cognitive triad: - Self - External world - Future Believes faulty thinking leads to depression
cyber ostracism
Banishment or exclusion in a virtual environment such as the Internet
How, by taking care of themselves with a healthy lifestyle, might people find some relief from depression, and how does this reflect our being biopsychosocial systems?
Depressed people who undergo a program of aerobic exercise, adequate sleep, light exposure, social engagement, negative-thought reduction, and better nutrition often gain some relief. In our integrated biopsychosocial system, stress affects our body chemistry and health; chemical imbalances can produce depression; and social support and other lifestyle changes can lead to relief of symptoms.
Which of the following is most effectively treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)? Psychosis Schizophrenia Obsessive-compulsive disorder Depression Generalized anxiety disorder
Depression
How do parents and peers influence adolescents?
During adolescence, parental influence diminishes and peer influence increases. Adolescents adopt their peers' ways of dressing, acting, and communicating. Parents have more influence in religion, politics, and college and career choices.
What do we call a mental predisposition that influences our interpretation of a stimulus? - A context effect - Perceptual set - Extrasensory perception - Emotion - Motivation
Extrasensory perception (ESP)
ganglion cells
In the retina, the specialized neurons that connect to the bipolar cells; the bundled axons of the ganglion cells form the optic nerve.
Which of the following dream theories states that dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories? - Information-processing - Wish-fulfillment - Physiological function - Neural activation - Neural disconnection
Information-processing
Which of the following sleep theories emphasizes sleep's role in restoring and repairing brain tissue? - Memory - Protection - Growth - Recuperation - Creativity
Recuperation
How do Gardner's and Sternberg's theories of multiple intelligences differ?
Savant syndrome seems to support Howard Gardner's view that we have multiple intelligences. He proposed eight independent intelligences: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal, interpersonal, and naturalist. Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory proposes three intelligence areas that predict real-world skills: analytical (academic problem solving), creative, and practical.
How do children's self-concepts develop?
Self-concept, an understanding and evaluation of who we are, emerges gradually. At 15 to 18 months, children recognize themselves in a mirror. By school age, they can describe many of their own traits, and by ages 8 to 10 their self-image is stable.
Which ability is a good predictor of good adjustment, better grades, and social success? Self-control Locus of control Problem-focused coping Learned helplessness Emotion-focused coping
Self-control
psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. Freud believed the patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight.
deficiency orientation
a preoccupation with perceived needs for things a person does not have
psychosis
a psychological disorder in which a person loses contact with reality, experiencing irrational ideas and distorted perceptions.
terror management theory
a theory of death-related anxiety; explores people's emotional and behavioral responses to reminders of their impending death
respondant behavior
behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus
influences on drug use
biological, psychological, social-cultural
When there is a negative charge inside an axon and a positive charge outside it, the neuron is a. in the process of reuptake. b. not in the refractory period. c. said to have a resting potential. d. said to have an action potential. e. depolarizing.
c. said to have a resting potential.
Which of the following scanning techniques measures glucose consumption as an indicator of brain activity? a. CT b. MRI c. fMRI d. PET e. EEG
d. PET
What occurs when experiences influence our interpretation of data? a. Selective attention b. Transduction c. Bottom-up processing d. Top-down processing e. Signal detection theory
d. Top-down processing
dissociative disorders
disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings.
displacement
divert sexual or aggressive impulses to a more acceptable person or object Rather than express our anger in ways that could lead to negative consequences, we instead express our anger towards a person or object that poses no threat ex) Supervisor gets angry at you, and then you become angry at your wife at home
sensory cortex (touch)
divided by body part more cortex = more sensitivity - brain tuned to be more sensitive to unexpected stimulation women more sensitive to touch than men
Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase energy and are released by the a. thyroid glands b. pituitary gland c. hypothalamus d. thalamus e. adrenal glands
e. adrenal glands
Agoraphobia
ear of situations the person views as difficult to escape from Fear of leaving one's home or room in the house
frontal lobe
enables advanced cognitive abilities (planning, judgement, emotion, consciousness)
operant chamber
in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking.
Reliability
measurement consistency
Linear perspective
method of determining depth by noting that parallel lines appear to converge in the distance
telepathy
mind to mind communication
moral intuition
quick gut feelings that precede moral reasoning
An 18-month-old typically recognizes herself in a mirror. This self-awareness contributes to self-assurance. self-concept. self-esteem. self-actualization. self-determination.
self-concept
peripheral nervous system
sensory and motor nerves that connect CNS to the rest of the body; subdivided into somatic and autonomic systems
2 types of nerve fibers in the spinal cord
short and long
clinical psychology
studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological (mental, emotional, behavioral) disorders
Neurotransmitters cross the ________ to carry information to the next neuron. synaptic gap axon myelin sheath dendrites cell body
synaptic gap
set point
the point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set When the body falls below this weight, increased hunger and a lower basal metabolic rate (BMR) may act to restore the lost weight BMR: body's resting rate of energy expenditure
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there brain fills in missing info so that there is no awareness that the visual field is incomplete
Y chromosome
the sex chromosome found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.
drug withdrawal
upon stop taking a drug (after addiction) users may experience undesirable effects of withdrawal discomfort & distress
what are the 5 ways to examine the brain?
EEG CAT scan PET scan MRI fMRI
temperatment
a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity
Habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
William James
attempted to study the function of consciousness
neurons
building blocks of our nervous system
Action Potential
electrical charge "on switch" for neuron
Psychoanalytic techniques
free association, analysis of transference, interpretation
identical twins
one zygote that splits genetic relatedness = 100%
what can lesioning reveal about the brain?
reveals the general effects of brain damage
Alfred Binet (Colleague Theodore Simon)
wants to know a child's mental age Varied reasoning and problem solving questions that might predict school achievement Made no assumptions about children being slow, etc.
What median of the following distribution 6, 2, 9, 4, 7, 3 A) 4 B) 5 C) 5. 5 D) 6 E) 6. 5
B) 5
What does IRB stand for and what do they do?
Institutional Review Board: decides/gives permission to do their research; want to prevent harm of humans
debreifing
a verbal description of the true nature and purpose of a study as well as the results
Gesalt Psychology
emphasizes tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes (the whole is greater and different than the sum of its parts)
Biological perspective
the psychological perspective that emphasizes the influence of physical structures/substances (biology) on behavior, thoughts, and emotions
EMDR Therapy
(eye movement desensitization and reprocessing): therapist attempts to unlock and reprocess previous frozen traumatic memories by waving a finger in front of the eyes of the client Has not held up under scientific testing
Alcohol
- in LOW doses: relaxes drinker by slowing down the sympathetic nervous system (lowering inhibitions and judgments) -in HIGH doses: reactions slow, speech slurs, and skilled performance deteriorates -Also affects memory by disrupting the processing of recent events into long-term memory, reduces self-awareness, and focuses one's attention on immediate situation rather than future consequences In short: - slowed neural processing - memory disruption - reduced self awareness/control - expectancy effects
therapy study w/Massachusetts boys
500 Massachusetts boys, aged 5 to 13 years half the boys were assigned to a 5-year treatment program. The treated boys were visited by counselors twice a month. They participated in community programs, and they received academic tutoring, medical attention, and family assistance as needed. ---- Client testimonials yielded encouraging results, even glowing reports. Some men noted that, had it not been for their counselors, "I would probably be in jail." - Even among the "difficult" boys in the treatment group, 66 percent had no official juvenile crime record. --- For every boy in the treatment group, there was a similar boy in a control group, receiving no counseling. Of these untreated men, 70 percent had no juvenile record. On several other measures, such as a record of having committed a second crime, alcohol use disorder, death rate, and job satisfaction, the untreated men exhibited slightly fewer problems. --- *The glowing testimonials of those treated had been unintentionally deceiving.
Which of the following is likely to result from the release of oxytocin? A fight-or-flight response A tend-and-befriend response Social isolation Elevated hunger Exhaustion
A tend-and-befriend response
animal magnetism
A term coined by F.A. Mesmer to refer to a putative force or fluid capable of being transmitted from one person to another, producing healing effects. See also Mesmerism. (hypnosis)
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
A widely used personality test based on Jungian types.
Once a sperm penetrates the cell wall of an egg and fertilizes it, this structure is known as what? An embryo A fetus Placenta A teratogen A zygote
A zygote
Which of the following is true of the mental similarities between adoptive children and their adoptive parents as they age? -- Adoptive children become much more similar to their adoptive families over time. Adoptive children become slightly more similar to their adoptive families over time. There is hardly any similarity, either when the adoptive children are young or when they are older. Adoptive children become slightly less similar to their adoptive families over time. Adoptive children become much less similar to their adoptive families over time.
Adoptive children become much less similar to their adoptive families over time.
What themes and influences mark our social journey from early adulthood to death?
Adults do not progress through an orderly sequence of age-related social stages. Chance events can determine life choices. The social clock is a culture's preferred timing for social events, such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement. Adulthood's dominant themes are love and work, which Erikson called intimacy and generativity.
Which of the following is best described along a continuum ranging from ruthless and suspicious to helpful and trusting? Conscientiousness Agreeableness Openness Extraversion Perfectionism
Agreeableness
Who first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, and how do social-cognitive theorists view personality development?
Albert Bandura first proposed the social-cognitive perspective, which views personality as the product of the interaction between a person's traits (including thinking) and the situation—the social context. The behavioral approach contributes an understanding that our personality development is affected by learned responses. Social-cognitive researchers apply principles of learning, as well as cognition and social behavior, to personality. Reciprocal determinism is a term describing the interaction and mutual influence of behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental factors. Research on how we interact with our environment evolved into research on the effects of optimism and pessimism, which led to a broader positive psychology.
Slowed reactions, slurred speech, and decreased skill performance are associated with abuse of which drug? - Nicotine - Methamphetamine - Caffeine - Alcohol - Ecstasy
Alcohol
Which of the following identifies the parenting style most likely to ground a teen who had missed a curfew—and to explain the rationale for doing so, after considering the teen's reasons? Authoritative Authoritarian Permissive Secure attachment Insecure attachment
Authoritative
What three elements are shared by all forms of psychotherapy?
All psychotherapies offer new hope for demoralized people; a fresh perspective; and (if the therapist is effective) an empathic, trusting, and caring relationship. The emotional bond of trust and understanding between therapist and client—the therapeutic alliance—is an important element in effective therapy.
humanistic theory
An explanation of behavior that emphasizes the entirety of life rather than individual components of behavior and focuses on human dignity, individual choice, and self-worth emphasizes that individuals control their own behavior. View human nature in a more positive light - we are all good. proposed by Maslow and carl rogers
What are the different anxiety disorders?
Anxious feelings and behaviors are classified as an anxiety disorder only when they form a pattern of distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. People with generalized anxiety disorder feel persistently and uncontrollably tense and apprehensive, for no apparent reason. In the more extreme panic disorder, anxiety escalates into periodic episodes of intense dread. Those with a phobia may be irrationally afraid of a specific object, activity, or situation. Two other disorders (obsessive-compulsive disorder and posttraumatic stress disorder) involve anxiety (though they are classified separately from the anxiety disorders).
How do early experiences modify the brain?
As a child's brain develops, neural connections grow more numerous and complex. Experiences then trigger a pruning process, in which unused connections weaken and heavily used ones strengthen. Early childhood is an important period for shaping the brain, but throughout our lives our brain modifies itself in response to our learning.
CT/CAT scan
computed tomography x-rays create 3D image which provides a nice view of tissue and denser bone structures can reveal brain damage
B.F. Skinner
Believed that organisms tent to repeat responses that lead to positive outcomes organisms tend not to repeat responses that led to neutral or negative outcomes rewards => reinforcements
What are the basic themes of humanistic therapy, and what are the specific goals and techniques of Rogers' client-centered approach?
Both psychoanalytic and humanistic therapies are insight therapies—they attempt to improve functioning by increasing clients' awareness of motives and defenses. Humanistic therapy's goals have included helping clients grow in self-awareness and self-acceptance; promoting personal growth rather than curing illness; helping clients take responsibility for their own growth; focusing on conscious thoughts rather than unconscious motivations; and seeing the present and future as more important than the past. Carl Rogers' client-centered therapy proposed that therapists' most important contributions are to function as a psychological mirror through active listening and to provide a growth-fostering environment of unconditional positive regard, characterized by genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.
Which of the following is true of boys compared with girls? Boys have a higher average intelligence score. Boys are better spellers than girls. Boys are better at detecting emotions. Boys are more verbally fluent. Boys are more likely to have extremely low intelligence scores.
Boys are more likely to have extremely low intelligence scores.
Stages of Ethic of Care
Carol Gilligan - Her work questions the male-centered personality psychology of Freud and Erikson, as well as Kohlberg's male-centered stages of moral development. She proposed the following stage theory of the moral development of women: 1. Orientation to individual survival - first transition: selfishness to responsibility (connection and responsibility to others) 2. Goodness and self sacrifice (reliance on others, social acceptance) - 2nd transition: goodness to truth (questioning comparative value of self vs others) 3. Morality of nonviolence (heightened understanding of choice between own needs and care for others; do not harm others or self
What are the arguments for and against considering intelligence as one general mental ability?
Charles Spearman proposed that we have one general intelligence (g). He helped develop factor analysis, a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related mental abilities. L. L. Thurstone disagreed and identified seven different clusters of mental abilities. Yet a tendency remained for high scorers in one cluster to score high in other clusters. Studies indicate that g scores are most predictive in novel situations and do not much correlate with skills in evolutionarily familiar situations.
What did Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiments demonstrate? Children are likely to imitate the behavior of adults. There may be a negative correlation between televised violence and aggressive behavior. Children are more likely to copy what adults say than what adults do. Allowing children to watch too much television is detrimental to their development. Observational learning can explain the development of fears in children.
Children are likely to imitate the behavior of adults.
Does childhood neglect, abuse, or family disruption affect children's attachments?
Children are very resilient, but those who are moved repeatedly, severely neglected by their parents, or otherwise prevented from forming attachments by an early age may be at risk for attachment problems.
How has modern research developed our understanding of the unconscious?
Current research confirms that we do not have full access to all that goes on in our mind, but the current view of the unconscious is not that of a hidden storehouse filled with repressed feelings and thoughts. Researchers see the unconscious as a separate and parallel track of information processing that occurs outside our awareness, such as schemas that control our perceptions; priming; implicit memories of learned skills; instantly activated emotions; self-concepts and stereotypes that filter information about ourselves and others; and mechanisms that defend our self-esteem and deter anxiety, such as the false consensus effect/projection and terror management.
Explain how biology and experience interact in our sleep patterns.
Distractions such as smartphones, TVs, late shifts at work, and modern lighting can keep people up at night and make them sleep less overall. Artificial lighting can disrupt circadian rhythms, our biological clock is used to waking up with sun and sleeping with the sun. Light can delay sleep.
Why would we not eat?
Exert control Lose weight Make a political statement No access to food
What do we call it when the CR decreases as the CS is repeatedly presented alone? Generalization Discrimination Spontaneous recovery Extinction Acquisition
Extinction
Which of the following expressions about nonverbal expression is true? People blind from birth do not usually exhibit common facial expressions. The meaning of gestures is the same across cultures. Facial signs of emotion are generally understood across world cultures. People from different cultures have difficulty understanding nonverbal expressions. Nonverbal expression is not reliably interpreted within a culture.
Facial signs of emotion are generally understood across world cultures
Which of the following is the longest prenatal stage? Teratogen Conception Zygote Embryo Fetus
Fetus
According to Erikson, which of the following is a dominant goal of adulthood? Competence Generativity Performance Identity Connectedness
Generativity
According to Erikson, what is the primary developmental task for adolescents? Trust versus mistrust Initiative versus guilt Competence versus inferiority Identity versus role confusion Intimacy versus isolation
Identity versus role confusion
A question on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) such as "I get angry sometimes" is included to determine what about the test-taker? -- Whether the person has a personality disorder. If the person needs immediate help for anger management. If the person is more extraverted than introverted. Whether the person has a stronger id or superego. If the person is answering the questions truthfully.
If the person is answering the questions truthfully.
Example of context effects
Imagine hearing a noise interrupted by the words "eel is on the wagon." Likely, you would actually perceive the first word as wheel. Given "eel is on the orange," you would hear peel. This curious phenomenon, discovered by Richard Warren, suggests that the brain can work backward in time to allow a later stimulus to determine how we perceive an earlier one. The context creates an expectation that, top-down, influences our perception
Which of the following disorders do Americans report most frequently? -- Schizophrenia Mood disorders Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
Mood disorders
What are mood disorders? How does major depressive disorder differ from bipolar disorder?
Mood disorders are characterized by emotional extremes. A person with major depressive disorder experiences two or more weeks of seriously depressed moods and feelings of worthlessness, and takes little interest in, and derives little pleasure from, most activities. A person with the less common condition of bipolar disorder experiences not only depression but also mania—episodes of hyperactive and wildly optimistic, impulsive behavior.
Attempts to control social behavior by using the punishing effects of isolation is an example of attachment disorder. ostracism. exploitation. wanting to belong. conforming.
Ostracism
How can we best understand and control pain?
Pain reflects bottom-up sensations (such as input from nociceptors, the sensory receptors that detect hurtful temperatures, pressure, or chemicals) and top-down processes (such as experience, attention, and culture). One theory of pain is that a "gate" in the spinal cord either opens to permit pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers to reach the brain, or closes to prevent their passage. The biopsychosocial perspective views our perception of pain as the sum of biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences. Pain treatments often combine physical and psychological elements, including placebos and distractions.
Recent research most consistently supports the effectiveness of hypnosis in which of the following areas? - Pain relief - Recovery of lost memories - Reduction of sleep deprivation - Forcing people to act against their will - Cessation of smoking
Pain relief
Which of the following processes would produce the acquisition of a conditioned response? Repeatedly present an unconditioned response Administer the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus Make sure that the conditioned stimulus comes at least one minute before the unconditioned stimulus Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus several times Present the conditioned stimulus until it starts to produce an unconditioned response
Pair a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus several times
Explain how perceptual constancies help us organize our sensations into meaningful perceptions. (short answer)
Perceptual constancy enables us to perceive objects as stable despite the changing image they cast on our retinas. Color constancy is our ability to perceive consistent color in objects, even though the lighting and wavelengths shift. Brightness (or lightness) constancy is our ability to perceive an object as having a constant lightness even when its illumination—the light cast upon it—changes. Our brain constructs our experience of an object's color or brightness through comparisons with other surrounding objects. Shape constancy is our ability to perceive familiar objects (such as an opening door) as unchanging in shape. Size constancy is perceiving objects as unchanging in size despite their changing retinal images. Knowing an object's size gives us clues to its distance; knowing its distance gives clues about its size, but we sometimes misread monocular distance cues and reach the wrong conclusions, as in the Moon illusion.
Which term describes questionnaires that cover a wide range of feelings and behaviors and are designed to assess several traits? Factor analysis studies Peer reports Achievement tests Cognition tests Personality inventories
Personality inventories
Why do we eat?
Physiological need: our bodies need nourishment to relieve hunger Psychological need: feel comforted, socialize, relieve boredom
What theories help us understand pitch perception?
Place theory explains how we hear high-pitched sounds, and frequency theory explains how we hear low-pitched sounds. (A combination of the two theories (the volley principle) explains how we hear pitches in the middle range.) Place theory proposes that our brain interprets a particular pitch by decoding the place where a sound wave stimulates the cochlea's basilar membrane. Frequency theory proposes that the brain deciphers the frequency of the neural impulses traveling up the auditory nerve to the brain.
Which of the following correctly describes one of Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning? -- Preconventional stage, where one follows moral principles Conventional stage, where individualism is foremost Conventional stage, where it is imperative to uphold the law and follow rules Preconventional stage, where moral judgment depends on rewards and punishments Postconventional stage, where it is imperative to uphold the law and follow rules
Preconventional stage, where one follows moral principles
Junita does not feel like getting out of bed, has lost her appetite, and feels tired for most of the day. Which of the following neurotransmitters likely is in short supply for Junita? Dopamine Serotonin Norephinephrine Acetylcholine Glutamate
Serotonin
Your best friend decides to paint her room an extremely bright electric blue. Which of the following best fits the physical properties of the color's light waves? - No wavelength; large amplitude - Short wavelength; large amplitude - Short wavelength; small amplitude - Long wavelength; large amplitude - No wavelength; small amplitude
Short wavelength; large amplitude
Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: weight
Sleep loss can make you fatter. Sleep deprivation increases ghrelin, a hunger-arousing hormone and decreases leptin which suppresses hunger. It increases cortisol, a stress hormone that stimulates the body to make fat.
What are bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity that occur during NREM-2 sleep? - Hallucinations - Circadian rhythms - Alpha waves - Sleep spindles - Delta waves
Sleep spindles
Sleep: Creative thinking
Sleep theory that states that decision making and creative thinking are improved after sleeping. sleep allows us to solve problems more insightfully
Harry Harlow
Studied attachment in infant rhesus monkeys with artificial mothers Removed newborn monkeys from their mothers at birth & raised them in the lab with 2 types of artificial mothers - ½ fed by wire mother, other ½ fed by cloth mother - Young monkey's attachment measured by the amount of time they spent with each mother - Bodily contact and touch are vital to emotional wellbeing and development - Monkey preferred cloth mother b/c it provided sense of security
What factors affect suicide and self-injury, and what are some of the important warning signs to watch for in suicide-prevention efforts?
Suicide rates differ by nation, race, gender, age group, income, religious involvement, marital status, and (for gay and lesbian youth) social support structure. Those with depression are more at risk for suicide than others are, but social suggestion, health status, and economic and social frustration are also contributing factors. Environmental barriers (such as jump barriers) are effective in preventing suicides. Forewarnings of suicide may include verbal hints, giving away possessions, withdrawal, preoccupation with death, and discussing one's own suicide. Nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI) does not usually lead to suicide but may escalate to suicidal thoughts and acts if untreated. People who engage in NSSI do not tolerate stress well and tend to be self-critical, with poor communication and problem-solving skills.
What does Edward Thorndike's law of effect state? The difference between positive and negative reinforcement That behavior maintained by partial reinforcement is more resistant to extinction than behavior maintained by continuous reinforcement How shaping can be used to establish operant conditioning That rewarded behavior is more likely to happen again The limited effectiveness of punishment
That rewarded behavior is more likely to happen again
How and why do clinicians classify psychological disorders?
The American Psychiatric Association's DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition) contains diagnostic labels and descriptions that provide a common language and shared concepts for communication and research. Some critics believe the DSM editions have become too detailed and extensive.
Critics of behavior modification express two concerns
The first is practical: How durable are the behaviors? Will people become so dependent on extrinsic rewards that the appropriate behaviors will stop when the reinforcers stop? Proponents of behavior modification believe the behaviors will endure if therapists wean patients from the tokens by shifting them toward other, real-life rewards, such as social approval. They also point out that the appropriate behaviors themselves can be intrinsically rewarding The second concern is ethical: Is it right for one human to control another's behavior? Those who set up token economies deprive people of something they desire and decide which behaviors to reinforce. To critics, this whole process has an authoritarian taint. Advocates reply that some patients request the therapy. Moreover, control already exists; rewards and punishers are already maintaining destructive behavior patterns. So why not reinforce adaptive behavior instead? Treatment with positive rewards is more humane than being institutionalized or punished, advocates argue, and the right to effective treatment and an improved life justifies temporary deprivation.
Which of the following describes the idea that psychological disorders can be diagnosed and treated? Taijin-kyofusho The DSM The biopsychosocial approach Amok The medical model
The medical model
X chromosome
The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes; males have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.
Amy was sure everyone noticed how nervous she was when she spoke in front of the entire school, but later no one that she talked to mentioned it. What is the term for the belief that others are always noticing and evaluating us more than they really are? Self-monitoring Self-schemas Possible selves The spotlight effect The social-cognitive perspective
The spotlight effect
How do we sense our body's position and movement?
Through kinesthesia, we sense the position and movement of our body parts. We monitor our body's position and movement, and maintain our balance with our vestibular sense.
McGurk Effect
What we see overrides what we hear influences what we hear such as seeing someone say one syllable while hearing another; we may perceive a third syllable that blends both inputs ex) seeing mouth movements for GA while hearing BA may allow us to perceive DA
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
electroconvulsive therapy
a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient
client-centered therapy
a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathic environment to facilitate clients' growth. (Also called person-centered therapy.)
extinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
Fixed-ratio schedule
a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards a response only after some defined number of correct responses; the faster the subject responds, the more reinforcements they'll receive; speed matters-the faster the rat makes the required amount of responses, the faster it will be fed ex) stores that run a buy 5, get 1 free special
fixed-interval schedule
a partial reinforcement schedule that rewards only the first correct response after some defined period of time ex) a researcher always reinforces a rat's first bar press after 60 sec. After receiving a food pellet for that response, the rat has to wait 60 sec before it'll be reinforced for another correct response Interval (60sec) = fixed; no way the rat can get reinforced during the interval A SPECIFIC TIME HAS TO PASS
midlife transition
a period in middle adulthood when a person's perspective on his or her life may change significantly crisis, time of great struggle, regret, or even feeling struck down by life reassess goals
relative motion
a person who's moving can determine depth by focusing on a distant object -Objects further away than the object of focus will appear to move in the same direction as the subject is moving -Objects closer than the object of focus will appear to move in the opposite direction
antisocial personality disorder
a personality disorder in which a person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. May be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.
Sensation Seeking Scale
a personality inventory to measure the sensation-seeking tendency
projective test
a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics
technique: Rank thoughts and emotions
aim: reveal beliefs therapists' directives: Gain perspective by ranking your thoughts and emotions from mildly to extremely upsetting.
technique: examine consequences
aim: test beliefs therapists' directives: Explore difficult situations, assessing possible consequences and challenging faulty reasoning.
technique: decatastrophize thinking
aim: test beliefs therapists' directives: Work through the actual worst-case consequences of the situation you face (it is often not as bad as imagined). Then determine how to cope with the real situation you face.
Explicit memory
aka "Declarative memory" Refers to facts and experience that one can consciously know and declare Facts we learn, episodes we experience
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Disorders
aka: DSM manual of psychological disorders and their symptoms - classifies mental disorders
TAT test
aka: thematic apperception test a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes assert that a person's responses reveal underlying motives, concerns, and the way they see the social world through stories they make up about ambiguous pictures - Picture interpretation technique
self concept
all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Monocular Parallax
although we can see depth with only one eye it is much more difficult to perceive depth with one eye closed than with both eyes open -Animals with eyes on the sides of their heads (birds) tend to compensate for their lack of depth perception by moving their heads
phobia
an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.
Which of the following represents perceptual constancy? a. We recognize the taste of McDonald's food each time we eat it. b. In photos of people, the people almost always are perceived as figure and everything else as ground. c. We know that the color of a printed page has not changed as it moves from sunlight into shadow d. From the time they are very young, most people can recognize the smell of a dentist's office e. The cold water in a lake doesn't seem so cold after you have been swimming in it for a few minutes
c. We know that the color of a printed page has not changed as it moves from sunlight into shadow
Computer-enhanced X-rays used to create brain images are known as a. position emission tomography scans b. functional magnetic resonance images c. computed tomography scans d. electroencephalograms e. magnetic resonance images
c. computed tomography scans
parasympathetic nervous system
calms the body, brings it to relaxed state
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 [thus, IQ = (ma/ca) x 100]. On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.
standardization
defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group
STAGE 3 and 4:
delta sleep, "slow wave" sleep -may last 15-30 min -slow-wave b/c brain activity slows dramatically -theta rhythm of stage 2--> much slower rhythm called delta (amp of waves increase dramatically) Delta sleep: deepest stage of sleep (REM is not) and the most restorative
Types of research
descriptive, correlational, experimental
amplitude (sound)
determines loudness the physical strength of the sound wave
David Wechsler
developed the Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and later the Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) for preschoolers, developed it because Stanford-Binet was biased towards English speaking people Measure overall intelligence and 11 other aspects related to intellea that are designed to assess clinical and educational problems, verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory most widely used, kinda like common sense questions
Place Theory
different frequencies of sound waves are said to vibrate different places on the cochlea. these places are wired to different parts of the auditory cortex in the brain so that the sound can be processed correctly
Ivan Pavlov
discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell - Classical condition: learning to associate one stimulus to another (stimulus-stimulus learning)
Negative effect of punishment
doesn't prevent the undesirable behavior when away from the Punisher, can lead to fear, anxiety, and lower self-esteem, children who are punished physically may learn to use aggression as a means to solve problems, may explain why abusive parents tend to come from abusive families
Problem solving dream theory
dreams are way to solve problems while sleeping -Rosalind Cartwright: dreamers sort through and accept emotions associated with yesterday's misfortunes -Fiss: dreams help us register subtle hints that go unnoticed during the day Argument against this: most people only remember a small amount of their dreams
information processing theory
dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories you experience that day -REM does increase after stressful events
Barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment aka. Tranquilizers ex) Nembutal, Seconal, Amytal - sometimes prescribed to induce sleep and decrease anxiety - if combined with alcohol, the total depressive effect on the body can be lethal
John B. Watson
founder of behaviorism - little Albert and Generalization
William James
founder of functionalism; studied how humans use perception to function in our environment
somatosensory cortex
front of parietal lobes, registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
Charles Spearman's g refers to general intelligence. grouped intelligence factors. genetic intelligence. generated creativity. generalized reliability.
general intelligence.
parietal lobe
general processing, sensory info, body position "association lobe" reasoning, math
Rogers encouraged therapists to exhibit
genuineness, acceptance, empathy When therapists enable their clients to feel unconditionally accepted, when they drop their façades and genuinely express their true feelings, and when they empathically sense and reflect their clients' feelings, the clients may deepen their self-understanding and self-acceptance
transference
in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent) By exposing such feelings, you may gain insight into your current relationships.
gender
in psychology, the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female
2 types of specialized cells important for kinesthetic sense
in tendons: connect muscles to bones and are triggered by tension in muscles: triggered by length of muscle
Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)
in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities - Used to be known as Multiple Personality Disorder Person has several rather than one integrated personality People w/DID commonly have a history of childhood abuse or trauma "Sybil" or "the 3 faces of Eve" are good examples Therapy often makes use of hypnosis Goal: integrate and fuse identities into single, stable personality
Caffeine/Nicotine
increase heart and breathing rates and other automatic functions to provide energy
top-down processing
information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations to interpret incoming sensory info and construct perceptions
behavioral genetics
interdisciplinary field that studies the effects of genes and heredity on behavior
What are some examples for each theory of emotion?
james lange: we observe our heart racing after a threat and then feel afraid cannon-bard: our heart races at the same time that we feel afraid 2-factor: we may interpret our arousal as fear or excitement, depending on the context zajonc/leDoux: we automatically feel startled by a sound in the forest before labeling it as a threat Lazarus: the sound is "just the wind"
hypothalamus
located directly under front of thalamus regulates biological needs (eating, drinking, body temp..)
thyroid gland
located in neck; regulates energy level in body hypo and hyper thyroidism
tardive dyskinesia
long term use of antipsychotic drugs can produce tardive dyskinesia Involuntary movements of the facial muscles such as grimacing, tongue, and lips
Sternberg's Triangular Theory
love is made up of intimacy, passion, and commitment - Intimacy: affection, sharing, support, and communication in a relationship - Passion: high levels of physical arousal in a relationship, especially sexual - Commitment: decision to love and stay with another person - Infatuation: passion without commitment or intimacy
Parkinsons
low dopamine levels = slow body movements or tremors
long wavelength
low frequency (reddish colors, low-pitched sounds)
progressive relaxation
lying down comfortably and tensing and releasing the tension in each major muscle group in turn
Psychological influences on pain
our mental state can influence the degree to which we experience pain we can edit our memories of pain- which often differ from the pain that we actually experienced
identity
our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
Divisions of the ear
outer, middle, inner
spotlight effect
overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)
counter conditioning
pairs the trigger stimulus (enclosed space of elevator) w/new response (relaxation) that is incompatible w/fear. Behavior therapist have successfully counter-conditioned people w/fears. A procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors Based on classical conditioning and includes exposure therapy
Authoritarian
parents impose rules and expect obedience "Don't interrupt." "Keep your room clean." "Don't stay out late or you'll be grounded." "Why? Because I said so."
Permissive
parents submit to children's demands and use little punishment
dendrites
part of the neuron that receives messages
no coercion
participants must provide consent and know that they are involved in research; limited deception
mere exposure effect
people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them
Value Contrasts Between Individualism and Collectivism
self - i: independent (identity from individual traits) - c: interdependent (identity from belonging) life task - i: discover and express one's uniqueness - c: maintain connections, fit in, perform role what matters - i: me-personal achievement and fulfillment; rights and liberties; self-esteem - c: us-group goals and solidarity, social responsibilities and relationships, family duty coping method - i: change reality - c: accommodate to reality morality - i: defined by individuals (self-based) - c: defined by social networks (duty-based) relationships - i: many; often temporary or casual; confrontation acceptable - c: few, close and enduring; harmony valued attributing behavior - i: behavior reflects one's personality and attitudes - c: behavior reflects social norms and roles
ego
self the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. The ego operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. reality principle Between id and superego The self decides what to do "let's figure out a way to work together."
what does the nervous system do?
sends messages from the brain to body for movement
Resting Potential
the state of a neuron when it is at rest and capable of generating an action potential; set and ready to fire again
Socio-cultural
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
external locus of control
the perception that chance or outside forces beyond your personal control determine your fate.
figure-ground
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surrounding (the ground) Figure: object that stands out Ground: background
Grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into understandable groups includes Similarity, Proximity, Closure, Continuity
puberty
the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing
resillience
the personal strength that helps most people cope with stress and recover from adversity and even trauma
cocktail party effect
the phenomenon of being able to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, much the same way that a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room.
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
Imprinting
the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during a critical period very early in life
accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
person-situation controversy
the question of whether behavior is caused more by personality or by situational factors
benefits of belonging
1) social bonds 2) cooperation towards survival 3) positive influence on thoughts and behaviors
Kinsey's Studies
Alfred Kinsey held confidential interviews with 18k people (early 50s) Institute was founded in 1947, just before the publication of Sexual Behavior in the Human male in 1948, by pioneering sex researcher Dr. Alfred C. Kinsey
encoding
Getting info in automatic processing - Some info is automatically processed (route to school) - new/unusual information requires attention and effort
In general, what are the functions of the various regions of the cerebral cortex?
Information processing, control of voluntary movements, high mental processes
Which of the following is considered a benefit of group therapy? It is the most effective therapy for children. It is particularly effective in the treatment of antisocial personality disorder. It is particularly effective in the treatment of schizophrenia. It is the only setting proven effective for virtual reality exposure therapy. It saves time and money when compared with other forms of therapy.
It saves time and money when compared with other forms of therapy.
What do we call the illusion of movement that results from two or more stationary, adjacent lights blinking on and off in quick succession? - Phi phenomenon - Perceptual constancy - Binocular cues - Retinal disparity - Depth perception
Phi phenomenon
Parapyschology
The study of paranormal phenomenon- ESP and Pyschokinesis. The study of extrasensory perceptions.
Goals of Psychoanalytic Therapy
To make the unconscious conscious. To reconstruct the basic personality. To assist clients in reliving earlier experience and working through repressed conflicts. To achieve intellectual awareness.
oedipus complex
a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
generally speaking, heritability is the extent to which a) difference among people are accounted for by genes b) an individual's specific traits are due to genes or the environment c) differences among people are due to the environment d) differences among people are due to their cultural heritage e) an individual's height is related to the height of his or her parents
a) difference among people are accounted for by genes
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
Anxiety disorders
combo of physical, cognitive, and psychological symptoms in which a person's sympathetic nervous system has initiated a fight or flight response Anxiety is very common among people in the US Typically Situational: we can usually point to cause of anxiety. When we cannot identify cause, it is more problematic
addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences - Corrupting: Drugs quickly corrupt - Support: Cannot be overcome voluntarily - Misconceptions: not different than repetitive pleasure-seeking behavior, gambling, food, and internet
hairy skin
contains hair cells, which detect movement and pressure
What part of the brain triggers the release of adrenaline to boost heart rate when you're afraid? a. amygdala b. thalamus c. medulla d. hippocampus e. hypothalamus
e. hypothalamus
Statistical abnormality
having extreme scores on some dimension, such as intelligence, anxiety, or depression
Mary had a a little lamb What's this an example of?
perceptual set - many people perceive what they expect, and miss the repeated word
Hunger Pangs
stomach pains/contractions which send signals to the brain making us aware of our hunger
neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
According to most experts, intelligence tests are not biased because -- the average scores for various racial and ethnic groups do not differ by much. the tests do a pretty good job of predicting what they are supposed to predict. cultural background has little influence on test scores. scores on the test are not very stable even when you don't consider race. scores are increasing for almost all groups because of the Flynn effect.
the tests do a pretty good job of predicting what they are supposed to predict.
Deja Vu
"I've experienced this before" Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience Happens most commonly to well educated, imaginative young adults, especially when tired or stressed If we have previously been in a similar situation, the current situation may be loaded with cues that unconsciously retrieve the earlier experience
Tongue Phenomenon
"You know a name but were unable to retrieve it" - it's on the tip of your tongue Occurs when the retrieval process does not produce a complete response but parts that must be constructed into a whole Shows how forgetting may result from retrieval failure rather than encoding or storage failure
general intelligence
(g) a general intelligence factor that, according to Spearman and others, underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
Why can't we tickle ourselves?
- No surprise - produces less somatosensory cortex activation than does the same tickle from something or someone else (the brain is wise enough to be most sensitive to unexpected stimulation)
Describe the 5 stages of sleep
1-2: you first fall asleep, but you are not yet in deep sleep 3-4: you are in a deep, restful sleep-breathing and heart rate slow, body is still 5: brain is active and you dream. your eyes move under your eyelids in rapid eye movement (REM)
Which of the following would be considered an example of Erikson's concept of generativity? -- A 25-year-old meets and marries the love of his life. A 35-year-old earns a lot of money, though she doesn't particularly enjoy her job. An 85-year-old looks back at a life well-lived and feels satisfied. A 40-year-old takes pride in her work and how she has raised her children. A 20-year-old decides to become a physician.
A 40-year-old takes pride in her work and how she has raised her children.
interpersonal therapy
A brief, psychodynamic psychotherapy that focuses on current relationships and is based on the assumption that symptoms are caused and maintained by interpersonal problems.
Why is there some controversy over attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder?
A child who by age 7 displays extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity may be diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and treated with medication and other therapy. The controversy centers on whether the growing number of ADHD cases reflects overdiagnosis or increased awareness of the disorder. Long-term effects of stimulant-drug treatment for ADHD are not yet known.
Neurotransmitters and depression
A reduction of norepinephrine and serotonin has been found in depression Drugs that alleviate mania reduce norepinephrine Suicide: the most severe form of behavioral response to depression is suicide
How do different reinforcement schedules affect behavior?
A reinforcement schedule defines how often a response will be reinforced. In continuous reinforcement (reinforcing desired responses every time they occur), learning is rapid, but so is extinction if rewards cease. In partial (intermittent) reinforcement (reinforcing responses only sometimes), initial learning is slower, but the behavior is much more resistant to extinction. Fixed-ratio schedules reinforce behaviors after a set number of responses; variable-ratio schedules, after an unpredictable number. Fixed-interval schedules reinforce behaviors after set time periods; variable-interval schedules, after unpredictable time periods.
Brain-scanning techniques reveal what kinds of brain activity differences in people with chronic schizophrenia? Abnormally high brain activity in the frontal lobes An increase in the brain waves that reflect synchronized neural firing Abnormal activity in multiple brain areas Decreased activity in the amygdala A lack of dopamine receptors
Abnormal activity in multiple brain areas
How would a hearing specialist test absolute threshold for sounds?
Absolute Threshold is the minimum stimulation necessary to detect a particular light, sound, pressure, taste, or odor 50 percent of the time. To test your absolute threshold for sounds, a hearing specialist would expose each of your ears to varying sound levels. For each tone, the test would define where half the time you could detect the sound and half the time you could not. That 50-50 point would define your absolute threshold.
How is adolescence defined, and what physical changes mark this period?
Adolescence is the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to social independence. For boys, early maturation has mixed effects; for girls, early maturation can be a challenge. The brain's frontal lobes mature and myelin growth increases during adolescence and the early twenties, enabling improved judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning.
How do the eye and the brain process visual information?
After processing by bipolar and ganglion cells in the eyes' retina, neural impulses travel through the optic nerve, to the thalamus, and on to the visual cortex. In the visual cortex, feature detectors respond to specific features of the visual stimulus. Supercell clusters in other critical brain areas respond to more complex patterns. Through parallel processing, the brain handles many aspects of vision (color, movement, form, and depth) simultaneously. Other neural teams integrate the results, comparing them with stored information and enabling perceptions
Who of the following is considered the leading advocate of personality's social-cognitive approach? Gordon Allport Carl Jung Karen Horney Carl Rogers Albert Bandura
Albert Bandura
self-efficacy
An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. - the learned expectation of success If we think we will succeed, we have a better chance of succeeding Can play a major role in how we approach goals, tasks, and challenges (optimism v. pessimistic)
Explain how visual processing works as you look at a tiger in the zoo.
As you look at that tiger in the zoo, information enters your eyes, is transduced, and is sent to your brain as millions of neural impulses. As your brain buzzes with activity, various areas focus on different aspects of the tiger's image. Finally, in some as yet mysterious way, these separate teams pool their work to produce a meaningful image, which you compare with previously stored images and recognize: a crouching tiger
How might Skinner's operant conditioning principles be applied at school, in sports, at work, at home, and for self-improvement?
At school, teachers can use shaping techniques to guide students' behaviors, and they can use electronic adaptive quizzing to provide immediate feedback. In sports, coaches can build players' skills and self-confidence by rewarding small improvements. At work, managers can boost productivity and morale by rewarding well-defined and achievable behaviors. At home, parents can reward desired behaviors but not undesirable ones. We can shape our own behaviors by stating our goals, monitoring the frequency of desired behaviors, reinforcing desired behaviors, and gradually reducing rewards as behaviors become habitual.
What is the routine for visual processing?
At the entry level, information processing begins in the retina's neural layers, which are actually brain tissue that has migrated to the eye during early fetal development. These layers don't just pass along electrical impulses; they also help to encode and analyze sensory information. After processing by your retina's nearly 130 million receptor rods and cones, information travels to your bipolar cells, then to your million or so ganglion cells, and through their axons making up the optic nerve to your brain. Any given retinal area relays its information to a corresponding location in the visual cortex, in the occipital lobe at the back of your brain.
What are some newborn abilities, and how do researchers explore infants' mental abilities?
Babies are born with sensory equipment and reflexes that facilitate their survival and their social interactions with adults. For example, they quickly learn to discriminate their mother's smell and sound. Researchers use techniques that test habituation, such as the visual-preference procedure, to explore infants' abilities.
Which of the following would be considered a sign of secure attachment in a 1-year-old? -- Showing no sign of stranger anxiety, whether the parent is present or not Paying no attention to a parent who returns after a brief separation Showing anger at the parent after a brief separation Becoming distressed when the parent leaves and seeking contact on return Not reacting to a parent leaving or returning after a brief separation
Becoming distressed when the parent leaves and seeking contact on return
How does the basic assumption of behavior therapy differ from those of psychodynamic and humanistic therapies? What techniques are used in exposure therapies and aversive conditioning?
Behavior therapies are not insight therapies. Their goal is to apply learning principles to modify problem behaviors. Classical conditioning techniques, including exposure therapies (such as systematic desensitization or virtual reality exposure therapy) and aversive conditioning, attempt to change behaviors through counterconditioning—evoking new responses to old stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors.
How does a perceived lack of control affect people's behavior and health?
Being unable to avoid repeated aversive events can lead to learned helplessness. People who perceive an internal locus of control achieve more, enjoy better health, and are happier than those who perceive an external locus of control. Self-control requires attention and energy, but it predicts good adjustment, better grades, and social success. A perceived lack of control provokes an outpouring of hormones that put people's health at risk.
carl rogers
Believed in individuals personal growth tendencies. People are naturally good. Self-concept: our perception of our abilities, behaviors, and characteristics - if self-concept is positive, we act in positive ways Genuine: being open with feelings and dropping facades Acceptance: get rid of conditions of worth Empathy: sharing and mirroring our feelings and reflecting meanings
How do we use binocular and monocular cues to perceive the world in three dimensions and perceive motion? (long answer)
Binocular cues are depth cues that depend on the use of 2 eyes. Since the eyes are 2 ½ in. apart, the 2 retinas can receive slightly different images of the world. Retinal disparity compares the images from the retinas allowing the brain to judge how close an object is to you (distance). The greater the disparity or difference between the 2 images, the closer the object. Monocular cues are depth cues available to each eye separately (relative height, relative size, interposition, relative motion, linear perspective, light and shadow) Relative height: we perceive objects higher in our field of vision as farther away; Relative size: if we assume 2 objects are similar in size, most people perceive the one that casts the smaller retinal image as farther away; Interposition: if one object partially blocks our view of another, we perceive it as closer; Relative motion: as we move, objects that are actually stable may appear to move- if you stare at a specific point (house) while moving (riding a bus), the farther an object is from that fixation point, the faster it will seem to move; Linear perspective: Parallel lines appear to meet in the distance, the sharper the angle of convergence, the greater the perceived distance; Light and Shadow: shading produces a sense of depth consistent w/our assumption that light comes from above. Normally, the brain compute motion based partly on its assumption that shrinking objects are retreating and enlarging objects are approaching. Large objects (train) may appear to move more slowly than smaller objects (cars) moving at the same speed. To catch a flyball, softball players follow an unconscious rule - run to keep the ball at a constantly increasing angle of gaze. The brain can also perceive continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images (stroboscopic movement). You can create this illusion by flashing 24 still pictures a second. Films are merely a superfast slideshow. Phi Phenomenon: an illusion of movement created when 2 or more adjacent lights blink on an off in a quick succession - perceive a single light moving back and forth.
Which of the following is most closely associated with hairlike receptors in the semicircular canals? - Body position - Smell - Hearing - Pain - Touch
Body position
Which of the following represents a circadian rhythm? - A burst of growth occurs during puberty. - A full Moon occurs about once a month. - Body temperature rises each day as morning approaches. - When it is summer in the northern hemisphere, it is winter in the southern hemisphere. - Pulse rate increases when we exercise.
Body temperature rises each day as morning approaches.
Which of the following can be characterized as a compulsion? -- Worry about exposure to germs or toxins Fear that something terrible is about to happen Concern with making sure things are in symmetrical order Anxiety when objects are not lined up in an exact pattern Checking repeatedly to see if doors are locked
Checking repeatedly to see if doors are locked
What are the basic components of classical conditioning, and what was behaviorism's view of learning?
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli. In classical conditioning, an NS is a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning. A UR is an event that occurs naturally (such as salivation), in response to some stimulus. A US is something that naturally and automatically (without learning) triggers the unlearned response (as food in the mouth triggers salivation). A CS is a previously neutral stimulus (such as a tone) that, after association with a US (such as food) comes to trigger a CR. A CR is the learned response (salivating) to the originally neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus. Ivan Pavlov's work on classical conditioning laid the foundation for behaviorism, the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes. The behaviorists believed that the basic laws of learning are the same for all species, including humans.
Which of the following therapeutic approaches is scientifically supported? Recovered-memory therapies Rebirthing therapies Cognitive therapy Energy therapies Crisis debriefing
Cognitive therapy
Which kind of therapy below is most closely associated with the goal of altering thoughts and actions? Aversive conditioning Psychodynamic Client-centered Family Cognitive-behavioral
Cognitive-behavioral
What did Carl Jung call the shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history? Neurosis Archetypes Collective unconscious Inferiority complex Terror management
Collective unconscious
What type of hearing loss is due to damage to the mechanism that transmits sound waves to the cochlea? - Sensorineural - Window-related - Conduction - Cochlear - Basilar
Conduction
What do we call awareness of our environment and ourselves? - Selective attention - Hypnotism - Posthypnotic suggestion - Dissociation - Consciousness
Consciousness
What does research on restored vision, sensory restriction, and perceptual adaptation reveal about the effects of experience on perception? (short answer)
Experience guides our perceptual interpretations. People blind from birth who gained sight after surgery lack the experience to visually recognize shapes, forms, and complete faces. Sensory restriction research indicates that there is a critical period for some aspects of sensory and perceptual development. Without early stimulation, the brain's neural organization does not develop normally. People given glasses that shift the world slightly to the left or right, or even upside down, experience perceptual adaptation. They are initially disoriented, but they manage to adapt to their new context.
What do we call a desire to perform a behavior in order to receive promised rewards or to avoid threatened punishment? Latent learning Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation Insight learning Emotion-focused coping
Extrinsic motivation
Which of the following is the best biological explanation for why the human body stores fat? Fat signals affluence and social status. Fat is a fuel reserve during periods when food is scarce. Fat is a display of abundant food sources. Fat keeps the body warm in winter climates. Fat combats the global epidemic of diabetes.
Fat is a fuel reserve during periods when food is scarce
What do we call the specialized neurons in the occipital lobe's visual cortex that respond to particular edges, lines, angles, and movements? - Rods - Cones - Foveas - Feature detectors - Ganglion cells
Feature detectors
Which of the following is the best example of sensory interaction? - Finding that despite its delicious aroma, a weird-looking meal tastes awful - Finding that food tastes bland when you have a bad cold - Finding it difficult to maintain your balance when you have an ear infection - Finding that the cold pool water doesn't feel so cold after a while - All of these are examples.
Finding that food tastes bland when you have a bad cold
absent mindedness
Forgetting caused by lapses in attention inattention to details --> encoding failure (our mind is elsewhere)
Which of Jean Piaget's stages describes typical adolescent thinking? Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operational Formal operational Accommodation
Formal operational
Freud's dream theory
Freud believed that dreams are the single, best source of information about the unconscious; dreams are highly sufficient, carefully constructed, and always contain a concealed meaning; dreams are not random purpose of dreams is wish fulfillment and fulfillment of unconscious desires -dreams were the key to understanding inner conflicts -ideas and thoughts are hidden in the unconscious he studied manifest and latent content
How do gender roles and gender typing influence gender development?
Gender roles, the behaviors a culture expects from its males and females, vary across place and time. Social learning theory proposes that we learn gender identity—our sense of being male or female—as we learn other things: through reinforcement, punishment, and observation. Critics argue that cognition also plays a role because modeling and rewards cannot explain gender typing. Transgender people's gender identity or expression differs from their birth sex. Their sexual orientation may be heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual, or asexual.
Diego likes to play sports and video games whereas Sara likes to sing, dance, and play "house." This example best depicts which of the following? Gender identity Gender typing Gender schema Social learning theory Gender expression
Gender typing
Biological Perspective: depression
Genetic influences: mood disorders run in families Rate of depression is higher in identical (50%) than fraternal (20%) Linkage analysis and association studies link possible genes and dispositions for depression
Describe Gestalt psychologists' understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. (short answer)
Gestalt psychologists searched for rules by which the brain organizes fragments of sensory data into gestalts (from the German word for "whole"), or meaningful forms. In pointing out that the whole may exceed the sum of its parts, they noted that we filter sensory information and construct our perceptions. To recognize an object, we must first perceive it (see it as a figure) as distinct from its surroundings (the ground). We bring order and form to stimuli by organizing them into meaningful groups, following such rules as proximity, continuity, and closure.
Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magoun reticular formation study on cats
Giuseppe Moruzzi and Horace Magoun discovered that electrically stimulating the reticular formation of a sleeping cat almost instantly produced an awake, alert animal. When Magoun severed a cat's reticular formation without damaging the nearby sensory pathways, the effect was equally dramatic: The cat lapsed into a coma from which it never awakened. The conclusion? The reticular formation enables arousal.
Someone from a collectivist culture is more likely to do what? Develop a strong sense of self Give priority to group goals Form casual, often temporary relationships Achieve personal goals Focus on how they are different from the group
Give priority to group goals
all therapies offer at least three benefits:
HOPE FOR DEMORALIZED PEOPLE (people seeking therapy typically feel anxious, depressed, devoid of self-esteem, and incapable of turning things around; "things can and will get better") A NEW PERSPECTIVE (offers people a plausible explanation of their symptoms and an alternative way of looking at themselves or responding to their world. Armed with a believable fresh perspective, they may approach life with a new attitude, open to making changes in their behaviors and their views of themselves.) AN EMPATHIC, TRUSTING, CARING RELATIONSHIP (effective therapists are empathic people who seek to understand another's experience; who communicate their care and concern to the client; and who earn the client's trust through respectful listening, reassurance, and advice.)
Positive & Negative Schizophrenic Symptoms
Have inappropriate symptoms (hallucination, disorganized thinking, deluded ways) that are not present in normal individuals (positive symptoms) Absence of appropriate symptoms (apathy, expressionless faces, rigid body) that are present in normal individuals (negative symptoms) When schizophrenia is slow to develop (chronic/process), recovery is doubtful (usually display negative symptoms) When it rapidly develops (acute/reactive), recovery is better (positive symptoms)
William Stern
He invented the concept of an intelligence quotient (IQ) IQ= (mental age ÷ chronological age) x 100
Explain Freud's theory of wish fulfillment in dreams
He proposed that dreams provide a psychic safety valve that discharges otherwise unacceptable feelings. He viewed a dream's manifest content (remembered story line of a dream) as a censored, symbolic version of its latent content (underlying meaning of the dream) the unconscious drives and wishes that would be threatening if expressed directly. Freud considered dreams to be the key to understanding inner conflicts.
Which subfield of psychology provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine? Cognitive Health Clinical Educational Community
Health
8 Intelligences (Gardner)
Identified 8 relatively independent intelligences, and views them as multiple abilities that come in different packages. Logical-mathematical Verbal-linguistic Spatial Bodily-kinesthetic Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalist
What's an example of how perceptual set can affect what we see?
In 1972, a British newspaper published unretouched photographs of a "monster" in Scotland's Loch Ness—"the most amazing pictures ever taken," stated the paper. If this information creates in you the same expectations it did in most of the paper's readers, you, too, will see the monster in a similar photo in FIGURE 17.2. But when a skeptical researcher approached the photos with different expectations, he saw a curved tree limb—as had others the day the photo was shot. With this different perceptual set, you may now notice that the object is floating motionless, with ripples outward in all directions—hardly what we would expect of a lively monster. Once we have formed a wrong idea about reality, we have more difficulty seeing the truth. BELIEVING IS SEEING
In classical conditioning, what are the processes of acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and discrimination?
In classical conditioning, acquisition is associating an NS with the US so that the NS begins triggering the CR. Acquisition occurs most readily when the NS is presented just before (ideally, about a half-second before) a US, preparing the organism for the upcoming event. This finding supports the view that classical conditioning is biologically adaptive. Through higher-order conditioning, a new NS can become a new CS. Extinction is diminished responding when the CS no longer signals an impending US. Spontaneous recovery is the appearance of a formerly extinguished response, following a rest period. Generalization is the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to a CS. Discrimination is the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and other irrelevant stimuli.
From the perspectives of Piaget, Vygotsky, and today's researchers, how does a child's mind develop?
In his theory of cognitive development, Jean Piaget proposed that children actively construct and modify their understanding of the world through the processes of assimilation and accommodation. They form schemas that help them organize their experiences. Progressing from the simplicity of the sensorimotor stage of the first two years, in which they develop object permanence, children move to more complex ways of thinking. In the preoperational stage (about age 2 to about 6 or 7), they develop a theory of mind, but they are egocentric and unable to perform simple logical operations. At age 6 or 7, they enter the concrete operational stage and are able to comprehend the principle of conservation. By about age 12, children enter the formal operational stage and can reason systematically. Research supports the sequence Piaget proposed, but it also shows that young children are more capable, and their development is more continuous, than he believed. Lev Vygotsky's studies of child development focused on the ways a child's mind grows by interacting with the social environment. In his view, parents and caretakers provide temporary scaffolds enabling children to step to higher levels of learning.
When and why were intelligence tests created?
In the late 1800s, Francis Galton, who believed that genius was inherited, attempted but failed to construct a simple intelligence test. In France in 1904, Alfred Binet, who tended toward an environmental explanation of intelligence differences, started the modern intelligence-testing movement by developing questions to measure children's mental age and thus predict progress in the school system. -- During the early twentieth century, Lewis Terman of Stanford University revised Binet's work for use in the United States. - Terman believed intelligence is inherited, and he thought his Stanford-Binet could help guide people toward appropriate opportunities. - During this period, intelligence tests were sometimes used to "document" scientists' assumptions about the innate inferiority of certain ethnic and immigrant groups.
How do anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge-eating disorder demonstrate the influence of psychological and genetic forces?
In these eating disorders, psychological factors may overwhelm the homeostatic drive to maintain a balanced internal state. Despite being significantly underweight, people with anorexia nervosa (usually adolescent females) continue to diet because they view themselves as fat. Those with bulimia nervosa (usually females in their teens and twenties) secretly binge and then compensate by purging, fasting, or excessively exercising. Those with binge-eating disorder binge but do not follow bingeing with purging, fasting, or exercise. Cultural pressures, low self-esteem, and negative emotions interact with stressful life experiences and genetics to produce eating disorders.
Which of the following is an unlearned, complex behavior exhibited by all members of a species? Reflex Drive Incentive Instinct Motive
Instinct
Why do intelligent people live longer?
Intelligence provides better access to resources. Intelligence encourages healthy lifestyles. Prenatal events or early childhood illnesses could influence both intelligence and health. A "well-wired body" as evidenced by fast reaction speeds, may foster both intelligence and longer life.
Which of the following is not a component of emotional intelligence? Understanding emotions Perceiving emotions Using emotions Managing emotions Inventing emotions
Inventing emotions
Compared with the late nineteenth century, what is true about the transition from childhood to adulthood in Western cultures? -- It starts earlier and is completed earlier. It starts later and is completed later. It starts later and is completed earlier. It starts earlier and is completed later. It has not changed.
It starts earlier and is completed later.
Which of the following represents drug tolerance? - Hans has grown to accept the fact that his wife likes to have a beer with her dinner, even though he personally does not approve of the use of alcohol. - Jose often wakes up with a headache that lasts until he has his morning cup of coffee. - Pierre enjoys the effect of marijuana and is now using the drug several times a week. - Jacob had to increase the dosage of his pain medication when the old dosage no longer effectively controlled the pain from his chronic back condition. - Chau lost his job and is now homeless as a result of his drug use.
Jacob had to increase the dosage of his pain medication when the old dosage no longer effectively controlled the pain from his chronic back condition.
Sensing the position and movement of individual body parts is an example of which sense? Kinesthetic Vestibular Auditory Umami Olfactory
Kinesthetic
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children - noticed his children were able to handle logical problems differently at different ages - as children age, their ability to handle logical problems change - described how people are able to deal with logical problems differently at different points in their lives
Which of the following drugs produces effects similar to a near-death experience? - Ecstasy - Nicotine - Barbiturate - Methamphetamine - LSD
LSD
What is learning, and what are some basic forms of learning?
Learning is the process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors. In associative learning, we learn that certain events occur together. In classical conditioning, we learn to associate two or more stimuli (a stimulus is any event or situation that evokes a response). In operant conditioning, we learn to associate a response and its consequences. Through cognitive learning, we acquire mental information that guides our behavior. For example, in observational learning, we learn new behaviors by observing events and watching others.
What physical changes occur during middle and late adulthood?
Muscular strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac output begin to decline in the late twenties and continue to decline throughout middle adulthood (roughly age 40 to 65) and late adulthood (the years after 65). Women's period of fertility ends with menopause around age 50; men have no similar age-related sharp drop in hormone levels or fertility. In late adulthood, the immune system weakens, increasing susceptibility to life-threatening illnesses. Chromosome tips (telomeres) wear down, reducing the chances of normal genetic replication. But for some, longevity-supporting genes, low stress, and good health habits enable better health in later life.
alfred adler
Neo-Freudian; introduced concept of "inferiority complex" and stressed the importance of birth order like Freud, believed in childhood tensions, however, these tensions were social in nature and not sexual A child struggles with inferiority complex during growth and strikes for superiority and power - Adler: a foremost source of human motivation is a striving for superiority, universal drive to improve oneself, and master life's challenges. *Founder of Individual Psychology Studied inferiority complex Superiority is a prime goal in life, rather than physical gratification compensation, inferiority complex, and overcompensation
Are some psychotherapies more effective than others for specific disorders?
No one type of psychotherapy is generally superior to all others. Therapy is most effective for those with clear-cut, specific problems. Some therapies—such as behavior conditioning for treating phobias and compulsions—are more effective for specific disorders. Psychodynamic therapy helped treat depression and anxiety, and cognitive and cognitive-behavioral therapies have been effective in coping with anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression. Evidence-based practice integrates the best available research with clinicians' expertise and patients' characteristics, preferences, and circumstances.
Which of the following statements about the impact of aging is true? -- During old age, many of the brain's neurons die. If we live to be 90 or older, most of us will eventually become senile. Older people become less susceptible to short-term illnesses. Recognition memory—the ability to identify things previously experienced—declines with age. Life satisfaction peaks in the 50s and then gradually declines after age 65.
Older people become less susceptible to short-term illnesses.
What's an example of how perceptual set can affect what we taste?
One experiment invited some bar patrons to sample free beer. When researchers added a few drops of vinegar to a brand-name beer, the tasters preferred it—unless they had been told they were drinking vinegar-laced beer. Then they expected, and usually experienced, a worse taste. In another experiment, preschool children, by a 6-to-1 margin, thought french fries tasted better when served in a McDonald's bag rather than a plain white bag
What are the absolute and difference thresholds, and do stimuli below the absolute threshold have any influence on us?
Our absolute threshold for any stimulus is the minimum stimulation necessary for us to be consciously aware of it 50 percent of the time. Signal detection theory predicts how and when we will detect a faint stimulus amid background noise. Individual absolute thresholds vary, depending on the strength of the signal and also on our experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness. Our difference threshold (also called just noticeable difference, or JND) is the difference we can discern between two stimuli 50 percent of the time. Weber's law states that two stimuli must differ by a constant percentage (not a constant amount) to be perceived as different. Priming shows that we can process some information from stimuli below our absolute threshold for conscious awareness. But the effect is too fleeting to enable people to exploit us with subliminal messages.
Jumpy Eye
Our eyes are always moving. This continual flitting from one spot to another ensures that stimulation on the eyes' receptors continually changes. Due to this, if we stare at an object without flinching, it does it not vanish from sight.
If you want to listen more actively in your own relationships, three Rogerian hints may help:
Paraphrase. Rather than saying "I know how you feel," check your understanding by summarizing the person's words in your own words. Invite clarification. "What might be an example of that?" may encourage the person to say more. Reflect feelings. "It sounds frustrating" might mirror what you're sensing from the person's body language and intensity.
What are the claims of ESP, and what have most research psychologists concluded after putting these claims to the test?
Parapsychology is the study of paranormal phenomena, including extrasensory perception (ESP) and psychokinesis. The three most testable forms of ESP are telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving remote events), and precognition (perceiving future events). Skeptics argue that (1) to believe in ESP, you must believe the brain is capable of perceiving without sensory input, and (2) researchers have been unable to replicate ESP phenomena under controlled conditions.
In what ways do parents and peers shape children's development?
Parents influence their children in areas such has manners and political and religious beliefs, but not in other areas, such as personality. As children attempt to fit in with their peers, they tend to adopt their culture—styles, accents, slang, attitudes. By choosing their children's neighborhoods and schools, parents exert some influence over peer group culture.
Which of the following has been shown to be the most effective intervention to reduce teen pregnancies? Abstinence-only sex education in schools Participation in service learning programs Increasing guilt related to sexual activity Taking a pledge to remain abstinent Increased exposure to sexual content in the media
Participation in service learning programs
What is one defining characteristic of someone who is easily hypnotized?
People who are easily hypnotized are open to suggestions and are willing to accept them. People who have the ability to focus their attention completely on a task and become absorbed in it can be easily hypnotized.
How do brain abnormalities and viral infections help explain schizophrenia?
People with schizophrenia have increased dopamine receptors, which may intensify brain signals, creating positive symptoms such as hallucinations and paranoia. Brain abnormalities associated with schizophrenia include enlarged, fluid-filled cerebral cavities and corresponding decreases in the cortex. Brain scans reveal abnormal activity in the frontal lobes, thalamus, and amygdala. Interacting malfunctions in multiple brain regions and their connections may produce schizophrenia's symptoms. Possible contributing factors include viral infections or famine conditions during the mother's pregnancy and low weight or oxygen deprivation at birth.
What are the three clusters of personality disorders? What behaviors and brain activity characterize the antisocial personality?
Personality disorders are disruptive, inflexible, and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning. These disorders form clusters, based on three main characteristics: (1) anxiety; (2) eccentric or odd behaviors; and (3) dramatic or impulsive behaviors. Antisocial personality disorder is characterized by a lack of conscience and, sometimes, by aggressive and fearless behavior. Genetic predispositions may interact with the environment to produce the altered brain activity associated with antisocial personality disorder.
What are personality inventories, and what are their strengths and weaknesses as trait-assessment tools?
Personality inventories (such as the MMPI) are questionnaires on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors. Test items are empirically derived, and the tests are objectively scored. But people can fake their answers to create a good impression, and the ease of computerized testing may lead to misuse of the tests.
What do we call an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation? Obsessive-compulsive disorder Phobia Panic disorder Generalized anxiety disorder Posttraumatic stress disorder
Phobia
Physiological Differences
Physical responses, like finder temp. And movement of facial muscles change during fear, rage, and joy Amygdala shows difference in activation during the emotions of anger and range Activity of left hemisphere (happy) is different from the right (depressed) for emotions
Which of the following is the lowest priority motive in Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs? Belongingness and love needs Physiological needs Esteem needs Self-actualization needs
Physiological needs
How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe adolescent cognitive and moral development?
Piaget theorized that adolescents develop a capacity for formal operations and that this development is the foundation for moral judgment. Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage theory of moral reasoning, from a pre-conventional morality of self-interest, to a conventional morality concerned with upholding laws and social rules, to (in some people) a post-conventional morality of universal ethical principles. Other researchers believe that morality lies in moral intuition and moral action as well as thinking. Some critics argue that Kohlberg's post-conventional level represents morality from the perspective of individualist cultures.
__________ believed that a child's moral judgments build on cognitive development. __________ agreed and sought to describe the development of moral reasoning. Kohlberg; Erikson Erikson; Kohlberg Piaget; Kohlberg Piaget; Erikson
Piaget; Kohlberg
What is the significance of plasticity?
Plasticity can modify the brain after it is damaged. It can allow for compensation if a specific area cannot fully function.
What is plasticity and what are two instances in which it could occur.
Plasticity is the brain's ability to change by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience.
Gifted
Possessing high intelligence (an IQ of 135 or higher) and/or superior talent in a particular area.
Therapy: Behavior
Presumed Problem: Dysfunctional behaviors Therapy Aim: Relearn adaptive behaviors; extinguish problem ones. Therapy Technique: Use classical conditioning (via exposure or aversion therapy) or operant conditioning (as in token economies).
Therapy: Cognitive
Presumed Problem: Negative, self-defeating thinking Therapy Aim: Promote healthier thinking and self-talk. Therapy Technique: Train people to dispute negative thoughts and attributions.
Therapy: Cognitive-behavioral
Presumed Problem: Self-harmful thoughts and behaviors Therapy Aim: Promote healthier thinking and adaptive behaviors. Therapy Technique: Train people to counter self-harmful thoughts and to act out their new ways of thinking.
What is the rationale for preventive mental health programs?
Preventive mental health programs are based on the idea that many psychological disorders could be prevented by changing oppressive, esteem-destroying environments into more benevolent, nurturing environments that foster growth, self-confidence, and resilience.
psychiatrists
Psychiatrists are physicians who specialize in the treatment of psychological disorders. Not all psychiatrists have had extensive training in psychotherapy, but as M.D.s or D.O.s they can prescribe medications. Thus, they tend to see those with the most serious problems. Many have their own private practice.
In which kind of therapy would the therapist be most likely to note the following during a session: "Blocks in the flow of free associations indicate resistance"? Cognitive therapy Psychoanalysis Client-centered therapy Behavioral therapy Person-centered therapy
Psychoanalysis
What did Sigmund Freud call his theory of personality and the associated treatment techniques? Psychoanalysis Humanism The self-concept Psychosexual stages Free association
Psychoanalysis
How many people suffer, or have suffered, from a psychological disorder? Is poverty a risk factor?
Psychological disorder rates vary, depending on the time and place of the survey. In one multinational survey, rates for any disorder ranged from less than 5 percent (Shanghai) to more than 25 percent (the United States). Poverty is a risk factor: Conditions and experiences associated with poverty contribute to the development of psychological disorders. But some disorders, such as schizophrenia, can drive people into poverty.
What are the drug therapies? How do double-blind studies help researchers evaluate a drug's effectiveness?
Psychopharmacology, the study of drug effects on mind and behavior, has helped make drug therapy the most widely used biomedical therapy. Antipsychotic drugs, used in treating schizophrenia, block dopamine activity. Side effects may include tardive dyskinesia (with involuntary movements of facial muscles, tongue, and limbs) or increased risk of obesity and diabetes. Antianxiety drugs, which depress central nervous system activity, are used to treat anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These drugs can be physically and psychologically addictive. Antidepressant drugs, which increase the availability of serotonin and norepinephrine, are used for depression, with modest effectiveness beyond that of placebo drugs. The antidepressants known as selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are now used to treat other disorders, including strokes, anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. Lithium and Depakote are mood stabilizers prescribed for those with bipolar disorder. Studies may use a double-blind procedure to avoid the placebo effect and researchers' bias.
How do psychotherapy, biomedical therapy, and an eclectic approach to therapy differ?
Psychotherapy is treatment involving psychological techniques; it consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth. The major psychotherapies derive from psychology's psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, and cognitive perspectives. Biomedical therapy treats psychological disorders with medications or procedures that act directly on a patient's physiology. An eclectic approach combines techniques from various forms of psychotherapy.
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
Pulsating magnetic coil placed over prefrontal regions of the brain to treat depression w/minimal side effects Initial studies have found modest positive benefits
How does punishment differ from negative reinforcement, and how does punishment affect behavior?
Punishment administers an undesirable consequence (such as spanking) or withdraws something desirable (such as taking away a favorite toy) in an attempt to decrease the frequency of a behavior (a child's disobedience). Negative reinforcement (taking an aspirin) removes an aversive stimulus (a headache). This desired consequence (freedom from pain) increases the likelihood that the behavior (taking aspirin to end pain) will be repeated. Punishment can have undesirable side effects, such as suppressing rather than changing unwanted behaviors; teaching aggression; creating fear; encouraging discrimination (so that the undesirable behavior appears when the punisher is not present); and fostering depression and low self-esteem.
Which of the following most accurately describes an impact of punishment? Punishment is a good way to increase a behavior, as long as it is not used too frequently. Punishment may create problems in the short term but rarely produces long-term side effects. Punishment can be effective at stopping specific behaviors quickly. Punishment typically results in an increase of a behavior that caused the removal of an aversive stimulus. Punishment should never be used (in the opinion of most psychologists), because the damage it causes can never be repaired.
Punishment typically results in an increase of a behavior that caused the removal of an aversive stimulus.
How does day care affect children?
Quality day care, with responsive adults interacting with children in a safe and stimulating environment, does not appear to harm children's thinking and language skills. Some studies have linked extensive time in day care with increased aggressiveness and defiance, but other factors—the child's temperament, the parents' sensitivity, and the family's economic and educational levels and culture—also matter.
Increasing amounts of paradoxical sleep following a period of sleep deprivation is known as what? - Circadian sleep - Sleep shifting - Narcolepsy - Sleep apnea - REM rebound
REM rebound
How does REM rebound suggest that the causes and functions of REM sleep are deep biological?
REM rebound is the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation. Most other mammals also experience REM rebound, suggesting that the causes and functions of REM sleep are biological.
Which of the following is an example of self-efficacy? -- Manuela believes others are always watching her. Abraham believes he is a good person. Rasheed believes he is a competent skater. Saundra believes it rained because she's been wishing for rain for days. Igor maintains his optimism despite doing poorly in his math class.
Rasheed believes he is a competent skater.
Which of the following is an example of stress? Ray is tense and anxious as he has to decide which college to attend. Sunga is assigned an extra shift at work. Joe's parents are allowing him to stay home alone while they go away for a weekend. Linda remembers to repay a friend the $10 she owes her. Enrico learns of a traffic accident on the Interstate.
Ray is tense and anxious as he has to decide which college to attend.
Children's TV-viewing habits (past behavior) influence their viewing preferences (internal personal factor), which influence how television (environmental factor) affects their current behavior. What is this an example of? Personal control Learned helplessness Reciprocal determinism The Big Five traits Implicit learning
Reciprocal determinism
Which of these is an example of a longitudinal study? -- The depth perception of infants is measured once a month for 6 months in a row, starting at six months. In the same month, researchers compare the reaction time of 20 sixth graders and 20 first graders. The memory of one group of 50-year-old adults is measured and then 20 years later compared to a different group of 70-year-olds. A psychologist develops a case study of a woman who is 102 by interviewing her twice a week for 12 weeks. Researchers compare curiosity ratings of a group of toddlers with that same group's SAT scores 15 years later.
Researchers compare curiosity ratings of a group of toddlers with that same group's SAT scores 15 years later.
The view from Narmeen's left eye is slightly different from the view from her right eye. This is due to which depth cue? - Retinal disparity - Relative size - Linear perspective - Relative motion - Convergence
Retinal disparity
Do self-confidence and life satisfaction vary with life stages?
Self-confidence tends to strengthen across the life span. Surveys show that life satisfaction is unrelated to age. Positive emotions increase after midlife and negative ones decrease.
What is the function of sensory adaptation?
Sensory adaptation (our diminished sensitivity to constant or routine odors, sights, sounds, and touches) focuses our attention on informative changes in our environment.
Which of the following is an example of cognitive appraisal? Randal is happy all day because he is savoring the wonderful events of yesterday. Charles is frightened in a dark alley because he remembers stories of others being attacked in dark alleys. Sherika labels the arousal she is feeling as attraction because she is in the presence of a good-looking young man. Dora is angry because she cannot figure out how to convince her husband to take her to Hawaii. Ann is frustrated because traffic has made her late for an important meeting.
Sherika labels the arousal she is feeling as attraction because she is in the presence of a good-looking young man.
Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: health
Sleep deprivation can suppress immune cells that fight off viral infections and cancer. People who sleep less than 7 hrs. Per night are 3 times more likely to develop a cold. People who sleep 7-8 hours tend to outlive those who are chronically sleep deprived.
Describe how sleep deprivation impacts: job performance
Sleep deprivation slows reactions and increases errors on visual attention tasks. This can be devastating for driving, piloting, and equipment operating.
A dog is trained to salivate when it hears a tone associated with food. Then the tone is sounded repeatedly without an unconditioned stimulus until the dog stops salivating. Later, when the tone sounds again, the dog salivates again. This is a description of what part of the conditioning process? Spontaneous recovery Extinction Generalization Discrimination Acquisition
Spontaneous recovery
Why do people smoke?
Starting to smoke: invited by peers, influenced by culture and media- socially rewarding, genetic factors (addiction gene) Continuing: positively reinforced by physically stimulating effects- takes away unpleasant cravings Not stopping: after regular use, smokers have difficulty stopping because of withdrawal symptoms such as insomnia, anxiety, distractibility, and irritability
What are stimulants, and what are their effects?
Stimulants—including caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, the amphetamines, methamphetamine, and Ecstasy—excite neural activity and speed up body functions, triggering energy and mood changes. All are highly addictive. Nicotine's effects make smoking a difficult habit to kick, yet the percentage of Americans who smoke has been dramatically decreasing. Cocaine gives users a fast high, followed within an hour by a crash. Its risks include cardiovascular stress and suspiciousness. Use of methamphetamines may permanently reduce dopamine production. Ecstasy (MDMA) is a combined stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and feelings of intimacy. Its users risk immune system suppression, permanent damage to mood and memory, and (if taken during physical activity) dehydration and escalating body temperatures.
How do we experience taste and smell?
Taste and smell are chemical senses. Taste is a composite of five basic sensations—sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami—and of the aromas that interact with information from the taste receptor cells of the taste buds. There are no basic sensations for smell. We have some 20 million olfactory receptor cells, with about 350 different receptor proteins. Odor molecules trigger combinations of receptors, in patterns that the olfactory cortex interprets. The receptor cells send messages to the brain's olfactory bulb, then to the temporal lobe, and to parts of the limbic system.
Which of the following depends least on the maturation process? Riding a bike Writing Talking Bladder control Telling time
Telling time
Refractory Period
The "recharging phase" when a neuron, after firing, cannot generate another action potential.
Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?
The Big Five personality factors—conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion (CANOE)—currently offer the clearest picture of personality. These factors are stable and appear to be found in all cultures.
Discuss the stroop effect and how it supports the argument that hypnosis is a state of divided consciousness.
The Stroop effects describe the slowed response of people to name the color of the letters if the word itself provides a conflict. An example would be the word red, with its letters colored green. Dissociation is the spit in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others. People under hypnosis were much less slowed by the word-color conflict when asked to identify the color of the letters. Apparently, brain areas that decode words and detect conflict remain inactive when hypnotized.
What theories help us understand color vision?
The Young-Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory proposed that the retina contains three types of color receptors. Contemporary research has found three types of cones, each most sensitive to the wavelengths of one of the three primary colors of light (red, green, or blue). Hering's opponent-process theory proposed three additional color processes (red-versus-green, blue-versus-yellow, black-versus-white). Contemporary research has confirmed that, en route to the brain, neurons in the retina and the thalamus code the color-related information from the cones into pairs of opponent colors. These two theories, and the research supporting them, show that color processing occurs in two stages.
How do the biological and social-cognitive perspectives explain mood disorders?
The biological perspective on depression focuses on genetic predispositions and on abnormalities in brain structures and function (including those found in neurotransmitter systems). The social-cognitive perspective views depression as an ongoing cycle of stressful experiences (interpreted through negative beliefs, attributions, and memories) leading to negative moods and actions and fueling new stressful experiences.
Why does further weight loss come slowly following a rapid loss during the initial three weeks of a rigorous diet? The number of fat cells makes further weight loss impossible. When a person's hunger increases, metabolism increases. When an obese person's set point has been reached, weight loss increases dramatically. The body reacts as if it's being starved and metabolic rates drop. An obese person cannot maintain a rigorous weight loss diet.
The body reacts as if it's being starved and metabolic rates drop
Synaptic Changes
The brain represents memory in distributed groups of neurons and the nerve cells communicate through synapses Given increased activity in a particular pathway, neural interconnections form or strengthen
During infancy and childhood, how do the brain and motor skills develop?
The brain's nerve cells are sculpted by heredity and experience. Their interconnections multiply rapidly after birth, a process that continues until puberty, when a pruning process begins shutting down unused connections. Complex motor skills—sitting, standing, walking—develop in a predictable sequence, though the timing of that sequence is a function of individual maturation and culture. 46-2
Which of the following changes does not occur with age? -- Visual sharpness diminishes. Distance perception is less acute. Adaptation to light-level changes is less rapid. The lens of the eye becomes more transparent. Senses of smell and hearing diminish.
The lens of the eye becomes more transparent.
Why has psychology generated so much research on the self? How important is self-esteem to psychology and to human well-being?
The self is the center of personality, organizing our thoughts, feelings, and actions. Considering possible selves helps motivate us toward positive development, but focusing too intensely on ourselves can lead to the spotlight effect. High self-esteem (our feeling of self-worth) is beneficial, but unrealistically high self-esteem is dangerous (linked to aggressive behavior) and fragile. Self-efficacy is our sense of competence.
predictive validity
The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior.
volley principle
The theory holding that groups of auditory nerve fibers fire neural impulses in rapid succession, creating volleys of impulses.
What is the main premise of therapy based on operant conditioning principles, and what are the views of its proponents and critics?
Therapy based on operant conditioning principles uses behavior modification techniques to change unwanted behaviors through positively reinforcing desired behaviors and ignoring or punishing undesirable behaviors. Critics maintain that (1) techniques such as those used in token economies may produce behavior changes that disappear when rewards end, and (2) deciding which behaviors should change is authoritarian and unethical. Proponents argue that treatment with positive rewards is more humane than punishing people or institutionalizing them for undesired behaviors.
Taste aversion studies lead researchers to which of the following conclusions? Taste is the most fundamental of the senses. There are genetic predispositions involved in taste learning. Animals must evaluate a situation cognitively before taste aversion develops. Taste aversion is a universal survival mechanism.
There are genetic predispositions involved in taste learning.
The correlation between the IQ scores of fraternal twins raised together is lower than IQ scores of identical twins raised together. What conclusion can be drawn from this data? -- Nothing, because the type of twin has not been held constant. Nothing, because there is no comparison between twins and adopted children. Nothing, because cultural differences have not been considered. There is a genetic effect on intelligence. There is an environmental effect on intelligence.
There is a genetic effect on intelligence.
Feature detectors and temporal lobe
There is an area in the temporal lobe by your right ear that allows you to perceive faces and recognize them from varied viewpoints. If this region were damaged, you might recognize other forms and objects, but not familiar faces. You will, however, be able to recognize houses, because the brain's face-perception occurs separately from its object-perception
Which of the following is generally true of males? -- They have a longer life span. They are more likely to have a democratic leadership style. They are more likely to commit suicide. They are more likely to be diagnosed with depression. They are more likely to be diagnosed with anxiety.
They are more likely to commit suicide.
Which of the following is true of the early formation of brain cells? -- They form at a constant rate throughout the prenatal period. They begin forming slowly, and then the rate increases throughout prenatal development. They form slowly during the prenatal period, and then the rate increases after birth. They form at a constantly increasing rate prenatally and in early childhood. They are overproduced early in the prenatal period, and then the rate decreases and stabilizes.
They are overproduced early in the prenatal period, and then the rate decreases and stabilizes.
In Brad Bushman and Roy Baumeister's research, how did people with unrealistically high self-esteem react when they were criticized? -- They became exceptionally aggressive. Many were more receptive to the criticism. Some became easily depressed. Most worked harder to do better the next time. They quit the task without completing it.
They became exceptionally aggressive.
In what ways do the endocrine and nervous systems act similarly? In what ways do they act differently?
They both produce molecules that act on receptors elsewhere. The nervous system sends messages quickly while the endocrine system moves slowly.
What do scientists believe about the reasons for sleep?
They don't know for sure why sleep occurs or why we need it. believe it has an evolutionary purpose body doesn't do as much recuperation during sleep than we might believe the brain is active during sleep, so we aren't really decreasing activity
What are the goals and techniques of psychoanalysis, and how have they been adapted in psychodynamic therapy?
Through psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud tried to give people self-insight and relief from their disorders by bringing anxiety-laden feelings and thoughts into conscious awareness. - Techniques included using free association and interpretation of instances of resistance and transference. -- Contemporary psychodynamic therapy has been influenced by traditional psychoanalysis but is briefer, less expensive, and more focused on helping the client find relief from current symptoms. Therapists help clients understand themes that run through past and current relationships. Interpersonal therapy is a brief 12- to 16-session form of psychodynamic therapy that has been effective in treating depression.
Eleanor Maccoby's research found which of the following factors to be the least positively correlated with problem behavior in preschool children? Parent income Parent education level Time spent in day care Child's temperament Parent sensitivity
Time spent in day care
Which question expresses the developmental issue of stability and change? -- Are individuals more similar or different from each other? How much of development occurs in distinct stages? How much of development is determined by genetics? To what extent do certain traits persist through the life span? Which traits are most affected by life changes and experience?
To what extent do certain traits persist through the life span?
How do contemporary psychologists view Freud's psychoanalysis?
Today's psychologists give Freud credit for drawing attention to the vast unconscious, to the importance of our sexuality, and to the conflict between biological impulses and social restraints. But Freud's concept of repression, and his view of the unconscious as a collection of repressed and unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories, have not survived scientific scrutiny. Freud offered after-the-fact explanations, which are hard to test scientifically. Research does not support many of Freud's specific ideas, such as the view that development is fixed in childhood. (We now know it is lifelong.)
Which of the following is the best term or phrase for a characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act? Myers-Briggs Indicator Factor analysis Introversion Extroversion Trait
Trait
How do psychologists use traits to describe personality?
Trait theorists see personality as a stable and enduring pattern of behavior. They describe our differences rather than trying to explain them. Using factor analysis, they identify clusters of behavior tendencies that occur together. Genetic predispositions influence many traits.
In the context of psychoanalytic theory, experiencing strong positive or negative feelings for your analyst is a sign of what? Counterconditioning Meta-analysis Transference Tardive dyskinesia Aversive conditioning
Transference
Describe Gestalt psychologists' understanding of perceptual organization, and explain how figure-ground and grouping principles contribute to our perceptions. (long answer)
When given a cluster of sensations, people tend to organize them into a gestalt (whole). In perception, the whole may exceed the sum of its parts. In our eye-brain system, our first perceptual task is to perceive any object (figure) as distinct from its surroundings (ground). For example, the conversation you focus on at a noisy party becomes the figure, while the background conversations are the ground. The words you read are the figure, while the white paper is the ground. The figure-ground relationship between two stimuli allows the brain to organize its visual field into objects that stand out from their surroundings. The second perceptual task is to organize the figure into a meaningful form. Some visual features (color, movement, light-dark contrast) can be processed instantly and automatically. We can organize stimuli by using the process of grouping (perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups). These groups include proximity, continuity, and closure. Proximity is the grouping of nearby figures together. With proximity, we see 3 sets of 2 lines, not 6 separate lines. Continuity is the perception of smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones. (series of alternating semicircles could be perceived as 2 continuous lines- one wavy, one straight) Closure describes our tendency to fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object. The illusion helps construct reality.
When is prosocial modeling most effective? When the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson When the model verbally emphasizes the prosocial lesson but acts as she chooses When the model is predisposed to the prosocial conduct When the observer has a close personal relationship with the model When the model is well-known
When the model acts in a way consistent with the prosocial lesson
How are some ways that help diminish pain?
When we are distracted from pain (a psychological influence) and soothed by the release of our naturally painkilling endorphins (a biological influence), our experience of pain diminishes. People who carry a gene that boosts the availability of endorphins are less bothered by pain, and their brain is less responsive to pain
What's an example of change blindness?
While a man (white hair) provides directions to a construction worker, two experimenters rudely pass between them. During this interruption, the original worker switches places with another person wearing different-colored clothing. Most people, focused on their direction giving, do not notice the switch. Prankster researchers Lars Hall, Petter Johansson, and colleagues (2010) invited people to sample two jams and pick one to retaste. By flipping the jars after putting the lids back on, the researchers actually induced people to "resample" their nonchosen jam. Yet, even when asked whether they noticed anything odd, most tasters were choice blind. Even when given markedly different jams, they usually failed to notice the switch.
Which of the following is true of menopause? -- Both men and women experience menopause around the age of 50. Men experience menopause around 50 years of age, but women experience menopause around 65 years of age. Women experience menopause around 50 years of age, but men experience menopause around 65 years of age. Women experience menopause around the age of 50, but men don't experience menopause. Men experience menopause around the age of 65, but women don't experience menopause.
Women experience menopause around the age of 50, but men don't experience menopause.
locus of control
a belief about whether the outcomes of our actions are contingent on what we do (internal control orientation) or on events outside our personal control (external control) Our beliefs about what causes our actions then influence our behaviors and attitudes Julian Rotter suggested behavior controlled by rewards and punishments The consequences of our actions determine our beliefs about the underlying causes for these actions internal and external
olfactory bulb
a brain structure located above the nasal cavity beneath the frontal lobes
biological psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance
unconditional positive regard
a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude, which Carl Rogers believed would help clients to develop self-awareness and self-acceptance.
Drugs
a chemical substance that can alter perception and mood. -they impact consciousness -they break the blood-brain barrier
Flashbulb memory
a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event -Not free from errors
instinct
a complex, inherited, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species its difficult to use instincts to both label and explain behaviors because there are over 10,000
Blindsight
a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it
intellectual disability
a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound formerly refered to as mental retardation
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment ex) studying for a test (studying to get an A or prevent self from getting F) - Research shows that removal of extrinsic motivators resulted in behavior levels lower than before the reward was given ex) athletes playing for money
illness anxiety disorder
a disorder in which a person interprets normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease. (Formerly called hypochondriasis.)
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by significant deficiencies in communication and social interaction, and by rigidly fixated interests and repetitive behaviors.
normal distribution
a distribution of scores that falls into a bell curve or normal curve. mean, median, and mode fall at same point
Marijuana
a drug, often smoked, whose effects include euphoria, impairment of judgment and concentration and occasionally hallucinations; rarely reported as addictive - can cause sense of time distortion - may linger in body for week or more - produces a feeling of elation, promotes relaxation, relieves inhibitions, relieves anxiety, and increases sensitivity to sights, sounds, and touch THC = ingredient that produces high
fatal familial insomnia
a fatal inherited disorder characterized by progressive insomnia very rare genetic disease-eventually results in complete inability to sleep -many patients go 6-9 months w/o sleep, during which time they develop dementia and eventually death
persistent depressive disorder
a form of depression that is not severe enough to be diagnosed as major depressive disorder They also display at least two of the following symptoms: Problems regulating appetite Problems regulating sleep Low energy Low self-esteem Difficulty concentrating and making decisions Feelings of hopelessness
interpersonal psychotherapy
a form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships aims to help people gain insight into the roots of their difficulties, its goal is symptom relief in the here and now. Rather than focusing mostly on undoing past hurts and offering interpretations, the therapist concentrates primarily on current relationships and on helping people improve their relationship skills.
self-help groups
a group composed of people who have similar problems and who meet together without a therapist or counselor for the purpose of discussion, problem solving, and social and emotional support
AIDS
a life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). AIDS depletes the immune system, leaving the person vulnerable to infections.
cognitive map
a mental representation of the physical features of the environment rats exploring a maze w/out a reward are like people sightseeing in a new town - they develop a cognitive map -Once reward is placed in the maze, the rat performs as well as the rats that have been reinforced with food for running the maze
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
Free association is -- a method of exploring the unconscious. another name for hypnosis. the major function of the superego. an ego defense mechanism. a method of dream analysis.
a method of exploring the unconscious.
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a popular integrative therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior) seeks to make people aware of their irrational negative thinking, to replace it with new ways of thinking, and to practice the more positive approach in everyday settings.
incentive
a positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives
Cocaine
a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria - ILLEGAL - Derivatives (novocaine) are used today as anesthetics - when snorted/inhaled, reaches the brain in minutes - Produces intense euphoria, mental alertness, self-confidence, lasts for several min. - Blocks the reuptake of dopamine - the brain is flooded with dopamine-produced pleasure sensations
LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid -one of the most powerful drugs known - the trip lasts 6-14 hours - Visual distortions and hallucinations - Emotions are very intense and unstable and impaired thought -similar to near death experiences -feelings range from euphoria to detachment to panic peak: people feel separated from their body and dreamlike scenes so real they may become panic-stricken or harm themselves
Methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels - illegal drug manufactured in street labs - HIGHLY addictive
Alzheimer's Disease
a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning Risk increases with age Individuals who are in the early stages of this disease show more MRI activity in the brain than do normal individuals of the same age Underlying symptoms: deterioration of neurons that produce the neurotransmitter acetylcholine
ADHD
a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age 7 of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.
lobotomy
a psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. The procedure cut the nerves connecting the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain It usually decreased the person's misery or tension, but also produced a permanently lethargic, immature, uncreative person.
personality inventory
a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits.
CIPA
a rare disease that exists in which the afflicted person feels no pain due to a genetic mutation that disrupts the development of the small nerve fibers that carry sensations of pain, heat, and cold to the brain people with this condition usually die by early adulthood
dissociative identity disorder (DID)
a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. Formerly called multiple personality disorder.
Self-Concept
a sense of one's identity and personal worth, emerges gradually around 6 months Charles Darwin: around 15-18 months, children can recognize themselves in the mirror which indicates self-recognition emerges gradually over a year By 8-10: self-image is stable and children can describe themselves in terms of gender, group memberships, and compare themselves to other children - Children's view of themselves affect their actions as children who form a positive concept are more confident, independent, and sociable
gender roles
a set of expected behaviors for males or for females culture influences gender roles Role: set of expectations about a social position, defining how those positions ought to act.
zygote
a single cell formed by the union of a sperm and an egg
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
Nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco increases the level of other neurotransmitters and chemicals that modulate how your brain works. ex) endorphins are produced like caffeine: increases heart and breathing rates and other automatic functions to provide energy
oxytocin
a stress-moderating hormone associated with pair bonding in animals and released by cuddling, massage, and breast feeding in humans
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors hypnotic pain relief- has helped alleviate headaches, asthma, skin disorders
Biofeedback
a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension
achievement test
a test designed to assess what a person has learned
Von Restorff Effect
a unique item embedded in an otherwise homogeneous list is recalled better than the average homogeneous items, and items immediately around the distinctive one are also remembered better
insight therapies
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person's awareness of underlying motives and defenses
insight therapy
a variety of therapies that aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client's awareness of underlying motives and defenses - psychoanalytic - interpersonal
freudian slip
a verbal mistake that is thought to reveal an unconscious belief, thought, or emotion not something you meant to say, but was brought out through your unconscious thought
which of the following is an example of gene enviornment interaction? a) Yeh Lin experiences flushing syndrome, which mostly occurs in those of Asian heritage b) Alfonso gets food poisoning from eating undercooked meat c) Ted gets diabetes, which runs in his family, because he eats to much sugary food d)Samantha has a food allergy to shellfish e) Jordan has an autoimmune disorder that causes him to lose hair
a) Yeh Lin experiences flushing syndrome, which mostly occurs in those of Asian heritage
which of the following refers to an effect of life experience that leaves a molecular mark that affect gene expression a) epigenetics b) adaptation c) evolution d) natural selection e) universal moral grammar
a) epigenetics
which is one of the major criticisms of the evolutionary perspective is psychology a) in analyzes after the fact of using hindsight b) it attempts to extend a biological theory into a psychological realm c) there is very little evidence to support it d) it has not been around long enough to "stand the test of time" e) it seems to apply in certain cultures but not others
a) in analyzes after the fact of using hindsight
which of the following is true regarding the initiation of sexual activity a) men are more likely to initiate sex than women b) women are more likely to initiate sex than men c) the initiation of sexual activity for both men and women correlates with how many television sitcoms they viewed as children d) men and women are equally likely to initiate sexual activity e) who initiates sexual activity is largely determined by culture
a) men are more likely to initiate sex than women
Frequency theory relates to which element of the hearing process? a. Rate at which the basilar membrane vibrates b. Number of fibers in the auditory nerve c. Point at which the basilar membrane exhibits the most vibration d. Decibel level of sound e. Number of hair cells in each cochlea
a. Rate at which the basilar membrane vibrates
Two monocular depth cues are most responsible for our ability to know that a jet flying overhead is at an elevation of several miles. One cue is relative size. What is the other? a. Relative motion b. Retinal disparity c. Interposition d. Light and shadow e. Linear perspective
a. Relative motion
Damage to which of the following could interfere with the ability to plan for the future? a. frontal lobe b. temporal lobe c. parietal lobe d. occipital lobe e. somatosensory cortex
a. frontal lobe
Cognitive neural prosthetics are placed in the brain to help control part of the a. motor cortex b. auditory cortex c. somatosensory cortex d. visual cortex e. parietal lobe
a. motor cortex
Which of the following endocrine glands may explain unusually tall heigh in a 12-year-old? a. pituitary b. adrenal c. pancreas d. parasympathetic e. testes
a. pituitary
theory of mind
ability to attribute mental states-beliefs, intents, knowledge, etc. to oneself and others And understand that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives that are different from one's own
Recall
ability to retrieve info, not in conscious awareness
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
Self Actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential - wholeness, perfection, completion, meaningfulness (meta-needs: impulses for self-actualization)
peak experiences
according to Maslow, times in a person's life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved when we have growth orientation we are open to new and joyful experiences.
electric approach
an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy blend of psychotherapies
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation
sexual orientation
an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)
Shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.``` ex) learning the steps to ride a bike
critical period
an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development
punishment
any consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior it follows
agression
any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy men admit to more aggression than women do. - gender gap refers to harmful physical aggression, rather than indirect or verbal relational aggression (spreading rumors, ostracism)
behavior therapy
applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors - Doubt healing power of self awareness - Assume problem behaviors are the problems and applications learning principles can eliminate them - Used to treat phobias or sexual disorders, behavior therapists don't delve deeply below the surface for inner causes
which of the following statements has been supported by the research of evolutionary psychologists a) women are attracted to men who appear virile b) men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children c) the connection between sex and pleasure is mostly determined by culture d) the same factors determine sexual attraction in both males and females e) most adults are attracted to partners that in some way remind them of their parents
b) men are attracted to women who appear fertile and capable of bearing children
The dual-processing model refers to which of the following ideas? a. The right and left hemispheres of the brain both process incoming messages. b. Incoming information is processed by both conscious and unconscious tracks. c. Each lobe of the brain processes incoming information. d. The brain first processes emotional information and then processes analytical information. e. The thalamus and hypothalamus work together to analyze incoming sensory information.
b. Incoming information is processed by both conscious and unconscious tracks.
counterconditioning
behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; include exposure therapies and aversive conditioning pairs the trigger stimulus (in this case, the enclosed space of the elevator) with a new response (relaxation) that is incompatible with fear. Indeed, behavior therapists have successfully counterconditioned people with such fears. Two specific counterconditioning techniques—exposure therapy and aversive conditioning—replace unwanted responses.
Animism
belief that all things are living, just like oneself Youngers attribute lifelike, human qualities to inanimate objects, asking question such as "when does the ocean stop to rest?" or "why does the wind get so mad?"
Ernest Hilgard
believed hypnosis involves not only social influences but also a special state of dissociation viewed hypnotic dissociation as a vivid form of everyday mind splits (doodling while listening to a lecture)
Kolberg's Levels of Moral Development
believed that moral reasoning was much more complex than the two stage process proposed by Piaget. He believed that children become more advanced in their moral reasoning across developmental stages. Level 1: focus on self (pre conventional) 1. punish 2. reward Level 2: focus on others (conventional) 3. good 4. law Level 3: focus on all (post conventional) 5. social 6. universal
subliminal messages
brief auditory or visual messages that are presented below the absolute threshold a brief stimulus often triggers a weak response that can be detected by brain scanning. Only when the stimulus triggers synchronized activity in several brain areas does it reach consciousness.
what was one of the major findings of Thomas Bouchard's study of twins a) it demonstrated that peer influence is more important than parental influence in the development of personally traits b) it proved that the influence of parental enviornment becomes more and more important as children grow into adults c) he discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult and identical twins who had been separated near birth d) fraternal twins showed almost as much similarity as identical twins when they reached adulthood e) it provided evidence that heritability is less important than researchers previously suspected
c) he discovered almost unbelievable similarities between adult and identical twins who had been separated near birth
Our tendency to see faces in clouds and other ambiguous stimuli is partly based on what perception principle? a. Selective attention b. ESP c. Perceptual set d. Share constancy e. Bottom-up processing
c. Perceptual set
What is the purpose of the iris? a. To focus light on the retina b. To process color c. To allow light into the eye d. To enable night vision e. To detect specific shapes
c. To allow light into the eye
Which of the following brain areas is responsible for regulating thirst? a. reticular activating system b. amygdala c. hypothalamus d. hippocampus e. brainstem
c. hypothalamus
Which of the following communicates with the pituitary, which in turn controls the endocrine system? a. parathyroids b. autonomic nervous system c. hypothalamus d. spinal cord e. pancreas
c. hypothalamus
clashes
called intrapsychic or psychodynamic conflicts - the process can cause stress or anxiety - ego tries to prevent anxiety, guilt, and other unpleasant feelings. sometimes the ego helps us negotiate situations and sometimes we use defense mechanisms
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they may also play a role in learning and thinking
Insecurely attached
child is unable to be comforted or is violent or distant upon return Tend to have difficulty trusting others later in life
Securely attached
child is upset but can be calmed Suggests child uses the parent as a safe bases to explore environment. Child can return if there is trouble or upset Tend to have more comfortable relationships later in life
Bowbly's attachment theory
children biologically pre-programmed to form attachments with others, because this will help them to survive Stimulate innate caregiver responses from adults Determinant of attachment is not food, but care and responsiveness Produce innate 'social releaser' behaviors: crying/smiling
Competence vs. Inferiority
children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior
Mental age
chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance, general capacity that shows up in various ways (mental aptitude)
Client's Perceptions
client self-reports indicate that psychotherapy is effective -- for several reasons, client testimonials don't persuade psychotherapy's skeptics: -people often enter therapy in crisis -clients may need to believe the therapy was worth the effort -clients generally speak kindly of their therapists
carl jung
collective unconscious: contained a common reservoir of images derived from our species' past Founded analytical psychology Proposed and developed the concepts of the extraverted and the introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious Jung's primary disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious Saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete and unnecessarily negative - archetypes
physical dependence
compulsive use of a drug to maintain bodily comfort as indicated by the presence of drug tolerance and withdrawal symptoms- need to feel normal - cravings
False Memory syndrome
condition in which a person's identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of a traumatic experience which is sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists
Dissociative disorder
conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories and thoughts, and feelings When situations become overwhelming or stressful, people dissociate themselves from it This explanation presumes the existence of repressed memories, which have been questioned Symptoms: - Having a sense of being unreal - Being separated from the body - Watching yourself as if in a movie - These disorders involve a disruption in the conscious process
rehearsal
conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it or encode for storage
nerves
consist of neural cables containing many axons connect muscles, glands, and sense organs to CNS
group therapy
consists of 6-9 people attending 90 min. Session that can help more people and cost less Clients benefit from knowing others have similar problems Doesn't provide same decree of therapist involvement w/each client
somatic nervous system
contains motor nerves needed to activate voluntary muscles
Kimberly tells her brother to put on a suit on a warm summer day. Kimberly's brother knows to put on a swimsuit instead of a business suit because of - context. - ESP. - precognition. - bottom-up processing. - clairvoyance.
context
aging and intelligence
cross-sectional studies suggest it declines; longitudinal studies suggest it does not
Human Genome (DNA) researchers have discovered that a) chimpanzees are completely different from humans, sharing a small DNA sequence percentage b) the occasional variations found at a particular gene sites in human DNA are of no interest to science c) many genes do not influence most of our traits d) genetic predispositions do not help explain our shared human nature and human diversity
d) genetic predispositions do not help explain our shared human nature and human diversity
in an effort to reveal genetic influences on personality researchers use adoption studies mainly for what purpose a) to compare adopted children with non adopted children b) to study the effect of prior neglect on adopted children c) to study the effect of a child's age at adoption d) to evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents e) to consider the effects of adoption on a child's, manners and values
d) to evaluate whether adopted children more closely resemble their adoptive parents or their biological parents
What neurotransmitters are most likely in undersupply in someone who is depressed? a. Dopamine and GABA b. ACh and norepinephrine c. Dopamine and norepinephrine d. Serotonin and norepinephrine e. Serotonin and glutamate
d. Serotonin and norepinephrine
Anti-anxiety drugs
drugs used to control anxiety and agitation depress central nervous system activity. often used in combination with psychological therapy. One antianxiety drug, the antibiotic D-cycloserine, acts upon a receptor that, in combination with behavioral treatments, facilitates the extinction of learned fears. Experiments indicate that the drug enhances the benefits of exposure therapy and helps relieve the symptoms of PTSD and OCD. criticism: reduce symptoms without resolving underlying problems - "Popping a Xanax" at the first sign of tension can create a learned response; the immediate relief reinforces a person's tendency to take drugs when anxious. - Anti-anxiety drugs can also be addicting. After heavy use, people who stop taking them may experience increased anxiety, insomnia, and other withdrawal symptoms. Over the dozen years at the end of the twentieth century, the rate of outpatient treatment for anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD nearly doubled.
Antidepressants
drugs used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD (several are selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors- SSRIs) The label is a bit of a misnomer now that these drugs are increasingly being used to successfully treat anxiety disorders, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and posttraumatic stress disorder. These drugs are agonists; they work by increasing the availability of certain neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine or serotonin, which elevate arousal and mood and appear scarce when a person experiences feelings of depression or anxiety. Prozac and its cousins Zoloft and Paxil, work by blocking the reabsorption and removal of serotonin from synapses (FIGURE 73.1). Given their use in treating disorders other than depression—from anxiety to strokes—this group of drugs is most often called SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) rather than antidepressants Some of the older antidepressant drugs work by blocking the reabsorption or breakdown of both norepinephrine and serotonin. Though effective, these dual-action drugs have more potential side effects, such as dry mouth, weight gain, hypertension, or dizzy spells
antipsychotic drugs
drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder - calm patients w/psychoses ex) chlorpromazine dampened responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli - provided most help to patients w/positive symptoms of schizophrenia (hallucinations & paranoia) most are antagonists: similar enough to molecules of neurotransmitter dopamine to occupy its receptor sites and block its activity have powerful side effects: - Some produce sluggishness, tremors, and twitches similar to those of Parkinson's disease - Long-term use of antipsychotics can produce tardive dyskinesia, with involuntary movements of the facial muscles (such as grimacing), tongue, and limbs. Antipsychotics, combined with life-skills programs and family support, have given new hope to many people with schizophrenia. - - Hundreds of thousands of patients have left the wards of mental hospitals and returned to work and to near-normal lives
heritability refers to the percentage of what a) group variation in a trait that can be explained by environment b) traits shared by identical twins c) traits shared by fraternal twins d) traits shared by adopted children and their birth parents e) group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics
e) group variation in a trait that can be explained by genetics
You are aware that a dog is viciously barking at you, but you are not aware of the type of dog. Later, you are able to describe the type and color of the dog. This ability to process information without conscious awareness best exemplifies which of the following? a. split brain b. blindsight c. consciousness d. cognitive neuroscience e. dual processing
e. dual processing
George can move his hand to sign a document because the ______, located in the ________ lobe of the brain, allows him to activate the proper muscles. a. somatosensory cortex; temporal b. somatosensory cortex; parietal c. motor cortex; parietal d. somatosensory cortex; frontal e. motor cortex; frontal
e. motor cortex; frontal
Which of the following is sometimes referred to as the brain's train hub, because it directs incoming sensory messages (with the exception of smell) to their proper places in the brain? a. hypothalamus b. pituitary c. cerebellum d. limbic system e. thalamus
e. thalamus
biopsychosocial system
each individual is this kind of system: their cells make organs, their organs make up an individual and its processes, and the individual is part of a family, culture, community Stress affects body chemistry and health. And chemical imbalances, whatever their cause, can produce schizophrenia, depression, and other mental disorders.
Many clinical psychologists incorporate a variety of approaches into their therapy. They are said to take a(n) ___________ approach. transference biomedical psychoanalytic eclectic psychodynamic
eclectic
overjustification effect
effect of promising a reward for doing what someone already likes to do - A reward may lesson and replace the person's original, natural motivation, so that the behavior stops if the reward is eliminated ex) reading programs
EEG
electroencephalograph measures brain waves and electrical activity found in sleep studies; skull cap or independent electrodes which measure brain activity non-invasive observations bad: doesn't show structures or anatomy of the brain
In many Western societies, it is common for adolescents to graduate high school, go to college, and still live at home with their parents. They have not yet assumed full adult responsibilities and independence. Psychologists have identified this period of time as adulthood. early adulthood. emerging adulthood. late adolescence. role confusion.
emerging adulthood.
archetypes
emotionally charged images and thought forms that have universal meaning - universal symbolic images that appear across cultures in myths, art, stories, and dreams ex) Darth Vader v. superman Archetype = evil & goodness Jung also proposed that the entire human race shares a collective unconscious
Exercise and sleep
exercise improves sleep and sleep improves athletic performance
sublimination
expend energy on prosocial activities in order to avoid undesired activities ex) You have anger issues. Instead of hitting people on the streets, you train as an MMA fighter. Sign of maturity that allows people to function normally in socially acceptable ways
Even as newborns, we prefer sights and sounds that facilitate social responsiveness. This can be seen by a newborn's preference for soft music. face-like images. low pitched sounds. soft colors. loud music.
face-like images.
Bipolar Disorder
formerly called manic-depressive disorder Alternation b/t depression and mania signals bipolar disorders - Overactive, elated, little need for sleep, few sexual inhibitions, loud What goes up must come down Bipolar 1 : extreme mania and deep depression, one type of manic depressive illness Bipolar 2: person is mainly sad but has one or more hypo-manic episodes Depressive symptoms: - Gloomy - Withdrawn - Inability to make decisions - tired Manic symptoms: - Elation - Euphoria - Desire for action - Hyperactive - Multiple ideas Many great writers, poets, and composers suffered from this disorder During manic phase, creativity surged but not during their depressed phase
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
gap between what a child can do without help and what he can do only with support Children build high level cognitive functioning by isolating ZPD and providing assistance to solve more complex problems with support
biological influences on drug use
genetic predisposition, variations in neurotransmitter systems addictive gene can give someone tendency for affection and also need for the higher amount of the drug for the same impact
As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. The decrease in an infant's responsiveness is called concentration. teratogens. habituation. stability. transference.
habituation
Lev Vygotsky
had an alternative approach to cognitive development Disagreed with Piaget that children move through stages of cognitive development in an orderly fashion * Children learn according to their own schedule - Have a range of abilities under which they're able to operate ZPD
Disturbed perceptions
hallucinations (sensory experience w/o sensory info) & delusions (false beliefs) - Inappropriate Emotions & Behaviors Laugh at inappropriate times Flat Affect: emotionless state Senseless, compulsive acts- may laugh at news of someone dying or show no emotion at all Catatonia: may continually rub an arm, rock a chair, or remain motionless for hours
Test retest reliability
having same individual take the same test at 2 different times
How do the learning and biological perspectives explain anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD?
he learning perspective views anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD as products of fear conditioning, stimulus generalization, fearful-behavior reinforcement, and observational learning of others' fears and cognitions (interpretations, irrational beliefs, and hypervigilance). The biological perspective considers the role that fears of life-threatening animals, objects, or situations played in natural selection and evolution; genetic predispositions for high levels of emotional reactivity and neurotransmitter production; and abnormal responses in the brain's fear circuits.
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
Charles Spearman
helped develop factor analysis and believed in general intelligence (g factor)
Norepinephrine
helps control alertness and arousal; undersupply linked to depression
hyperglycemia
high blood sugar occurs when blood sugar levels run too high. This is also known as diabetes. Its caused by cells in the pancreas that do not metabolize carbs.
short wavelength
high frequency (bluish colors, high-pitched sounds)
All of the following are examples of primary reinforcers except a rat's food reward in a Skinner box. cold drink on a hot day. high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently. hug from a loved one. large meal following an extended time without food.
high score on an exam for which a student studied diligently.
Content validity
how well a test measures the total meaning of the concept and if it's a reasonably representative of the material it's evaluating
Schizophrenia
if depression is the common cold, schizophrenia is cancer - Affects men and women equally, but men suffer from it more severely - Strikes young people as they mature into adults - 1 in 100 suffer from schizophrenia - No known cause Symptoms: - Disorganized thinking - Disturbed perceptions - Inappropriate emotions and actions Literal translation is "split mind" - Not multiple personality split but rather a split from reality
Prolonged deprivation
if parental or caregiver support is deprived for an extended period of time, children are at risk for physical, psychological, and social problems, including alterations in brain serotonin levels A sluggish serotonin response has been found in abused children who become abusers
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the cochlea's basilar membrane. Thus, the brain determines a sound's pitch by recognizing the specific place (on the membrane) that is generating the neural signal.
grit
in psychology, grit is passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
Masters and Johnson Study
in the 1960s, William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex 362 females and 312 males Had participants masturbate and have sex and recorded over 10,000 responses
perceptual adaptation
in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field
Erikson's stages of psychosocial development
infancy: trust vs. mistrust toddlerhood (1-3): autonomy vs. shame and doubt preschool (3-6): initiative vs. guilt elementary school (6-puberty): industry vs. inferiority adolescence (teen-20s): identity vs. role confusion young adulthood (20s to early 40s): intimacy vs. isolation middle adulthood (40s-60s): generativity vs. stagnation late adulthood (60s and up): integrity vs. despair
maturation stages
infant growth is rapid and steady - Sitting up - by 7 mo - Walking 1 year - Running 18 mo to 2 years - Fine motor control 2-4 years Great deal of variability in when children reach these milestones, but these are general guidelines
LOC: Preconscious
information about yourself and environment that you're not currently thinking about but could be ex) you aren't currently thinking about your favorite childhood toy, but if asked about it, you would be
According to Carol Dweck, students are often hampered by a "fixed mindset." This means they believe: -- intelligence is biologically set and unchangeable. it is never good to change your mind once it is made up. intelligence can be "repaired" by doing specific mental exercises. they have already done everything they can to improve. problems can only be solved a particular way.
intelligence is biologically set and unchangeable.
The Question of Bias
intelligence tests measure developed abilities which reflect your education and expperuna, aptitude tests are biased in a sense that they are sensitive to performance difference caused by cultural aspects
Classical conditioning vs Operant conditioning
involuntary vs voluntary
Why is sensory adaptation important?
it gives us the freedom to focus on informative changes in our environment without being distracted by background chatter. Stinky or heavily perfumed classmates don't notice their odor because, like you and me, they adapt to what's constant and detect only change. Our sensory receptors are alert to novelty; bore them with repetition and they free our attention for more important things. We will see this principle again and again: We perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useful for us to perceive it. Our sensitivity to changing stimulation helps explain television's attention-grabbing power. Cuts, edits, zooms, pans, sudden noises—all demand attention. Sensory adaptation even influences our perceptions of emotions. By creating a 50-50 morphed blend of an angry and a scared face, researchers showed that our visual system adapts to a static facial expression by becoming less responsive to it
Synapse
junction between axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of cell body of the receiving neuron; tiny gap = synaptic gap; axon potential can't jump gap
survey method
kind of correlational research in which surveys are filled out; difficult to control for confounding variables - independent variable not manipulated
hypoglycemia
low blood sugar occurs when blood sugar levels run too low through a lack of food. This is usually accompanied by feelings of dizziness and weakness.
Carol Gilligan's research emphasizes prominent female characteristics, especially spatial abilities. making social connections. playing in large groups. talking a great deal. playing in competitive groups.
making social connections.
correlational research
measure of the relationship between 2 items/variables does NOT say that one variable CAUSES another
Achievement tests are to aptitude tests as -- verbal performance is to spatial performance. elementary school skills are to secondary school skills. measurement is to prediction. reliability is to validity. general intelligence is to multiple intelligences.
measurement is to prediction.
psychiatrists
medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs and otherwise treat physical causes of psychological disorders
The original formula for a child's intelligence quotient compared a child's -- aptitude to his or her school performance. mental age to his or her chronological age. intelligence to his or her siblings' intelligence. intelligence to his or her parents' intelligence. math intelligence to his or her verbal intelligence.
mental age to his or her chronological age.
taste buds
microscopic structures on the bumps on the tongue surface, back of the throat, and inside the cheeks (200 or more) - die and are replaced every 10 days - number of taste buds and sensitivity decrease with age
memory
mind's storehouse with all accumulated learning; any indication that learning has persisted over time. It's our ability to store and retrieve information. If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be seen as a stranger, every language foreign, every task new...
Multiple sclerosis is a result of degeneration in the dendrite. axon. myelin sheath. terminal button. neuron.
myelin sheath.
Heroin
narcotic drug derived from opium that is extremely addictive user gets a short-lived feeling of blissful pleasure (3-5 hrs) followed by a craving for another fix, the need for progressively larger does and physical withdrawal symptoms
Biological perspective of anxiety
natural selection has led our ancestors to learn to fear snakes, spiders, etc. Therefor, fear preserves the species Genes may be partly responsible for developing fears/anxiety Twins are more likely to share problems Generalized anxiety, panic attacks, and even OCD are linked w/brain circuits like the anterior cingulate cortex
Sexual Motivation
nature's clever way of making people procreate, enabling our species to survive
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian, humanistic; 8 psychosocial stages of development: theory shows how people evolve through the life span. Each stage is marked by a psychological crisis that involves confronting "Who am I?"
future detectors
nerve cells in the visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Human Research Ethics
no coercion, informed consent, anonymity or confidentiality, risk, debriefing
According to Plomin and Daniels, "Two children in the same family are [apart from their shared genes] as different from __________ as are pairs of children selected randomly from the population." their parents their grandparents their friends one another their cousins
one another
Fluid intelligence
our ability to reason speedily and abstractly - tends to decrease during late adulthood ex) being more forgetful
Crystallized Intelligence
our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills - tend to increase with age ex) riding a bike and ice skating once learned you can do it years later
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory
our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical - analytical (academic problem-solving): assessed by traditional intelligence tests, which present well-defined problems having a single right answer. predict school grades reasonably well and vocational success more modestly - creative: demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas. many inventions result from such creative problem solving. - practical: required for everyday tasks, which may be ill-defined, with multiple solutions. managerial success, for example, depends less on academic problem-solving skills than on shrewd ability to manage oneself, one's tasks, and other people. Sternberg and Richard Wagner offer a test of practical managerial intelligence that measures skill at writing effective memos, motivating people, delegating tasks and responsibilities, reading people, and promoting one's career. business executives who score relatively high on this test tend to earn high salaries and receive high performance ratings.
Authoritative
parents are demanding but responsive to their children. Exert control not only by setting rules and enforcing them but also by explaining the reasons and exceptions when making the rules Also known as Democratic parenting
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object If you view an isolated tomato through a paper tube, its color would seem to change as the light—and thus the wavelengths reflected from its surface—changed. But if you viewed that tomato as one item in a bowl of fresh fruit and vegetables, its color would remain roughly constant as the lighting shifts.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
persistent unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action ex) obsession about dirt and germs may lead to compulsive hand washing Excessive thoughts that lead to repetitive behaviors Often centers on themes such as fear of germs or the need to arrange objects in a specific manner Symptoms appear gradually
Kohlberg's Levels of Moral Thinking
pre-conventional morality: before age 9 - self-interest; obey rules to avoid punishment or gain concrete awards "If you save your wife, you'll be a hero" conventional morality: early adolescence - uphold laws and rules to gain social approval or maintain social order "If you steal the drug, everyone will think you're a criminal post-conventional morality: adolescence and beyond - actions reflect belied in basic rights and self-defined ethical principles "people have a right to live"
Students who do well on college entrance exams generally do well in their first year of college. This helps establish that these exams have predictive validity. split-half reliability. content validity. test-retest reliability. standard validity.
predictive validity.
lazy eye
reduced vision in one eye caused by abnormal visual developments early in life; the weaker (lazy) eye often wanders inward and outward
denial
refuse to perceive reality in order to protect ourselves from it. Often this is done in the face of obvious truth Protects the ego that can't cope with reality May save us from anxiety or pain but requires a substantial investment of energy
How do positive and negative reinforcement differ, and what are the basic types of reinforcers?
reinforcement is any consequence that strengthens behavior. Positive reinforcement adds a desirable stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Negative reinforcement removes an aversive stimulus to increase the frequency of a behavior. Primary reinforcers (such as receiving food when hungry or having nausea end during an illness) are innately satisfying—no learning is required. Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers (such as cash) are satisfying because we have learned to associate them with more basic rewards (such as the food or medicine we buy with them). Immediate reinforcers (such as a purchased treat) offer immediate payback; delayed reinforcers (such as a weekly paycheck) require the ability to delay gratification.
Carol Dweck
reports that believing intelligence is biologically set and unchanging can lead to a "fixed mindset"
Single-blind procedure
research design in which participants don't know whether they are in the experimental or control group
dopamine overactivity
researchers found that schizophrenic patients express higher levels of dopamine D4 receptors in the brain Brain scans show abnormal activity in the frontal cortex, thalamus, and amygdala
Cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations. cluster in and around the fovea. Many have their own hotline to the brain: Each one transmits to a single bipolar cell that helps relay the cone's individual message to the visual cortex, which devotes a large area to input from the fovea. These direct connections preserve the cones' precise information, making them better able to detect fine detail.
Rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond share bipolar cells with other rods, sending combined messages
regression
retreat to behavior or thinking like a child in order to avoid adult issues - Throwing a temper tantrum ex) blaming referees when you failed on the field. Or a soccer player pretending to be injured
Psychopathology
scientific study of mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
pineal gland
secretion of hormone melatonin; regulation of endocrine functions conversion of nervous system signals to endocrine signals influences sexual development and feeling of sleepiness
What evidence reveals self-serving bias, and how do defensive and secure self-esteem differ?
self-serving bias is our tendency to perceive ourselves favorably, as when viewing ourselves as better than average or when accepting credit for our successes but not blame for our failures. Defensive self-esteem is fragile, focuses on sustaining itself, and views failure or criticism as a threat. Secure self-esteem enables us to feel accepted for who we are.
Tyshane went swimming with friends who did not want to get into the pool because the water felt cold. Tyshane jumped in and after a few minutes declared, "It was cold when I first got in, but now my body is used to it. Come on in!" Tyshane's body became accustomed to the water due to - perceptual set. - absolute threshold. - difference threshold. - selective attention. - sensory adaptation.
sensory adaptation
Research on the heritability of personality
shared family environment appears to have remarkably little impact on personality This unexpected finding has been observed quite consistently in behavioral genetics research
1st meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies
showed that the average therapy client ends up better off than 80 percent of the untreated individuals on waiting lists Those not undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve more quickly, and with less risk of relapse.
correlation coefficient
shows the degree of relationship; numbers fall between -1.0 and 1.0 - the higher the #, the stronger the relationship - (+)/(-)= direction - #= strength x=1.0 - perfect positive x=0 - no relationship x=-1.0 - perfect negative
Natalia is washing her hands and adjusts the faucet handle until the water feels just slightly hotter than it did before. Natalia's adjustment until she feels a difference is an example of - a subliminal stimulus. - an absolute threshold. - a difference threshold. - signal detection. - Weber's law.
signal detection
What are examples of the signal detection theory?
signal detection theory: a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise) people respond differently to the same stimuli ; some teachers are much more likely than others to detect students texting in class the same person's reaction to a stimuli can vary as circumstances change- exhausted parents will notice the faintest whimper from a newborn's cradle while failing to notice louder, unimportant sounds
Humanistic psychologists often prefer to assess personality by -- having a person write out answers to questions. sitting down and talking to a person. getting a person to describe what he or she sees in ambiguous inkblots. having a person describe their dreams. putting a person in a stressful situation to see how he or she behaves under pressure.
sitting down and talking to a person.
Hypothalamus
sleep control center of the brain monitors changes in light or dark in the environment changes levels of hormones in the body
Sleep: preservation
sleep helps us eliminate waste products, repair cells and brain tissue, strengthen the immune system fine-tuning our brains, our bodies use the opportunity of sleep to carry out housekeeping tasks
STAGE 2:
sleep spindles "baseline" of sleep-part of 90 min cycle and occupies approx. 45-60% of sleep. - brain waves slow dramatically-not easy to wake up -sleep spindles (bursts of neural activity-neural firings) occur
The ___________ is a culturally determined timetable for certain events, such as having children and retirement. critical period menopause intimacy phase attachment stage social clock
social clock
What does touching various spots on the skin w/a soft hair, warm or cool wire, and the point of a pin reveal about our skin?
some spots on the skin are especially sensitive to pressure, others to warmth, others to cold, and others to pain. Other skin sensations are variations of the basic 4. Ex) Stroking adjacent pressure spots creates a tickle. Repeated gentle stroking of a pain spot creates an itching sensation. Touching adjacent cold and pressure spots triggers a sense of wetness, which you can experience by touching dry, cold metal. Stimulating nearby cold and warm spots produces the sensation of hot
What are some examples of absolute threshold?
some stimuli we are exquisitely sensitive- standing atop a mountain on an utterly dark, clear night, most of us could see a candle flame atop another mountain 30 miles away, we could feel the wing of a bee falling on our cheek, we could smell a single drop of perfume in a 3-room apartment
Hypnosis
state of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion calm and trancelike state during which you have a heightened concentration and focus and in which you're typically more open to suggestion
ecstasy
stimulant and mild hallucinogen -Club drug - increases empathy, peacefulness, the person feels calm or relaxed - Immediate dehydrating effects, The decline in memory and performance, Long-term serotonin changes in the brain → depression
goal of aversive conditioning
substituting a negative (aversive) response for a positive response to a harmful stimulus (such as alcohol). Thus, aversive conditioning is the reverse of systematic desensitization—it seeks to condition an aversion to something the person should avoid.
If you showed a 2-year-old that you'd hidden a toy behind the bed in a model of her bedroom, she would not be able to find the toy in her real bedroom because she lacks analytical thinking. random thinking. symbolic thinking. schematic thinking. egocentric thinking.
symbolic thinking.
overconfidence
tend to think we know more than we do
hindsight bias
tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that you knew it all along
centration
tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects When working on the conservation problem with water, pre-operational children tend to concentrate on the height of water while ignoring width.
Wechler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
the WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests includes: - similarities: reasoning the commonality of 2 objects or concepts, such as "IN what way are wool and cotton alike?" - Vocab: naming pictured objects, or defining words "what is a guitar" - block design: visual abstract processing, such as "using the 4 blocks, make one just like this." - letter-number sequencing: On hearing a series of numbers and letters, repeat the numbers in ascending order, and then the letters in alphabetical order: "R-2-C-1-M-3." - - - * It yields not only an overall intelligence score, as does the Stanford-Binet, but also separate scores for verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed. Striking differences among these scores can provide clues to cognitive strengths or weaknesses that teachers or therapists can build upon.
Superstitious behavior can be produced by careful manipulation of a classical conditioning experiment. the accidental timing of rewards. possession of a large number of traditionally lucky items. cognitive awareness of superstitious behavior in others. the change in a reinforcement schedule from ratio to interval.
the accidental timing of rewards.
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Heritability of intelligence refers to -- the extent to which a person's intelligence is caused by genetics. the effect of adoption on the intelligence of adopted children. the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics. the extent to which the quality of schools and other environmental factors determine intelligence. the correlation between intelligence test scores of identical twins.
the amount of group variation in intelligence that can be attributed to genetics.
How do we detect loudness?
the brain can interpret loudness from the number of activated hair cells. a soft, pure tone activates only the few hair cells attuned to its frequency. Given louder sounds, neighboring hair cells also respond. Thus, the brain can interpret loudness from the number of activated hair cells.
electromagnetic spectrum
the complete range of electromagnetic waves placed in order of increasing frequency includes short waves of gamma waves to long waves
Working Memory (short-term)
the component of the information-processing system in which current conscious mental activity occurs It's not a shelf to temporarily hold info but an active desktop where your brain processes It helps make sense of new input and linking it with long term memory Has a limited capacity (7 +/- 2) May increase by "chunking" A short duration (20 seconds) Without rehearsal, the average person retains only about 4 chunks in short-term memory
conditions of worth
the conditions a person must meet in order to regard himself or herself positively feelings being evaluated as a person, rather than action
extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
Extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)
Proactive Interference
the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information As you collect more info, your mental attic never fills but gets cluttered
psychodynamic theories
the diverse theories, decided from the work of Sigmund Freud, that focus on unconscious mental forces - psychoanalysis
psychological dependence
the feeling that a drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotional or psychological well-being absence of drug --> negative feelings
Glucose
the form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger. Insulin decreases glucose in the blood, making us feel hungry - Levels of glucose in the blood are monitored by receptors (neurons) in the stomach, liver, and intestines - They send signals to the hypothalamus in the brain - The reduction of blood glucose stimulates orexin in the LH, which leads rats to eat ravenously
Attachment theory
the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life proposed as one way to understand social development Attachment: deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space
Albert Bandura
the importance of conscious thoughts and emotions The social cognitive perspective of personality: emphasizes the importance of observational learning, self-efficacy, situational influences, and cognitive processes Emphasized the importance of social learning or learning through observation - social cognitive approach - reciprocal determinism - self-efficacy
Anterograde Amnesia
the inability to create new memories
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information contains cells that convert light energy to nerve impulses to process visual info made of 3 cell layers: receptor, bipolar, ganglion receives an upside-down image
Relearning
the measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time
positive psychology
the scientific study of human functioning, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive what makes life good, fulfilling, positive?
retinal ganglion cells
the specialized cells which lie behind the bipolar cells whose axons form the optic nerve which takes the information to the brain break down visual stimuli into small components and have receptive fields with center surround organization
Psycophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
evolutionary psychologists
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
closure
the tendency to look at the whole by filling in the gaps in a perceptual field
false consensus effect
the tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors
continuity
the tendency to perceive that movement of an object continues once it appears to move in a particular direction
proximity
the tendency to place items that are physically close to each other in a group
opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green suggests color perception is controlled by activity of 2 opponent systems can't see certain colors in a combo
gate control theory of pain
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain.
menopause
the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines
ear drum
the tissue barrier that transfers sound vibration from the air to the tiny bones of the middle ear. -can be damaged by objects in the ear and exceptionally loud noises
hertz
the unit of frequency, equal to one cycle per second measures number of sound wave peaks/second -determines pitch
Gestalt Psychology
the whole or the organizational patterns that we tend to perceive
Yerkes-Dodson Law
theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only up to a certain point - Optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task - Each person has an optimum level of stimulation they like to maintain
EMDR
therapist waves a finger inferno of the eyes of the client to unlock and reprocess previously frozen traumatic memories Francine Shapiro (1989, 2007) developed EMDR while walking in a park and observing that anxious thoughts vanished as her eyes spontaneously darted about.
Dualists
thought gives humans free will. consciousness is external and continues after the body and brain die
Ossicles
three tiny bones in the middle ear that transfer sound waves from the eardrum to the cochlea (hammer, anvil, stirrup)
personal dispositions
traits unique to the individual - A person's inherent qualities of mind and character Influence behavior only in relevant situations Can lead to behaviors that alter situations which promotes other behaviors People choose to be in situations that are in accord with them They are more important in some situations than others
school psychologist
treats students for mild disorders and work for the school district
tend-and-befriend
under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend)
Methadone
used as a substitute drug in the treatment of morphine and heroin addiction
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
used for severely depressed patients who do not respond to drugs Patients is anesthetized and given a muscle relaxant Usually get a 100 volt shock that relieves them of depression Shock induced seizures calm neural centers where over activity produces depression Goal: produce a seizure
antipsychotic drugs
used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of psychosis Chlorpromazine (therazine): remove a number of positive symptoms associated w/schizophrenia such as agitation, delusions, and hallucinations Most antipsychotic drugs are antagonist: similar enough to molecules of dopamine to occupy receptor sites and block its activity
Standardization
utilizing scores from a representative sample to determine how well an individual did on the test relative to other test takers, create similar testing conditions for all
Dream content
varies by culture, gender and age. Frequently connects with recent experience, may help us to form memories
How have researchers, through experimentation, demonstrated the power of emotions/motivation on our perception of things?
walking destinations look farther away to those who have been fatigued by prior exercise. a hill looks steeper to those who are wearing a heavy backpack or have just been exposed to sad, heavy classical music rather than light, bouncy music. As with so many of life's challenges, a hill also seems less steep to those with a friend beside them. a target seems farther away to those throwing a heavy rather than a light object at it. Desired objects, such as a water bottle when thirsty, seem closer Spouses who feel loved and appreciated perceive less threat in stressful marital events—"He's just having a bad day"
Warning signs of schizophrenia & treatments
warning signs: - Mother's long lasting schizophrenia - Birth complications, oxygen deprivation, low birth weight - Short attention span and poor muscle coordination - Disruptive and withdrawn behavior - Emotional unpredictability - Poor peer relations and solo play treatments: Lobotomies, insulin shock therapy Current treatment: therapy and medication
Construct validity
whether a test is really evaluating on abstract psych