ap psych exam
correlations do not prove...
causation (only experiment can prove cause-effect)
signal detection
consciously adjusting thresholds to become sensitive to specific signals in the environment, consciously selecting what signals to pay attention to will accelerate response time (ex. skim reading)
stanford-binet intelligence scale
first modern intelligence test, standardized a classification system to label developmentally cognitively disabled children, calculated the "intelligence quotient" formula, where a score of 100 is average
humanism
focus on conscious awareness, awareness = control, behavior/personality shaped by psychological needs and the need for wellness and stability, typically more positive
hospice
focused on treating the patient not just the condition/illness, medical treatment coupled with emotional therapy
cognitive perspective
focuses on complex mental processes (thought), perceptions of information and how that info is stored and retrieved
behavioral perspective
focuses on observable, empirical behaviors viewed as learned responses, because of environmental nurture
bright violet
high frequency & high amplitude
dark/dull violet
high frequency & low amplitude
short sound wavelengths
high frequency, high pitch, max threshold of 20,000 Hz
place theory
high frequency/high pitch sounds are registered with specific places of the cochlea (basilar membrane), aids in transduction, higher than 5000 Hz
narcissistic pd
highly exaggerated sense of self importance, grandiosity relative to an inflated self concept, preoccupation with how others perceive them, pride and flaunting of personal achievement, inability to empathize with the needs of others
declarative anatomical requirements
hippocampus and LAD
prospective anatomical requirements
hippocampus and LAD
episodic memory anatomical requirement
hippocampus only (most basic type of memory)
procedural memory anatomical requirements
hippocampus, LAD, motor cortex, and cerebellum
wavelength
horizontal distance (x- measurement) of a wave
passive-aggressive pd
hostile attitudes through nonviolent behaviors, pervasive patterns of negative attitudes, resentment towards authority figures but with unassertive tactic, stubborn and apathetic
biopsychologist / neuropsychologist
how brain injuries and problems affect behavior
developmental psychologist
how the brain grows from child to adult
cognitive psychologist
how the brain thinks, learns, and works
reflective frequencies provide...
hue
humanistic perspective
human awareness of self-fulfillment and achievement, an opposite of psychoanalysis, an optimistic view towards human nature, people constantly strive to better themselves
socio-cultural theory (motivation)
human behavior is regulated by one's culture, behaviors are responses to social environments, cultural norms and values dictate appropriate standards of behavior and individuals are motivated to conform to social routine and habit
schacter-singer two factor theory
human emotion is dependent upon 2 factors, physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal
abraham maslow
human nature is to strive for self-actualization, achieving self-actualization is difficult and filled with obstacles and defeat, personality is shaped by how one responds to adversity and hardship
recall
identification with full comprehension
raymond cattell
identified 35 dominant/recessive trait patterns of personality, categorized into 16 factors, created the basis of the modern personality test through statistical factors analysis (18,000 traits were grouped into 16 factors)
adolscence
identity vs. confusion erikson 5, 12 to 20, peer conformity = teenage "identity crisis", self reflection of values, principles, future goals, stress of future occupational identity
respiratory failure
if mixing alcohol with barbiturates causes death as the diaphragm relaxes to the point where suffocation occurs
critical period hypothesis
if primary language is not acquired within the critical period of early childhood, not only will learning a language be impossible, but severe cognitive disabilities will result -if a primary language is not acquired by puberty, the brain will become cognitively impaired and intellectually retarded
perceptual sets
illusions resulting when our perceptual adaptations and cognitive assumptions are proven wrong when sensed bottom up
impossible figures
images with objects impossible to construct or design because of laws of physics
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage wither to the Broca's are or the Wernicke's are
authoritarian (parent style)
impose rules and expect obedience
projection
imposing one's own impulses or wishes onto another person ex. a sexually inhibited person misinterprets other people's friendly approaches as sexual advances
case study method advantages
in clinical psychology it can provides archives to reference old cases
autonomy
having (perceived) control over one's self and one's environment, abiility to make independent decisions and choices, control over physical and emotional health and safety
neural networks
interconnected neural cells, with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results
the stroop effect
interference resulting when a singular task requires the use of both cerebral hemispheres simultaneously (reading color names written in other colors)
variables
internal and/or external factors that change the effect of the experimental procedures
intrinsic motivation
internal rewards (self accomplishment/self worth)
mental processes
internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior (ex. sensations, dreams, thoughts, memory)
schematic assimilation
interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas
young adulthood
intimacy vs. isolation erikson 6, 20 to 30, emotional readiness to form long term relationships and monogamous commitments, if identity conflicts continue unresolved, people tend to avoid partnered relationships = isolated
eysenck's domain scale #1
introversion vs. extroversion
stimuli arousal
introverts need for stimuli arousal is consistently self-maintained, extroverts' stimuli arousal need is rarely sustained (easily bored), means reduced monotony
phobias
irrational fears that often develop as a result of exaggerated conditioned learning
counseling psychologist
is a therapist who treats specific people (addiction, marriage, etc)
without filters for sensory screening there may be results like...
sensory overload, inability to concentrate, delayed reactions and response time, cognitive delay or diminished intelligence, synesthesia, psychosis, etc.
operational cognition
sequential mental processing, arranging thoughts in order (piaget stage 2)
education / school psychologist
serve as a therapist and evaluate learning disabilities
episodic memory
memories of specific events and experiences, type of memory most closely influenced by sensory input and emotion, memories most commonly repressed and "unlocked" by physical sensation
industrial / organizational psychologist
serve as therapist in high stress workplace, work in HR and figure out how people can work well together in teams
anorexia nervosa
severe obsession with weight loss, phobic anxiety of weight gain, distorted perception of body image, self imposed starvation and purging -BMI below 15% of normal/healthy weight
personal unconscious
shaped by unique individual experiences and social relationships
myelin
sheath of fatty, waxy plaque that surrounds axons, protecting them and minimizing energy loss due to resistance, accelerates neural processing speed of a circuit
high frequency light waves
short, fast moving waves, produce the color violet, maximum threshold of around 790 THz
depression
stage 4, grief stage of mourning process
acceptance
stage 5, coming to terms with death
one-word stage
stage in speech development from around age 1-2, during which a child speaks in single words
context dependent memory cues
memories that are triggered as a result of reconnecting with the place (context) in which the memory was experiences and encoded, physical cues based upon sensory perception
state dependent memory cues
memories triggered by states of emotional cues (or similar states of consciousness, pain, illness); reconnecting current states of mind to similar emotional states from past experiences
associative memory
memory based upon a stimuli relative similarity to other stimuli within the schema
ebbinghaus forgetting curve
memory decay occurs most rapidly shortly after initial learning, rate of decay them plateaus and slowly deteriorates over time "spaced practice" is more effective than "massed practice"
hippocampus
memory encoder, selects the neural pathways through which memories are stored (midbrain)
desensitization via cognition
spend more time foreseeing their own "ideal death", painless, surrounded by family, mentally sound
single blind study
split group, control is given a placebo
unconscious transference
memory error in which an individual misplaces the presence of a person to an incorrect location (eyewitness thinks another witness is the criminal just because they were also there)
eyewitness testimony
memory is an interpretation of an individual's emotional reaction of an experience, the more an individual discusses a memory amongst a group, the more prone it becomes to distortion of the details
dissociative amnesia
memory loss do to psychological damage, entire time periods of memory are blocked, results from psychological stress disorders in which body is disconnected from the mind (PTSD)
anterograde amnesia
memory loss due to physical brain trauma, damage is located in hippocampus region, inability to encode information and consolidate from STM to LTM, inability to create new memories, "short term memory loss"
retrograde amnesia
memory loss is due to physical trauma in cortical region, amount of memory impairment depends on trauma severity, can cause entire time periods or small fractures to be impaired, memory typically returns when brain heals
rote memory
memory recalled verbatim from the order in which it was encoded "regurgitated info", no analytical synthesis or comprehension of learned behavior
conceptual memory
memory relative to conceptual development; natural, artificial, hierarchical concepts memories of schematic procedures, prototypes, and conceptual rules of assimiliation
schema
mental categories based upon cognitive similarities, constantly redefine as the mind develops to be more sophisticated
adrenal gland
pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys, they secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine which helps arouse the body under stress (also increase HR, blood pressure, and blood sugar)
preoperational stage
piaget 2, 2 to 7, development of symbols and language develop operational cognition, egocentric cognition, animistic cognition, and artificialistic cognition
concrete operational stage
piaget 3, 7 to 11 develop reversibility and conservation
formal operational stage
piaget 4, 11+, cognitive maturity, ability to think logically about abstract concepts, ability to think hypothetically develop metacognition
elizabeth kubler-ross
pioneered the "death awareness movement", creates the 5 stages of coping with loss
accumbens nucleus
pleasure and reward center, procedural learning, repetitive/habitual behaviors (addiction or OCD) (basal ganglia)
confirmation bias example
police detectives with preconceived beliefs of a suspect choose to investigate evidence that supports his hunch, ignoring the other facts
dunning-kruger effect example
politician with below average intelligence assumes they are smarter then all of their advisers
irrelevant information moves from the RF to the...
pons varolii
transmission
process of delaying neural impulses to the brain via sensory neurons (where sensation ends and perception begins)
classical conditioning
process of learning when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with the natural cause of behavior and creates the behavior
perception
process of organizing sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
encoding
process of translating transduced neural impulses from sensory registers and arranging them into unique neurological codes that can be retained into storage, hippocampus does the encoding
subliminal perception
processing stimuli that meet absolute thresholds of sensations but are perceived below conscious awareness
0-55
profoundly intellectually disabled (0.1%) "idiots"
oxytocin
promotes bonds of social attachment and love
organizational systems
promoting LTM by consolidating information with habit and routine, establishing sequentially ordered systems of step-by-step procedures promote retrieval
reflex arc
protection and physical damage control, in cases of physical trauma to the body, the spinal cord can supercede the brain in these cases
fixed-interval
reinforcement is received after a preset and constant amount of time passes upon successful completion of the behavior, similar to fixed-ratio, behavior progressively increases then drops off
behavioral modifiers
reinforcements or punishments
cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
recency effect
retrieval accuracy recovers with stimuli that are positioned at the end of the list
reversibility
reversing the sequential operations developed via operational cognition, counting backwards, subtraction, etc.
raymond cattell
revised spearman's theory of general intelligence, described "g" as being composed of 2 forms (crystallized & fluid)
fixed-ratio
reward is applied after completion of a constant number of behavioral responses, high response rates as you approach the reward followed by a drop-off after receipt
daydreaming hemispherical lateralization
right brain: fanciful dreamlike trance with vivid imagery to provide escape from boredom left brain: extensions of cognitive thoughts and organization, used functionally for creative thinking
iris
ring of muscle tissue that forms around the color portion of the eye around the pupil, controls pupil opening
social-contract orientation
rules and laws are established to provide social welfare and civic protection, human nature is inherent to help others, laws are beneficial and enacted to help people so they must be followed
good child orientation
rules and laws are perceived as "necessary evils" and people should be judged by their intentions, not necessarily by their actions
syntax
rules for organizing and arranging the words within sentences
semantics
rules regulating the selection of words used to properly convey a meaning
participant selection
sample populations must be stratified with target population, group demographics are statistical microcosms of sample and target populations
psychology
scientific study of behavior and mental processes
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
behavior is not reinforced every time, but is reinforced frequently enough so that a conditioned behavior develops or is maintained, more resistant to extinction
socio-cultural perspective
behavior is viewed as a unique combination of biological nature and environmental nurture, focuses on cultural influences as primary factors in behavior
binge eating disorder
behavioral addiction/obsession with food, cyclical binge eating episodes, often results in obesity of morbid obesity
stimulus discrimination
behavioral changes that result from differences between new stimuli that are otherwise similar to the conditioned stimulus, focusing on differences among related stimulus and responding with different behaviors
overjustification effect
behavioral regression due to a reliance of expected extrinsic incentive, even if the activity was originally enjoyable, excessive rewards decreases the intrinsic value and makes it seem like "work"
participant bias (observational)
behaviors/responses are not a true representation of their real/natural behaviors (caused by social desirability)
laboratory-observation method
study done in a controlled artificial environment
parapsychology
study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
psychophysics
study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience with them (light waves, sound waves, color, etc.)
psychoanalysis
study of the subconscious, no awareness = no control, behavior/personality is shaped by conflicts in the psyche, views human nature "negatively"
cross-sectional method
study where people of different ages are compared with one another- short amount of time
psychoactive drug categories
stimulants, depressants, narcotics, hallucinogens
punishment
stimuli added or taken away that will decrease behavioral responses, punishment alone is proven to be effective, but not as much as reinforcement alone
positive reinforcement
stimuli added so that the frequency of learned behavior increases, usually a reward/desirable incentive
positive punishment
stimuli added that will reduce the recurrence of a behavior, stimulus typically aversive or unpleasant, only in pacification is behavior only temporarily stopped
order of classical conditioning
stimuli are presented before thee behavior is displayed
paradox of associative memory
stimuli differences often delay memory retrieval, but sometimes differences can enhance retrieval (ex. saying artichoke in a list of animal names)
primacy effect
stimuli have the highest likelihood of retrieval (and accuracy) when located in the beginning of the list
negative reinforcement
stimuli taken away or the removal/avoidance of a stressor or high anxiety environment to promote behavior, typically the removal of aversive stimuli
avoidance-avoidance method
stress from having to choose 1 option when both options are undesirable but one must be chosen (season ending surgery vs. playing injured)
approach-avoidance method
stress stemming from having to choose between 2 alternatives that will have both desirable and undesirable results (course scheduling)
approach-approach method
stress stemming from having to choose between 2 desirable alternatives (picking between colleges)
brainstem
structural tissue that fuses the spinal cord to the brain, responsible for visceral functions, 1st structures to function at birth and last to fail upon oxygen deprivation
superego
structure of ethical consciousness, development of the "moral principle", restraining behavioral impulses, not because it is against the rules but because of a moral compass of right and wrong
designer drugs
synthetically manufactured chemical compounds designed to elicit psychoactive effects or symptoms, created to have specific effects ex. methamphetamine, LSD, bath salts
cognition
system of multiple mental processes that allow for human introspection and evaluation of thought
midbrain
system of structures bridging the primitive hindbrain to the sophisticated forebrain, aids in perception, cognition, and memory processing
conscientiousness (five factor)
systematic, meticulous; organized vs. unstructured, impulsive vs. disciplined
longitudinal method disadvantages
takes years to conduct the tests, have to wait in real time
papillae
taste buds, gustatory receptors concentrated on the tongue and nasal/sinus passageways, 80% of flavors we detect are processed within the olfactory system
survey
technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of people, by questioning a random sample of them
infancy
trust vs. mistrust erikson 1, birth to 12 months, the baby's unconscious trust in being provided food, security, emotional comfort, etc., formation of attachment and separation anxiety
louis thurston
"primary mental abilities", human intelligence consists of 7 different abilities, his theories led to the creation of the modern IQ test
REM sleep
active sleep or paradoxical sleep stage, biorhythmic recovery, neo-cortical recovery, brain activity resembles conscious alertness
extroversion
active, self-expressive, more social
John Watson
"Little Albert Experiment" experiment of how phobias can be learned, generalized, and extinguished based upon classical conditioning principles
stanley schacter
"The psychology of affiliation" companionship in relation to emotional stress and anxiety, found that the need for affiliation came with more stress (experiment over whether subject would ask for a friend when about to receive electric shock)
objective personality assessments
"personality inventories" based upon standardized questionnaires, prompts based upon trait theory principles (five factor model), statistical-based factor analysis (traits>factors>personality)
eidetic imagery
"photographic memory" iconic exception, permanent storage of an image after only viewing it once, typically audition as well, persistent in <0.07% of adult population (<3% of population of children have residual eidetic but fades by puberty)
Albert Bandura
"bobo doll experiment" researched aggressive behaviors in children learned via observational modeling
gordon allport
"catalogue of human personalities", categorized ~18,000 human personality trait combinations, first to propose the genetic nature of personality theory
jean piaget
"cognitive development" is biologically universal, regardless of cultural and demographic variables, occurs in 4 stages each marked with cognitive milestons
paul ekman
"cross cultural expression identification study", established a universal taxonomy standardizing human facial expressions, facial action coding system (FACS)
stage 4
"deep sleep", body becomes unresponsive to stimuli, difficult to wake up, even by an alarm clock
stage 3
"delta sleep", slowed respiration and decreased body temp, deep sleep
psychoanalysis perspective
"duality of the mind", conflict between conscious and subconscious
tympanic membrane
"ear drum", layer of elastic tissue that "encloses" the auditory canal, vibrates as sound waves pass through it, activates ossicle bones (middle ear)
procedural memory
"executive functioning" learned skills and operational processes, memories of step-by-step actions with sequential organizational patterns, requires higher level learning abilities (math, recipes, etc.), typically requires muscle coordination
deja vu
"flashback" memory illusions of past experiences, overwhelming sense of familiarity when something logically should not be familiar
taste aversion
"food aversion" a learned (conditioned) avoidance of food, learned association of food and illness, generally require only 1 acquisition for the behavior to develop
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
"functional" video recordings pf brain activity, measures blood flow, oxygen levels, chemical distribution, etc.
crystallized intelligence
"gc", knowledge acquired and solidified through lifelong learning experiences "book smart"
declarative memory
"general knowledge" facts, dates, numbers, images, test questions, song lyrics, phone numbers, and other information typically encoded in language
fluid intelligence
"gf", flexibility of reasoning abilities, speed, and efficiency of information processing "street smarts"
biochemistry of hunger
"hunger chemicals" regulated by serotonin, low glucose levels trigger the release of orexin > initiates hunger response, food consumption controls glucose by secreting insulin > increased insulin triggers release of obestatin, stopping the hunger response
nerve deafness
"inner ear deafness", permanent or temporary hearing loss resulting from abnormalities to the ear's transduction system (ex. dysfunctional cochlea or detached audition nerve)
forebrain
"mammalian brain", responsible for complex "humanistic" traits, self aware consciousness, memory, intelligence, and personality
conduction deafness
"middle ear deafness", permanent or temporary hearins loss resulting from abnormalities to the ear's conduction system (ex. inflammed auditory canal or lacerated eardrum)
lawrence kohlberg
"moral and ethical development", development of moral reasoning occurs within 3 levels, each with 2 stages 1. preconventional level 2. conventional level 3. postconventional level
A4 medial geniculate nucleus (A4-MGN)
"music processor", identifies pitch, harmony, melody, etc. (temporal lobe)
night terror disorder (parasomnia)
"night fright", repeated episodes of intense fear during sleep causing a person to abruptly wake up in panic, typically occurs in stage 4, not triggered by a bad dream but a panic attack
circadian rhythmic disorder (dysnomia)
"non-24 sleep-wake disorder", abnormalities that occur when circadian clocks are not synchronized with a 24-hour cycle of day and night, circadian sleep cycles last longer than 24 hours, or sleep-wake cycles fluctuate daily
acute care facilities
"nursing homes", assisted living institutions
necrosis
"organic/cellular death", accelerated decay of organic tissue cells, cellular structures deteriorate at a rate that outpaces repair
peripheral nervous system
composed of receptor networks, muscles, and glands (endocrine system)
erik erikson
"psychosocial personality development", neofreudian, psychodynamics, personality develops according to 8 stages of psychosocial conflict 1. infancy 2. early childhood 3. play age 4. school age 5. adolescence 6. young adulthood 7. adulthood 8. maturity
hypothalamus
"quality control center", regulates amygdala and pituitary gland, also regulates sex drive (midbrain)
hypnogogic stage
"relaxed wakefulness", not sleep, usually lasts 10-12 minutes
freudian interpretation of dreams
"road to the unconscious", dreams are not random and meaningless but are the "voice of the psyche", wishful fulfillment, unconscious conflicts disguised with symbolism, dream analysis provides insight to the psyche
heuristics
"short cut" typically algorithms modified through experience. requires less time but may be prone to erroe
insular cortex
"the 5th cortical lobe", essential for hand-eye coordination, allows for self-aware consciousness (parietal lobe)
edward thorndike
"the law of effect" learning by trial and error, focused on reinforcement-based behavioral modification, studied animal behavior in "puzzle boxes", created the "learning curve"
howard gardner
"theory of multiple intelligences" described intelligence as unique to individual learning abilities and develop according to cultural influences, intelligence is based upon 8 abilities
bottom-up processing
"thick slicing" analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works to the brain's integration of the information
top-down processing
"thin slicing" information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
metacognition
"thinking about thinking", understanding one's own learning styles
presbyopia
"transitional blindness", inability for the lens to accommodate rapidly as it ages and loses flexibilty
short term memory
"transitional storage" from sensory level to LTM, limited capacity and limited duration (20-30 sec)
robert sternburg
"triarchic theory of successful intelligence", intelligence displayed through practical problem solving, focuses on process of problem solving not the final product using three abilities
interposition
(monocular) depth cue caused when multiple objects overlap, creating an appearance of relative distance or order
motion parallax
(monocular) depth perception cue while in motion, perception of motion is based upon planes of depth, objects near appear faster than objects farther away
linear perception
(monocular) visual appearance of parallel lines converging as they reach a point in distance "vanishing point", based on relative size of objects
collective unconscious
composed of universal archetypes common to all human minds, reflected cross-culturally in art, religion, literature, etc.
eustachian tube
drainage tube, releases air pressure and phlegm to the throat (inner ear)
manifest content
compositions of symbolic imagery that distorts and disguises the true meaning of a dream (archetypes) ex. dreaming you are in the desert on a treasure hunt
cluster b
dramatic, emotional, erratic trait disorders
anal stage (freud)
1 1/2 - 2 1/2, development of one's ego, development of bodily control, fixations are anal-retentiveness or anal-expulsiveness anal-retention- excessive use of self control anal-expulsion- lack of restraint, impulsive
reversible figure illusions
1 picture that contains 2 images depending on what you perceive as the figure and the ground
extraversion (five factor)
outgoing, expressive; sociable vs. reclusive, affectionate vs. reserved
complete cycle
1-2-3-4-3-2-1-REM typically only the first 2-3 cycles are complete, time spent in "deep sleep" decreases, frequency of REM increases
criteria for mental illness diagnosis
1. symptoms intensify or become increasingly more severe if left untreated 2. condition affects ability to maintain interpersonal relationships 3. condition interferes with quality of life, inability to maintain employment or residency 4. condition poses immediate or potential threat to the physical safety of oneself or others
sleep deprivation
1/3 of all Americans suffer from a sleep abnormality, ~40% of women, ~25% of men every year American s spend $98 million on sleep aids and $22 million to wake up 31% of all drivers reported to have fallen asleep for a few seconds while behind the wheel
average IQ
100 +/- 15 (85-115) 68% of the population
schacter's experiment of cognitive appraisal
-control: given a saline placebo -test A: given adrenaline and were told the effect -test B: given adrenaline and uninformed -when confederate acted angry and unreasonable to test B group mirrored their reaction, while test A stayed calm
artificial concepts
-defining the characteristics of the prototype and comparing new stimuli not to the model but to a defined feature list -if a majority of the characteristics of the mental "checklist" are in common, the new stimulus can be assimilated
amount of energy the brain can operate on
15-25 watts (not much energy, making it very efficient)
wechsler tests of intelligence
-most commonly used IQ tests, they created international and age related versions, considered the clinical standard for intelligence measurement (WAIS-III & WISC-IV) -instead of comparing test scores to one's age, they are distributed according to averages
axon terminals
-porous membranes at the tips of axons that house reservoir sacs of neurotransmitters -terminals act as faucets and release the proper types and amounts of chemicals specified by the electric shock
dopamine
-promotes fluid muscle movement, stimulates the brain's reward and pleasure center, enables cognitive focus/concentration -imbalances linked to ADD/ADHD, Schizophrenia, and Parkinson's
serotonin
-regulates mood/emotion, helps regulate circadian rhythmic cycles (sleep, appetite, temperature regulation) -imbalances of serotonin are linked to mood/anxiety disorders
phallic stage (freud)
2 1/2 - 5, discovery of what makes boys and girls different, attraction to parent of the opposite sex and jealousy and resentment toward parent of same sex (rivalry) oedipus complex- "castration anxiety" unresolved conflicts = hatred of authority (males) electra complex- "penis envy", blames mother for "anatomical deficiency" (girls)
illusory / spurious correlation
2 variables that logically appear to have a correlative relationship, but upon mathematical examination, they have no statistical commonality
amount of blood and oxygen supply in brain...
20%
snellen vision chart
20/20 vision is normal, 20/10 is better than normal, legal blindness is 20/200 vision with corrective lenses
biochemical imbalance
3 forms of neurotransmitter imbalances 1. amount of production (ex. deficiency) 2. misdirected circulation (ex. some regions of the brain receive too much/too little of the neurotransmitters) 3. rate of consumption (ex. amount of neurotransmitters produced is exhausted prematurely as seen in bipolar disorder)
computed axial tomography scan (CT/CAT scan)
3D viewing at internal and external angles, provides cross-sectional images of the brain's internal structures
sternburg's 3 abilities
1. analytical intelligence (analysis/evaluations) 2. practical intelligence (application of concepts) 3. creative intelligence (innovation) -successful thinkers use all three
functions of a funeral
1. appropriate disposal of a body 2. physically exposes people to death (allows people to come to terms with their own mortality) 3. provides sense of finality (allows survivors to move on)
scientific research process
1. formulate questions and develop hypotheses 2.observational research methods to collect data 3. analyze correlations to determine relationships 4. design experimental procedures to determine cause-effect 5. publish results and procedures so the process can be replicates and validated by future researchers
classical conditioning formula
1. identify behavior 2.what is natural cause of behavior? 3. what has been linked together (learned cause)
operant conditioning formula
1. identify the behavior 2. is the behavior going to stop or reoccur? 3. why is the behavior stopping or reoccurring?
partial reinforcement schedules formula
1. identify the behavior and reinforcement 2. what are you waiting for? (time or # of completions) 3. is it constant or predictable? (fixed or variable)
night vision
1. iris muscles contract causing the pupil openings to dilate (widen) = maximizing the absorption of light wave energy 2. photoreceptors sensitivity transfers from the cone cells to the rod photoreceptor cells
gardner's 8 abilities
1. logical/mathematical 2. linguistic 3. musical 4. bodily/kinesthetic 5. spatial relations 6. naturalistic 7. interpersonal 8. intrapersonal
thurston's 7 abilities
1. numerical ability 2. spatial relations 3. associative memory 4. vocabulary 5. verbal comprehension 6. reasoning 7. processing
five-factor model
1. openness 2. conscientiousness 3. extraversion 4. agreeableness 5. neuroticism
good theories explain by...
1. organizing and linking observed facts 2. implying hypotheses that offer testable predictions
three parts of creative intelligence (OFF)
1. originality 2. fluency 3. flexibility
elements of human emotion
1. physiological (nervous systems, biochemistry, anatomy) 2. cognitive (emotional intelligence EQ) 3. behavioral (expression & display of states of emotion)
steps to effective problem solving
1. preparation 2. production 3. evaluation
steps in sensation (physical)
1. reception 2. transduction 3. transmission
principles for making generalizations
1. representative samples are better than biased samples 2. less-variable observations are more reliable than more-variable 3. more cases are better then fewer
steps in perception (cognitive)
1. selection 2. coding 3. interpretation
neurological factors of intelligence include...
1. speed and efficiency of neural transmission 2. neural plasticity
latency stage (freud)
5 -12 (puberty), sexual impulses towards opposite sex parent dissolve, resentment is replaces with wanting to be like the parent of the same sex, development of gender roles, fixations during latency period lead to homosexuality in adult behavior
maslow's hierarchy of needs
5. physiological 4. safety 3. love/belonging 2. esteem 1. self-actualization
minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI-II)
500 questions (true/false), standard assessment for clinical diagnosis of personality disorders (DSM-V category 16)
number of colors humans can detect...
7 million hues
biomechanisms of sleep
>retinal photoreceptors (rods) detect changes of available light (amplitude) > activates suprachiasmatic nucleus (hypothalamus) >regulates the pineal gland's production and release of melatonin >norepinephrine maintains sleep >epinephrine and orexin stimulate wake recovery >pons is activates to adjust respiration (yawn)
nociceptor cell
pain receptor nerve cell
autonomic nervous system
regulates involuntary body operations, circulation, respiration, and digestion
ganglion cells
sensory neurons sensitive to specific light frequencies for color detection
bipolar cells
sensory neurons that connect photoreceptors (cones) to ganglion cells
latent content
dream's true (hidden) meaning that is interpreted through psychoanalysis ex. desert= monotony of daily life, treasure hunt= wishful fulfillment of change
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
type a
Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people
type b
Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people
framing and wording bias example
people overwhelmingly prefer beef that is 90% fat free over the same beef that was marked 10% fat
bereavement
the emotional and behavioral experience of a loss of a loved one due to death
bioelectrical current is primarily generated by the ionic polarization of...
K and Na
diasthesis stress conditions
physiological disorders (or related symptoms) that develop or increase in severity due to stress
touch, taste, sight, and hearing report to the...
RF
primary structures of the limbic system...
RF, amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus
language
allows for sophisticated exchange of thought, communication, promotes social identity and cultural cohesion, foundation of human cognitive development allows for internal comprehension of thought, memory, emotion, sensory perceptions, etc.
two-word stage
beginning about age 2, the stage during which a child speaks in two word phrases
babbling stage
beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds which are unrelated
genetics/heredity
physiology, brain anatomy, and neural plasticity are products of one's DNA
reaction formation
behaving in a way that is the opposite of one's true wishes or desires in order to keep these repressed ex. a sexually frustrated person goes on a personal crusade to stamp out pornography
retinal disparity
a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.
visual convergence
a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the more the eyes strain to turn inwards to view an object, the closer the object is (note: only a factor at close ranges)
psychoanalysis / psychodynamic
behavior as a result of abstract "inner forces" and conflicts within the subconscious psyche, typically negative toward human behavior (Freud)
standard deviation
a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
schemas
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
limbic system
a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex
visual cliff
a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
critical periods of human cognitive development
a maturational stage in a person's life where they are especially sensitive to environmental stimuli
intelligence test
a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores
change blindness
a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it
conditioned stimulus
a previously neutral stimulus that through sessions of acquisition, causes a learned behavior response
order of operant conditioning
behavior is displayed first, then stimuli follows
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function, how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish (william james)
testing method disadvantages
a single test can't reveal all intelligence and can't find all personality
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)
quicker response time is due to...
a thicker coating of myelin around axons due to rehearsal or crystallization during sleep
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
inferiority complex
actions intended to overcompensate for lack of self-worth
priming
activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
visual accommodation
ability of the lens to change the contour of its shape to allow focus far and near, stretched (flattened) for distance visual focus and contracted (rounded) for short-range focus
flexibility (OFF)
ability to interchange various methods of problem solving and make adjustments when circumstances dictate
fluency (OFF)
ability to produce multiple solutions to one problem
proactive interference
ability to recall recent information is impaired due to distortion with older memories
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
ability to recall stored memory but retrieval delay prevents information from becoming verbalized in a timely manner
memory storage
ability to retain encoded neural impulses over a period of time, "storage facility" is not a structure of brain anatomy but is instead in neural circuitry, 2/3 of neurons are within the cortex
source amnesia
ability to retain factual knowledge but unable to remember where, when, or how the information was acquired
testing method advantages
able to get a better understanding of each individual tested, provides data in the form of numbers (empirical)
parasomnia disorders
abnormal behaviors and/or cognitive perceptions during sleep, REM, and sleep transitions
dysnomia disorders
abnormalities and general medical pathologies related to the circadian cycles
transitional sleep disorder (dysnomia)
abnormalities with transcending through the sleep stages and cycles, most commonly unable to progress beyond stage 1 or 2 into deep or 4+ complete stages every night
115-130
above average (14%)
pinna
absorbs sound waves, funnels them into the auditory canal (outer ear)
reception
absorption of environmental stimuli with sensory receptors
gastrointestinal tract
absorption of nutrients into the blood stream, detects glucose-insulin exchange in blood and sends chemical signals to the brain
pseudo psychology
abstract "abilities" of the human mind that cannot be tested and measured by using the scientific method
purposes for personality assessment
academic research and scientific inquiry, employment and career placement, relationship compatibility, clinical applications and diagnostics
instrumental-exchange orientation
acceptance of social rules, rules are obeyed in anticipation of reward
self-actualization
according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential
punishment-obedience orientation
acknowledging the existence of social rues, rules are obeyed in order to avoid punishment
BF Skinner
adapted Thorndike's puzzle boxes with both reinforcements and punishments, called "Skinner box"
schematic accommodation
adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information
pupil
adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
accommodation
adjustments and modifications made when differences outweigh similarities 1. redefine parameters (rules) of the schema 2. place new item into a different schema 3. create a new schema
eric lenneberg
advanced chomsky's theories of LAD, "critical period of hypothesis of linguistics"
tertogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
acetylcholine (ACH)
aides in memory encoding and processing, promotes cognitive functioning and learning, works with sympathetic nervous system
phase 1 (general adaptation)
alarm, initial reactions to stressors (shock), sympathetic nervous system (preparation)
population
all the cases in a group from which samples are taken
psychoactive drugs
alters the CNS, alters brain functioning/mental processing, causes a change in emotion, behavior, and sensory processing
intensity
amount of energy in a light or sound wave which we perceive as brightness or loudness, determined by the wave's amplitude
neural plasticity
amount of time spent dreaming is factored upon the neural plasticity of the brain, the flexibility of the axons -infants spend 8/10 hours in REM, adults 70+ spend 1/10 hours in REM
auditory ossicle bones
amplify sound waves by acting as percussion instruments, directs sound waves to oval window (middle ear) (malleus-hamer, incus-anvil, strapes-stirrup)
scientific theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors
phi phenomenon
an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession
case study method
an in-depth research study of an individual or a small group with a commonality
gestalt
an organized whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
social eating disorder
anxiety related to eating while around other people or when in social environments, persistent avoidance of social interactions that involve food
cluster c
anxious, fearful trait disorders
neuroticism (five factor)
anxious, temperamental, moody; secure vs. insecure, self-satisfied vs. self-pity
altered states of consciousness
any change (naturally or induced) to one's normal perceptual awareness and alertness ex. sleep, dream, jet lag, hallucination, etc.
unconditioned stimulus
any natural stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior (natural)
reinforcement
any stimuli added or taken away to make a behavior increase frequency, promotes likelihood of recurrence
scientific study
application of the scientific method (inquiry based research and empirical analysis through experiment)
continuous reinforcement
applying a reinforcement upon the completion of every display of conditioned behavior, promotes the quickest response time but also the quickest extinction if reinforcement stops
mean
arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores
brain's mass
around 3 lbs. (male - 3.2 lbs. female - 2.7 lbs.)
necrobiotic rate of adult papillae
around 30 days, slower rotation means decreased sensitivity
necrobiotic rate of child papillae
around 7 days, higher rotation, increased sensitivity
active euthanasia
assisted suicide, "mercy killing", Dr. Kevorkian and the right to die movement, widely considered ethical and humane, but illegal to administer in the US except a few states
insomnia (dysnomia)
associated with the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep, affects 20% of Americans, symptoms can be attributed to biochemistry, diet, stress, etc.
broca's area
association area responsible for vocal articulation needed for speech production (frontal lobe)
availability heuristics example
assuming local crime rates have increased because you or a friend's car was broken into
artificialistic cognition
assuming that environmental events are due to human actions (piaget stage 2)
eugenics
attempts to engineer the human gene pool by breeding intellectually superior people
echoic memory
auditory, 2-4 second duration
unconditioned response
automatic (unlearned) behavioral reflex of stimulus
early childhood
autonomy vs. shame/doubt erikson 2, 1 to 3, development of self-awareness and self-identity, children test limits to exert their independence, lack of independence creates a defeated self-concept and doubt in a child's capabilities
object permanence
awareness that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, "out-of-sight, out-of-mind", concept is typically mastered by 8-9 months
achievement motivation
basic human impulses that drive individuals to obtain goals, prior success serves as a motivation for future accomplishment and achievement, the application of incentive-based learning
recognition
basic identification of stimuli, people. places. information, etc. (basic familiarity)
stimulus arousal theory
basic need to seek stimulation for amusement and/or exploration, curiosity is essential to initiate learning, lack of sensory stimulation creates boredom and leads to new stimulating behavior
hospitals
become most common place to die from late 1950s-1980s due to new technology, but the restrictive visiting hours, rules, and treatment schedules were not accommodating to the special needs of the patient and family
animistic cognition
believing all things are living and have human characteristics/emotion, attributing life and consciousness to objects (piaget stage 2)
70-85
below average (14%) "morons"
subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
representative heuristics
bias based on stereotypes, tendency to make judgments and evaluations based upon conceptual schemes with characteristics that create generalizations
sensation
bio-cognitive process of gathering environmental stimuli and avoiding monotony
memory
bio-cognitive process of recording information and experiences in a manner that can be organized and recalled repetitively over time
neurotransmitters
biochemical molecules that are released from one neuron and are absorbed by a receiving neuron
biological explanation (eating disorders)
biochemical, genetic, anatomical abnormalities
needs
biological and emotional necessities that when lacking, cause a change of behavior, requirements for physical and emotional well being (food, sleep, etc.)
activation synthesis hypothesis
biological definition, dreams are the remnants of insignificant stimuli filtered by the RF and recycled by the pons during REM sleep, random discharged bio-energies are absorbed into the cerebral cortex, cortex attempts to interpret bioelectrical impulses by arranging dream sequence (nightmares are from a hyperactive amygdala)
lifespan development
biological growth from prenatal to death
instinct theory
biological perspective (nature), fixed action patterns, genetic transmissions of innate behavior, behavioral patterns that are bio-cognitive, not learned by nurture, motivation for primal actions and behavioral reflexes
pheromones
biologically-produced, airborne-emitted chemicals that unconsciously cause a change of behavior
clinical death
biomedical definition, cessation of blood circulation, respiration, and brain activity, time interval starting from the onset of symptoms until the body is resuscitated, average of 4 minutes of natural life support, oxygen deprivation leads to brain damage or death
oral stage (freud)
birth-18 months, infantile need to explore surroundings with mouth (rooting reflex), establishes mother-child bond over indulgence- dependency and passiveness (over eating, nail biting) under indulgence- aggressive and sadistic
antisocial pd
blatant disregard for the rights & feelings of others, characterized by callous & cruel actions, most violent of all mental disorders = "sociopaths"
chemical withdrawal
body becomes chemically altered and physically requires drug to function, abstaining from chemical interaction can create severe physical ailments including nausea, tremors, muscle aches, seizures, and migraines
authoritative (parent style)
both demanding and responsive, control by setting rues and explaining why they are necessary, encourage open discussion
double blind study
both participants and researchers are made unaware as to which group is receiving the IV or the placebo, requires 3rd party assistance (usually a nurse or computer)
persistent vegetative state
brain death characterized by total cortical failure but structures within hindbrain remain functional, vital organs and life systems remain operational, inability to speak or voluntarily move muscles, sleep-wake cycle remains, eyes open and close, feeding tube needed
catatonic vegetative coma
brain death with only parts of the hindbrain active, physiological deactivation of bodily systems, absence of sleep-wake, lack of gag reflex and corneal (blink) reflex, unrecoverable
language activation device
brain is wired from language acquisition, learning is required but is only possible when structures of the brain have matured enough (broca's/wernicke's areas) -mostresponsivefrom 2-5 but if primary language isn't developed by puberty it never will -LAD will decompose and the ability to learn a language becomes impossible and may cause other neurological issues/disabilities
accubens nucleus
brain's pleasure and reward center
light amplitude=________ sound amplitude=________
brightness, volume
legal ways to dispose of body
burial, cremation, donation to scientific research
anchoring bias example
business negotiations are often based upon the first offer proposed and then develop accordingly
introverted-stable
calm, even-tempered, quiet (eysenck personality type)
emotional stability
calm, less reactive to stress
cross sectional method advantages
can be done in less time than longitudinal
cross sectional method disadvantages
can be less reliable as outside factors can be affecting each individual participant differently
avoidant pd
characterized by extreme feelings of inadequacy, cripplingly low sense of self worth, repetitive avoidance of social interactions and limited interpersonal relationships, fear of rejection, humiliation, self loathing
paranoid pd
characterized by high levels of suspicion, distrust, exaggerated envy, and jealously, often misidentified as paranoid schizophrenia, not a psychotic condition, no loss of reality
boderline pd
characterized by volatile emotional instability, lack of impulse control, extreme mood swings, fragile sense of self concept, low self esteem, destructive behaviors become outlet for tension (drug abuse, sexual promiscuity, self mutilation)
hormones
chemical messengers, mostly those manufactures by the endocrine systems, produced in one tissue and affect another (affect growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood, etc.)
reuptake inhibitors
chemical substances that block reuptake, increase the neurotransmitters' functionality
antagonist
chemicals that block the exchange of neurotransmitters, minimizing their effects
agonist
chemicals that mimic neurotransmitters and bind at the receptor site increasing effectiveness
telegraphic speech
child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs in two word phrases like "go car"
color deficient vision
chromosomal defects affecting the sensitivity of cone photorecpetors, significantly more prevalent in males, most commonly in erd-green color system
hans eysenck
classified personality traits and factors into 2 dimensional domains, 4 personalty types
goal setting
clearly define your goals and objectives, establish a methodical action plan, keep a record of progress, make "mini" goals that are more obtainable
mental retardation/intellectual disabilities
clinically defined by IQ scores below 70, 85% pf mentally retarded population is "mild"
sports psychologist
coach in a mental aspect, helps with stress and control
ear=_______, eye=________
cochlea, retina
when finding correlations...
coefficients should be as close to -1 or 1 as possible for there to be a mathematical correlation (less of a relationship the closer to 0 the number is)
central nervous system
composed of 2 physiological structures: brain and spinal cord
unconscious information processing
cognitive explanation, REM is an extension of daytime cognition, information is encoded during conscious alertness but is controlled in REM (consolidated), dreams are perceptual reflections of "cognitive housekeeping"
habituation
cognitive filtering when exposed to repeated stimuli over extended (mulitple) period of time = learning to desensitize due to habitual exposure (cerebral cortex) (ex. odors in your car or house)
sensory adaptation
cognitive filtering when incoming sensory messages within an environment remain constant (ex. no longer feeling your clothes throughout the day)
piaget's stage theory
cognitive milestones 1. sensorimeter stage 2. preoperational stage 3. concrete opertational stage 4. formal operational stage
illusions
cognitive misconceptions that result when assumptions and expectations are proven wrong, top down strategies are proven wrong by bottom up strategies
hermann ebbinghaus
cognitive psychologist, empirical measurement of memory and decay, known for serial position effect and forgetting curve
alfred binet
collaborated with theodore simon and created the binet-simon intelligence test, foundation of modern intelligence assessment, test measured multiple cognitive abilities, not a measure of aptitude - NOT the first clinically used IQ tests
archetypes
collections of images, symbols, etc. that represent stereotypical human roles, dream symbolism is the voice of the psyche
meditation
collective group of techniques designed to reduce physical and mental tension, controls the brain's tendency to wander, produces a heightened state of concentration, able to reduce sensitivity, stress and anxiety, self-induced
purging
common methods include self induced vomiting, misusing laxatives, abusing thermogenics or weight loss pills, compulsive exercise
reticular formation (RF)
complex system of nerve fibers composing the inner core of the brainstem, processes incoming messages and regulates where they go, sensitive to threats, danger, and situations that arouse stress
range (tone)
complexity of sound when mixed with multiple waves of various frequencies and amplitudes
interpretation (forebrain)
comprehension, analysis, and evaluation in cortical loves = memory
farsightedness
condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because near objects focus behind the retina
nearsightedness
condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina
split brains
condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the fibers between them
consciousness
condition of being physically alert and cognitively aware of one's self and environment
ivan pavlov
conditioned response experiments, did classical conditioning experiments on dogs by training them to associate a bell with food
stimulus generalization
conditioned responses that are triggered not only by the conditioned stimulus but also by stimuli that resemble the CS
middle ear
conducts and amplifies sound waves
interference
conflicts within "working memory" that exists when older and more recent info "compete" for the same limited space
basal ganglia
connects the cerebellum (hindbrain) to the motor cortex (forebrain), responsible for voluntary muscle movement, known as the dopamine center
self-concept
conscious self-assessment of physical/psychological traits, attitudes, goals, accomplishments, etc. (rogers)
cognitive appraisal
conscious understanding of the arousal, used to interpret the meaning of physiological reactions to stimuli
sensorimeter stage
piaget 1, birth to 2, sensory development and stimuli exploration, development of rudimentary schemas develop object permanence
somatic death
constitutes legal definition, permanent, irreversible death, result of failure to resuscitate from clinical death, can be intervened with life support (respirator, heart pump, feeding tube)
neofreudians
contemporaries of freud, advanced and "mainstreamed" psychoanalysis, focused on the fundamentals of psychoanalysis (unconscious conflicts of the psyche, defense mechanisms, dream analysis, psychotherapy), changes name to psychodynamics to signify the evolving changes of human personality
maintenance rehearsal
continual repetition of information, delays decay by encoding info through the hippocampus multiple times
hypothalmus
control center of the limbic system
experiment
controlled scientific procedure conducted to determine cause-effect relationships among variables
right cerebral hemisphere
controls left-side body function, creative functions, emotional thought, spatial relationships, imagination
left cerebral hemisphere
controls right-side body functions, analytical functions (math), logical thought, structured organization, and language
extrasensory perception (ESP)
controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input, said to include telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition
transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another, in sensation the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret
psychological dependency
cravings for the intoxicating effects of chemical substances leading to repetitive abuse and continued consumption
francis galton
created and believed in theories centered around eugenics
evolutionary perspective
describes behavior as being adaptive, similar to natural selection describing continual physiological changes in organisms, behavior patterns are genetic
ames room
created through cognitive assumptions and the removal of true depth perception by getting rid of binocular cues
socio-cultural explanation (eating disorders)
cultural conformity and peer-influence pressures, can be made by media, "Barbie doll image"
necrobiosis
cyclical exchange of old cells to be continually replaced by new cells
consumer psychologist
decides what will sell and how to promote it
4 categories of memory
declarative, prospective, procedural, and episodic
learned helplessness
defeated/depressed condition that develops from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation, "self-defeating prophecy" (seligman)
grammar
defined set of rules that dictate the organization and proper use of words and sentences to express a comprehensible meaning, provides standardization for communication
validity
degree to which a study measures what it is intended to represent (accuracy), measure the hypothesis not variables
self-esteem
degree to which one is satisfied/dissatisfies with their self-concept
reliability
degree to which the research remains accurate/valid over time and repetition
sample bias
demographic compositions of control and test groups are not accurate representations of the larger sample population and/or the overall target population
corpus callosum
dense, compacted band of axons and nerve fibers that bind the 2 cerebral hemispheres together, bridge that allows for cerebral lateralization (forebrain)
norepinephrine
depresses and tranquilizes the body after stress, released in response of the parasympathetic nervous system, works with serotonin to regulate mood/emotion, allows body to maintain sleep
monocular cues
depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone
binocular cues
depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes
biological perspective
describes behavior as a reflection of biology, because of nature; behavior, intelligence, personality, emotions, etc. can be explained by one's bio-composition
David Premack
desirable stimuli are effected motivators to modify undesirable behaviors (incentive based behavior), reinforcement after the fact to reward behavior
constancy illusion
despite equal values, the perceived shape size or color appears to change relative to different frames (muller-lyer illusion)
benjamin whorf
developed the linguistic determination hypothesis
embryo
developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization to second month
fetus
developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception until birth
production
developing hypotheses and producing solutions, can be done in various ways (algorithms of heuristics)
conceptualization
developmental classifications for a collective group of objects, stimuli, etc. that share similar characteristics, identifying and placing stimuli into schema
DSM-V
diagnostic and statisical manual- 5th edition, required in order for psychological diagnosis
drawbacks to objective assessments
difficult to truly quantify the unique nature of human personality, typing overly simplifies and generalizes the unique nature of a person's individual personalities
hue
dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as color names
sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
extinction
diminishing of a CR when the US does not follow a CS
noam chomsky
disagreed with skinner, responsible for "language activation device"
histrionic pd
displays of excessive dramatic emotions, highly-excitable, over-reactive, excessive demands for attention, constant need for approval/validation from others
motion sickness
disruptions between the visual perception of motion and the vestibular detection of changes in elevation and gravitational force, causes build up of air pressure in semicircular canals
perceptual interference
disruptions, delays, and processing failure resulting from conflicts when processing multiple cognitive tasks at once
stage 2
distinct decrease in blood circulation
psychologist
doctor with a PhD
psychiatrist
doctor with an MD
critical thinking
does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, and assesses conclusions
lucid dream
dreams in which one becomes aware that they are dreaming and can take active roles to direct the course of the storyline
dream-initiated lucid dreams (DILD)
dreams that originate as typical dreamscape, "reality checks" allow for realization of lucidity
structuralism
early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the mind (wundt and titchener)
socio-cultural mechanisms of hunger
eating as a focal point of social functions: banquettes, parties, dates, holidays, etc.
scizotypal od
eccentric behaviors, odd, weird, obnoxious, lack of social and communication skills, capable of social attachment but difficult to maintain relationships because of odd, vulgar, and inappropriate behaviors and/or appearance
lewis terman
educational/developmental psychologist, adjusted binet's test and revised scoring calculation to identify cognitive disabilities in children, creating stanford-binet intelligence scale -the first clinically used IQ test
maturity
ego integrity vs. despair erikson 8, 65+, final reflections on life experiences, decisions, goals achieved and goals unattained, etc., satisified with life = death with integrity, unsatisfied = death with despair
dream
everyone dreams everyday assuming they sleep according to a healthy circadian rhythmic sleep cycle with REM, with exceptions being those with severe intellectual disabilities, neurological sleep abnormalities, and physical brain trauma
catharsis
emotional release. releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges (crying, exercising, etc)
grief
emotional responses to a loss of life
eysenck's domain scale #2
emotional stability vs. neurosis
humanism explanation (eating disorders)
emotional vulnerability and inadequacies, control mechanisms, ability to have control over anything they can
motivation
emotional, cognitive, and physiological impulses that stimulate a person to behave in ways to accomplish a specific goal, a result of unfulfilled needs, the cause of behavioral actions
schizoid pd
emotionally non-responsive, (flat affect), slow, elongated, monotonous speech, inability to become emotionally attached to people and even pets
james-lange theory
emotions are products of the physiological reactions to events, emotions operate sequentially to stimuli -ex. event > physical symptoms > feeling fear
biological explanation (emotion)
emotions are psychosomatic sensations caused by the release of hormones and other biochemicals (regulated by serotonin) as a result of nervous system activation (frontal lobe & amygdala)
humanistic psychology
emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality
semantic encoding
encoding of meaning (like word meaning)
acoustic encoding
encoding of sound
mneumonic
encoding technique using unique cues of phrases and words that trigger meanings to larger groups of memory schemas
stages of memory
encoding, storage, retrieval
pituitary gland
endocrine system's most influential gland, under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates and controls other endocrine glands
personality disorders
enduring patterns of neurotic character and behavior traits that deviate dysfunctionally from the norms of social appropriateness, categorized in 3 clusters
flashbulb memory
episodic memories of events associated with intense emotion (trauma) that can be recalled with vivid detail, trauma activates sympathetic nervous system, initiates release of acetylcholine
ego
establishment of rules or limits, development of the "reality principle", realizing that you can't always get what you want when you want it, instant gratification ids unrealistic
desensitization via perception
exceeding our own perceived life expectancy gives us a sense of "living on borrowed time" which brings acceptance of the inevitable
obsessive-compulsive pd
excessive concern with perfectionism, exaggerated dependency of structure and order, associated with "addictive personality" traits
hypersomnia (dysnomia)
excessive drowsiness or chronic sleepiness that is not in symptomatic with other physical issues, sleep episodes impair social functioning and occupational performance
dependent pd
excessive reliance on others, submissiveness, difficulty making independent decisions, characterized by high levels of anxiety and/or depression when removed from or absent of interpersonal relationships
phase 3 (general adaptation)
exhaustion, emotional and physical recovery, time period in which the immune system is most depleted, making one most vulnerable to illness
mouth
expansion/contraction of jaw muscles elicit saliva which stimulates serotonin
clairvoyance
experiencing sensations by means other than the natural means of top-down or bottom-up processing
stage theory
explanations of developmental milestones as sequential steps of biological calendar
flooding
exposure to overwhelming amounts of the fear-provoking stimulus
repression
expulsion from awareness of unacceptable ideas or motives ex. a person remains unaware of harboring hateful or destructive impulses toward others
axon
extension cords that carry neural signals (bioelectrical current) from the nucleus of the cell body towards a receiving neuron
extrinsic motivation
external rewards (recognition, money, etc.)
phobia therapy
extinction of upon conditioning principles of disassociation, can be done in several ways
personality types
factors > traits > types (factors make up traits, traits make up types)
inattentional blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
superstition
false and irrational associations of stimuli conditioned through only coincidence
hyperopia
farsightedness, inability to focus images at a closer range, image is focused beyond the retina
sigmund freud
father of modern psychology, first clinical psychologist, founder of psychoanalysis
death anxiety
fear of death reduces as we age and approach our own death
V1 lateral geniculate nucleus (V1-LGN)
feature detector within the visual cortex, perception and recognition of color (occipital lobe)
cognitive dissonance
feelings of uncomfortable stress which comes from inconsistencies between one's thoughts and conflicting actions, typically leads to rationalization
zygote
fertilized egg, enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo
dendrites
fibers branching out from the neural soma that contains neurotransmitters receptor sites, receive biochemical signals from axon terminals, relays signals onto the nucleus of receiving neuron
selection (hindbrain)
filtering neural impulses in RF
evaluation
final analysis of solution, revisiting the problem and making sure the solution answers the question, determining whether there are alternative ways or scenarios where the solution doesn't work
selective attention
focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, cocktail party effect
unfulfilled needs > motivation > drives
food > hunger > eating
emotional mechanisms of hunger
food/eating serves as a stress reliever, provides emotional comfort (stress, boredom, etc.), foods high in starch and sugar promote the release of serotonin (emotional regulator)
selective perception bias example
football fans believing their team is penalized more than the opposing team
pons varolii
found in the brainstem, regulates respiration, serves as a temporary "recycling bin" for neural impulses filtered/discarded by the RF, plays essential role in REM sleep-dreamscapes
martin seligman
founder of "positive psychology", self-fulfilling prophecy, learned helplessness and optimism
carl rogers
founder of humanistic client-centered therapy ("rogerian therapy"), personality is developed with conscious evaluation and self-reflection
abraham maslow
founder of humanistic perspective, human behavior is motivated to achieve "meaningful significance"
franz gall
founder of phrenology, theorized personality as a result of brain specialty ares, attempted to construct personality profiles by measurement of cranial bumps and indentations
desensitization via exposure
frequent dealings with death (loss of friends and family) especially if living in an age segregated community (nursing home), increased exposure brings self reflection and acceptance
oral stage
freud 1, birth to 18 months, infantile need to explore surroundings with the mouth, rooting reflex establishes mother and child bond, unfulfilled needs = fixations into adult behavior over indulgence = dependency and passiveness under indulgence = aggressive and sadistic
anal stage
freud 2, 1.5 to 2.5, development of one's ego, development of bodily control (sef-control) anal retention = excessive use of self control anal expulsion = lack of restraint, impulsive
phallic stage
freud 3, 2.5 to 5, discovery of what makes boys and girls different, attraction to parent of the opposite sex and jealousy and resentment towards parent of the same sex oedipus complex = "castration anxiety", unresolved conflicts lead to hatred of authority in boys electra complex = "penis envy", girls blame mother for their "anatomical deficiency"
latency stage
freud 4, 5 to puberty (12), sexual impulses towards opposite sex parent dissolve, resentment is replaces with wanting to be like the parent of the same sex, development of gender roles, fixations during latency could lead to homosexuality in adults
genital stage
freud 5, puberty to adulthood, childhood conflicts are now manifested into adult psychosexual behaviors and tendencies, personalities become solidified due to any lingering unresolved issues and conflicts
paraprax
freudian slip, accidental "slip-of-the-tongue" in which the subconscious thoughts are now revealed
accomodation
process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
hans selye
general adaptation syndrome, application of endocrinology and biochemical stress responses
functional fixedness
general inabilities to recognize alternative uses for manufactures objects other than the designer's intended purposes
adulthood
generativity vs. stagnation erikson 7, 30 to 65, emotional and biological need to have children, creating a family and future generations = legacy, no emotional need/lack of readiness = stagnation and self-centeredness
causes of mental retardation
genetics- down syndrome, PKU prenatal teratogen- birth defect, fetal alcohol syndrome physical brain injury- head trauma, stroke, asphyxiation environmental factors- neglect, disease, lang. deprivation
145-200
genius (0.1%)
mental set example
getting lost on your way home from school because there was a detour and you don't know an alternate route
130-145
gifted (2%)
survey method
given a series of questions about a specific topic, either an interview or questionnaire
stimulus extinction
gradual erosion of conditioned behaviors due to a dissociation of CS and UCS, learned association of stimuli becomes broken
systematic desensitization
gradual exposure to progressive increments of the fear-provoking stimulus in conjunction with relaxation techniques
memory decay
gradual inability to retrieve previously encoded and stored memories from STM or LTM, natural memory loss, erosion of vividness and accuracy of details over time
scatterplot
graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables, the slop suggests the direction of the relationship
linguistic aptitude and IQ
have a positive correlation (go hand-in-hand)
stress
the emotional, cognitive, and physical responses to an adverse or threatening stimulus
unconscious
in freudian theory: emotional and cognitive unawareness biomedical definition: lowest level of physiological alertness (coma, concussion, anesthesia)
weber's law
in order to sense a difference between a stimuli of the same form but of varying levels of intensity, the degree of change must be based upon a proportionate ratio, not a raw amount
infantile amnesia
inability to recall information from early childhood, typically before age 3, result of underdeveloped hippocampus and LAD and lack of language skills to aid memory encoding
egocentric cognition
inability to understand concepts through a perspective other than their own, assuming everyone sees, hears, and feels the same as they do, can't empathize (piaget stage 2)
assimilation
inclusion of a stimulus into an existing schema, "fitting in" when similarities outweigh differences
chemical tolerance
increased amount of chemical substance required to elicit same level of intoxication the drug once produced
life expectancy
increasing since 1950, longer in females
hypnosis
induced state of intense focus and concentration, highly attentive but mentally/physically relaxed, able to "tune-out" other stimuli, heightened suggestibility and relaxed inhibitions allows the psyche to communicate more openly
school age
industry vs. inferiority erikson 4, 6 to 12, critical period for learning and self-confidence, if learning fosters curiosity = motivated student, if inabilities cause inferiority = apathetic student
survey method disadvantages
information may not be truthful or accurate, questionnaire often not accurate as people aren't answering face to face
originality (OFF)
ingenuity to create unique ways to solve problems
sensory memory
initial recordings of environmental information, selection, and filtering of stimuli, time transitions (RF>Pons or Thalamus) large capacity but limited duration (with exception of olfactory which is unfiltered)
acquisition
initial stage in CC, the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response
dream memory
initially recorded in sensory level storage, typically the RF will filter and discard dream sensations within 2-4 seconds, dreams are more likely to be recalled if... -we wake during REM sleep or if RF becomes aroused because dream is scary, emotional, or exceptionally odd
lateral hypothalamus
initiates hunger and thirst
ventromedial hypothalamus
initiates satiety reflex
play age
initiative vs. guilt erikson 3, 3 to 6, children self-direct their own course of activity, learning of preschool tasks creates pride, ex. speech potty training, riding a bike, etc., failure to learn creates guilt, frustration, and anger
openness (five factor)
inquisitive, open to new ideas; imaginative vs. practical, independent vs. conforming
Wolfgang Kohler
insight, studied problem solving insight through a series of "chimpanzee experiments"
tachistoscope
instrument that flashes visual images slow enough the meet absolute threshold so they can be physically sensed but too fast for conscious perception
55-70
intellectually disabled (2%) "imbeciles"
charles spearman
intelligence is composed of a single cognitive ability, "general intelligence" (g), various levels of intelligence but not different types of ability -his theories led to the development of standardized testing
out-of-body experience triggers
intense emotion, near death experiences, anesthetic-induced unconsciousness, sensory deprivation, oxygen deprivation, extreme changes in altitude/g-force
cerebellum
known as "mini brain", bi-hemispherical, helps body coordination, balance, and posture
hindbrain
known as "reptilian brain", primitive structures shared by all vertebrate creatures, responsible for basic autonomic function
transverse temporal gyrus
known as herschel's gyrus, responsible for vocal signature identification or voice recognition (temporal lobe)
clinical psychologist
known as therapists
preconventional level
kohlberg 1, birth to adolescence, the individual/self, self-centered moral judgment based upon individual interests and learned behaviors -punishment-obedience orientation -instrumental-exchange orientation
conventional level
kohlberg 2, adolescence to young adulthood, the society/groups, altruism, moral and ethical dilemmas (ex. the heinz dilemma) -good child orientation -law and order orientation
postconventional level
kohlberg 3, young adulthood+, universal humanity, rules and moral compass of right vs. wrong are largely influenced by essential human rights -social-contract orientation -universal-ethics orientation
bulimia nervosa
lack of self control and guilt with over eating, cycles of binge eating and purging or fasting, purging as a guilt reflex to prevent weight gain, not necessarily to lose weight -average to above average BMI (fluctuates)
wernicke's area
language comprehension (left temporal lobe)
nature
language develops in biological stages and must coincide with anatomical development but is NOT nature based instinct
cerebrum
largest part of the brain, 80% of the mass, divided into 2 hemispheres that lateralize for specialized functioning (forebrain)
frontal lobe
largest surface area of the cortical lobes, speech production, mood-related emotion, personality, voluntary muscle control, advanced cognition (including hypothetical thought and problem solving)
Edward Tolman
latent learning, "cognitive mapping experiments", incentive based behavioral modification with mouse mazes (groups with no reinforcement go through maze slowly until they are suddenly given reward, they then have the fastest maze times)
law and order orientation
laws viewed as essential to preserve social order, violations of law (even if intentions are good) lead to societal decay and chaos
operant conditioning
learned associations between actions and behavioral consequences, learning in response to trial and error
conditioned response
learned behavior developed in association with CS
latent learning
learned behaviors that develop with no direct reinforcement and only tend to appear out of necessity, learning with no awareness of doing so
conditioning
learned responses by association, application of memory to create learned responses
factors affecting life expectancy
medical technology & proactive care, genetics, government policy (ex. FDA), sanitation & hygiene, and education/healthier lifestyles
living will
legal documents that can express the patient's intentions if rendered in a state of physical or mental incapacitation
threshold
level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
stage 1
light sleep, can be easily awakened, when the body should/wants to wake up
infra red
light wave frequencies <430 THz, too low of a frequency for human detection
ultra-violet
light wave frequencies >790 THz, too high of a frequency for human detection
retina
light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
color=_________ sound=_________
lightwave, soundwave
universal-ethics orientation
like freud's superego, moral reasoning reflects universal and spiritual consciousness of right vs. wrong/good vs. evil
orthoexia nervosa
limited to normal food intake (not starving/not binging), purging behaviors cause below normal BMI, but above the anorexic mark of 15%
immediate retention span
limits STM, maximum amount of information that can be recalled perfectly after just one presentation (7 items)
low frequency light waves
long, slow moving waves that produce the color red, minimum threshold of around 430 THz
forensic psychologist
look for behavioral clues at a crime scene, profilers
bright red
low frequency & high amplitude
dark/dull red
low frequency & low amplitude
long sound wavelength
low frequency, low pith, at least 20 Hz
frequency theory
low pitch/low frequency sounds are registered by the rate of frequency of neural impulses transmitted through the auditory nerve, aids in transmission, lower than 5000 Hz
meditation vs. hypnosis
meditation: self-induced, focus causes relaxation hypnosis: someone else must induce, relaxation causes focus
stratified random assignment
maintains same statistical breakdowns between different variables within the group (ex. age, class status, etc.)
sleep cycles
marked by 2 phases (REM and nonREM), stages are characterized by distinct changes in neural activity and biorhythms, could be respiration, circulation, body temp, etc., one cycle is 2 hours (1 hour from stage 1 to 4)
correlative coefficient
mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to 1
lab-observation method disadvantages
may not be as accurate because it isn't a natural environment
dependent variable
measurable results caused by the IV (psychological DV's = changes in behavior)
correlation
measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other
wavelength frequency (sound)
measured as vibrations per second, as wavelength decreases, frequency increases, this provides pitch
difference threshold
measurement of a stimulus' lowest amount of detectable change in intensity
median
middle score of a distribution, half are above it and half are below
daydreaming
mild form of an altered state, 1/3 of "waking" day, hypnagogic state, physical and metal relaxation with eyes open, not sleeping, mental wandering as a result of limited sensory and cognitive stimulation
memory summation
mind's natural tendency to draw conclusions and generalize the contents of a list or schema, brain's efficient information processing system allows us to "label" schematic categories contributor to false memory syndrome
sensory reduction
minimizing (reducing) the amount of energy absorption at the sensory level (eyes, ears, etc.)
control experiment by...
minimizing and keeping all other variables, besides the IV, constant only if everything is controlled can results be published and validated
difference threshold
minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection, a noticeable difference
cognitive explanation (eating disorders)
misperception with body image (dysmorphia), distorted mental processing and thoughts
symptoms of altered states
misperceptions of time, impaired focus/attention, change of sensitivity/responsiveness to stimuli, changes in emotion, memory distortion
figure-ground illusion
misperceptions resulting when distinctions between an image's figure and ground become blurred/indistinguishable
astigmatism
misshaped eye (cornea), creates multiple focal points, causing visual impairment
prototype
model examples that contain all the essential features and characteristics of the schema by which new stimuli are compared to
objectives of operant conditioning
modify the behavior, not the stimuli
co-morbid diagnosis
mood disorders (category 6) such as depression, anxiety disorders (cat. 7) such as OCD, and somatosensory disorders (cat. 8) such as perceptual identity, may be diagnosed alongside an eating disorder, one of which most likely causing the other
neurosis
mood swings, negative emotional states
longitudinal method advantages
more accurate data since the same participants are used
phonemes
most basic unit of sound, english contains 43 phonemes, 869 combined phonetical sounds within all world languages
eating disorders
most fatalistic of all recognized DSM disorders and psychiatric pathologies statistically correlated most with females (14-27) -women (35-45) compose the most rapidly diagnosed population group since 2000 -males (15-30) mark diagnostic increases at "alarming rate" since 2000
anger
most recognizable emotion
drive reduction theory
motivation is viewed as unpleasant stress and tension in response to unfulfilled needs, tension becomes the impetus of behavior, drives replenish needs to homeostatic balance
angular gyrus
multi-sensory processing, parallel processing (thalamus)
convergent thinking
multivariable problems that direct thinking to one solution ("conventional thinking")
white matter
myelinated axons
figure
natural interest of an image (color or detail)
language acquisition combines...
nature and nurture
myopia
nearsightedness, visual impairment at a distance, image is focused at a point in front of the retina (macula-fovea)
neuron
nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system
glial cells (astrocytes)
neural "support" cells, replenish nutrients and biochemicals, removal of cellular waste from neurons, pruning and decomposition of unused neurons, some may have the potential to process information
gray matter
neural cell bodies
action potential
neural circuit of energy transference, system of bioelectrical and biochemical energy and cognitive impulse codes throughout a neural circuit -activated by the polarization of K and Na electrons
neurology
neural circuitry, perceptual processing speed, number of synaptic connections, and neural plasticity
hemispherical laterlization
neural electricity indicates the brain's right hemisphere becomes significantly more active during REM, left hemisphere decreases in neural activity
deja vu: biological explanation
neurological "short circuit" within the parahippocampus gyrus regions, memories are retrieved as they are simultaneously being encoded
restless legs syndrome (dysnomia)
neurological sensorimotor disorder of persistent sleep-time muscle spasms and cramps, discomfort leads to chronic sleep interruption
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
neurotransmitter that decreases within the ventromedial prefrontal cortex when consuming alcohol, causes lack of judgement
serotonin and anandamide
neurotransmitters primarily affected by hallucinogenic drugs
endorphins and dopamine
neurotransmitters primarily affected by narcotic drugs
sleepwalking disorder
nightime "wandering" while asleep, stage 4 abnormality, not REM, person becomes susceptible to fall and injury
hypnopompic techniques of WILD
objective is to enter sleep cycle while maintaining thought and self-awareness from one's waking state maintaining consciousness in hypnogogic sleep ex. counting, mental imagery, control of breathing to prevent thoughts from wandering
naturalistic-observation method (field study)
observation of participants in their natural environment
case study
observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing principles
modeling
observational learning, process of learning new behaviors by mimicking the actions of others
naturalistic observations
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation
partial symptom orthoexia
obsessive commitment to healthy eating/dieting
color perception takes place in...
occipital lobe, using feature detector V1-LGN that helps in identification
cluster a
odd or eccentric trait disorders
case study method disadvantages
often creates false generalizations
retroactive interference
old memories become distorted when blurred with new information
brain
only about 15% developed at birth, powered by bioelectrical and biochemical energy, operates through a network of subsystems connected by electrical circuits
endorphins
opiate-based, biologically-produced molecules, body's natural pain supressors
encoding specificity principle
optimal memory retrieval is recalled in the same manner in which it was first learned, the coding sequence used to create a memory also establishes the same neural pathway used to retrieve it, issues can lead to memory delay
infarction
organ failure
brain death
organic infarction due to cessation of circulation and respiration or physical trauma, body is successfully resuscitated but after suffering prolonged oxygen deprivation, 60% or more cortical failure, begins at cortex level then spreads to hindbrain
chunking methods
organization of serial stimuli into manageable units typically with the use of rhythmic pauses
multisensory input
organization of stimuli with combinations of various sensory signals to increase duration and accuracy of working memory (parallel processing: thalamus (angular gyrus))
figure-ground
organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from surroundings (ground)
prospective memory
organizational memory used to recall appointments, dates, and tasks scheduled to be completed in the future
coding (midbrain)
organizing stimuli and relaying filtered stimuli to the cerebral cortex
frame of reference perception
our ability to perceive size, shape, color, time, etc. is largely based upon comparison stimuli
smell reports directly to the...
parietal lobe
medulla oblongata
part of brainstem that regulates circulatory system: pulse, bp, etc., and visceral reflexes like swallowing, gagging, sneezing, or blinking
sympathetic nervous system
part of the autonomic nervous system, prepares the body for physical and emotional stress (freeze-flight-fight) (epinephrine/adrenaline)
parasympathetic nervous system
part of the autonomic nervous system, relaxes the body after stresss encounters calms the body back to homeostasis (releases norepinephrine/noradrenaline)
amygdala
part of the limbic system responsible for generating primal/instinctive emotion such as fear, anxiety, aggression, or rage (midbrain)
field study advantages
participants are displaying their most natural behavior
social desirability response
participants behaving in ways and providing information which is socially appropriate or that meet the assumed expectations of the researcher (solution: confidentiality agreements)
placebo effect
participants expectations of thinking they ingested the IV inadvertently compromises the authenticity of their behavior
participant bias (experimental)
participants realize which group (test/control) they are assigned to and behave differently (solution: single blind study)
nightmare disorder (parasomnia)
patterns of frequent, high anxiety dreams that typically occur in REM, chronic bouts of vivid (reoccuring) bad dreams, can be treated by learning to lucid dream
watson; skinner
pavlov; thorndike (skinner and watson built off pavlov and thorndike's theories)
humanistic theory (motivation)
people are motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth and fulfillment of needs, achievement of goals and self-accomplishment, fulfillment of essential human needs
savants
people with extreme cognitive deficiencies yet are gifted in specific areas such as math, memory, music, art, or drawing
color constancy
perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object
perceptual constancy
perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change
external locus of control
perceiving one's fate as determined by circumstances beyond self control (chance, fate, destiny, etc.) (rotter)
primary elements of cognition
perception of environmental sensations, memory and learned behavior, problem solving and decision making, and language
internal locus of control
perception of having control over one's own fate, studies show people are more optimistic, motivated, successful, and healthy
selective perception bias
perceptions or reality are typically based upon our self-motivated interests and experiences, reality blinded by emotion and point of view
closure illusions
perceptual tendency to compare or finish an image when the figure and ground are indistinguishable
pica
persistent eating of non-nutritive substances, appestite is inappropriate for age development, either environmental (dirt, clay, chalk) or bodily (skin, hair, feces)
freud's stage theory
personality develops in 5 unconscious stages, consisting of psychosexual conflicts, if unresolved they can become fixations 1. oral stage 2. anal stage 3. phallic stage 4. latancy stage 5. genital stage
freud's stage theory
personality develops in 5 unconscious stages, each stages, each stage consists of a series of subconscious conflicts that need to be resolved, if conflicts are not resolved at the appropriate time, behaviors will become fixated into adulthood behaviors
julian rotter
personality is shaped by and is reflected with perceived control within a state of free will
erik erikson
personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and interpersonal and social relationships, personality develops according to 8 psychosocial stages
karen horney
personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and socio-cultural factors, feministic psychology, neurosis as social and cultural reactions
alfred adler
personality od shpaed by unconscious conflicts and inferiority complexes
trait theory
personality traits are genetic and coded into DNA just as physical traits are
general adaptation syndrome
phase 1: alarm phase 2: resistance phase 3: exhaustion
spinal cord
physically bridges the brain to body, uses reflex arc and nerve endings to send messages to the brain
epinephrine
prepares emotional and physical stress responses, released upon activation of sympathetic nervous system, used for alertness and blood circulation daily, used to wake from sleep
stomach
pressure receptors respond to expansion of stomach lining, sends signals to the brain, smaller role than once believed
dopamine
primary biochemical/neurotransmitter of addiction
independent variable
primary factor researchers hypothesize to determine the source of the correlative relationships, only manipulated variable
gag reflex
primitive screen to help prevent harmful/toxic substances from entering the digestive tract
sensory interaction
principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences the taste
natural selection
principle that, among inherited traits, those that contribute to reproduction and survival will be passed to succeeding generations
hierarchical concepts
prioritizing the checklist into a ranked order, new stimuli are assimilated not necessarily by the plurality of features but by the most important characteristics
divergent thinking
problems intended to have multiple solutions ("brainstorms")
somatosensory cortex
process "bodily sensations", things like pressure, temperature, or pain (parietal lobe)
imprinting
process by which organisms form attachments during crititcal period very early in life
sensation
process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies
gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
regulates impulsivity, inhibition, and anxiety
carl jung
psyche is composed of collective unconscious and personal unconscious, personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and archetypal relationships
projective personality assessments
psychodynamic assessment of personality, allows the test taker to "project" their unconscious personality onto a series of unstructured stimuli, allows therapists and researchers to lower the inhibitions of the conscious mind, allowing the psyche to openly communicate
affiliation
psychological need to join with others and form a group, social interactions, emotional need of "belonging" and "fitting-in", social isolation and exclusion can be the most powerful deprivation emotion
cognitive consistancy
psychological need to maintain a stable emotional equilibrium, consistent between one's inner personality and their outward behaviors, imbalances/conflicts between thoughts and behavior leads to cognitive dissonance
out-of-body experience
psychological phenomenon of becoming "detached" from one's conscious or physical self -compressed blood flow within occipital lobe= tunnel vision, "gray out", "fade to black" -decreased activity within the parietal lobe=sensations of floating -neural short circuit within the angular gyrus= brain's multi-sensory synthesis center
memory repression
psychosomatic defense mechanism, no physical brain injury, specific memories and information can sometimes be blocked from retrieval, can be unlocked through hypnosis or context/state cues
gential stage (freud)
puberty - adulthood, childhood conflicts are now manifested into adult psychosexual behaviors and tendencies, personalities become solidified due to any lingering unresolved issues and conflicts
timbre
quality/clarity of sound, the difference between noise and music
survey method advantages
quickly gathers data, large volume of data collected, very cheap
introversion
quiet, reserved, independent
position emission tomography (PET scan)
radioactive glucose is injected into the carotid artery providing the energy needed for the brain to perform a series of operational tasks, the glucose lights of the brain structures being used on a screen (most of what we know about the brain comes from this)
reuptake
reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron following an action potential firing
recovery
readjustment to daily life by assuming new roles and responsibilities
thalamus
receives filtered sensory messages from RF, codes, sorts, and relays info to the cortex (midbrain)
outer ear
reception/absorption of sound waves
ground
recessive backdrop that naturally causes the figure to stand out
extroverted-neurotic
reckless, carelessly impulsive (eysenck personality type)
introverted-neurotic
reclusive, unsociable, pessimistic (eysenck personalty type)
electroencephalogram (EEG)
records the bioelectrical activity of the brain's neural circuitry (cerebral cortex), commonly used to conduct sleep studies
belief perseverance example
refusal to accept that Earth's climate is changing despite scientific evidence
denial
refusal to recognize a threatening impulse or desire ex. a person who nearly chokes someone to death acts afterward like it was "no big deal"
suprachiasmatic nucleus
regulates biorhythms (ex. sleep) (hypothalamus)
synaptic consolidation
reinforcing trace memories from sensory experience to short term memory (sensory to STM)
elaborative rehearsal
relating new information into concepts that are currently part of your working memory, building upon prior knowledge, translating new concepts into your own words memories become more permanent with meaningful significance
rorschach ink blot test
remains most common projective test, researchers record a patients verbal and physical responses to a series of cards with non-structured, symmetrical stimuli
legacy
remembrance beyond one's own lifetime, memorializing your own life so that your existence can be marked after your death
passive euthanasia
removal of artificial life support with the intention of resuming the natural dying process
circadian rhythms
repeatable biological patterns marked by time
physical addiction
repetitive use of controlled substances in which the physiology of the body requires psychoactive chemicals in order to alleviate/minimize withdrawal symptoms
sleep paralysis
residual REM atonia that persists into wake-recovery, awake and alert but unable to move or speak, paralysis ranges from a few seconds to over a minute
after image illusion
residual, phantom appearance of an image that temporarily permits after prolonged exposure or because of bold color contrasts (American flag illusion)
phase 2 (general adaptation)
resistance, physiological attempt to revert back to homeostatic balances, parasympathetic nervous system and stress hormones (cortisol) reduce
fusiform gyrus
responsible for facial recognition (occipital lobe)
ventromedial prefrontal cortex
responsible for judgement and decision making (frontal lobe)
inferior gyrus
responsible for object recognition (occipital lobe)
lateral superior olive
responsible for source location for sound (temporal lobe)
temporal lobe
responsible for the perceptions of auditory sensations, houses auditory cortex, involved in long-term storage of memory
parietal lobe
responsible for the perceptions of touch, taste, and smell
occipital lobe
responsible for the perceptions of visual sensation, houses the visual cortex (signals from the left eye are processed in the right side visual cortex and vice versa)
substance p
responsible for the physical pain sensations
behavior
responsive actions of stimuli
color sensation takes place in...
retina, using cone photoreceptors to transduce light waves
confirmation bias
selectively picking and choosing information and data that supports your preconceived opinions and ignoring information the contradicts your beliefs
motor cortex
sends bioelectrical impulses to muscles to enable voluntary muscle movement (frontal lobe)
kinesthesis
sense of awareness of body muscle groups and being able to control them while in motion and ability to make adjustments in space= agility, and athleticism, processed in the motor cortex
vestibular sense
sense of bodily orientation, equilibrium, and balance relative to gravity, processed within the the cerebellum and more importantly the semicircular canals of the inner ear
olfaction
sense of smell, olfactory chemicals are transduced within the olfactory bulb with the parietal lobe, done within the brain unlike sight and sound, bypasses RF
gustation
sense of taste, there are 5 gustatory sensations (sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami), in the tongue itself
tactical sense
sense of touch, processed within the somatosensory cortex of parietal lobe
agreeableness (five factor)
sensitive, empathetic; trusting vs. suspicious, kind-hearted vs. callous
sleep hallucination disorder (parasomnia)
sensory illusions (dreams) that occur/continue in hypnogogic states and wake-recover transitions, described as very real and vivid images
3 levels of memory storage
sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory
sensation & perception (hunger)
sight, smell, and taste activate hunger response even when already full
linguistic determination hypothesis
significance of language is more than a mechanism for external communication, language provides neurological framework for internal human cognition/introspection, human intelligence is determined by language
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
similar to CT scan but uses magnetic waves, not radiation, creating better resolutions
retrograde & anterograde amnesia (similarities/differences)
similar: physical brain trauma different: retrograde- cortical & forget old memories anterograde- hippocampus & can't create new memories
memory repression & dissociative amnesia (similarities/differences)
similarities: no physical injury to brain differences: repression is only specifics, dissociative is whole time periods forgotten
diseases causing death
since 1950s more people die from degenerative diseases (alzheimer's, cancer, etc.) than communicable diseases (small pox, flu, etc.), significant because it prolongs the dying process
somatic nervous system
skeletal, controls voluntary body movements and actions
feature detectors
small, highly specialized areas within the cerebral cortex that allow for the perception/comprehension of specific stimuli information (fusiform, transverse, A4-MN, V1-LGN)
morphemes
smallest element of sound with meaning
most powerful sense in memory...
smell
cochlea
snail-like structure that transduces sound waves into neural impulses, cochlear fluid and nerve hair (inner ear)
extroverted-stable
sociable, outgoing, leadership qualities (eysenck personality type)
social psychologist
social workers, how individuals react to each other
developmental maturation
social, cognitive, behavioral development that is acquired through biological growth processes
mourning
socio-cultural actions and behaviors, ways of expressing grief, allows for psychological healing and recovery
id
source of human's most basic and most primitive drives and urges, development of the "pleasure principle" or instant gratification
synapse
space/gap separating physical connections between neurons, creates open circuit breaks, junction where neurotransmitters are dispersed
interneurons
specialized nerve cells within the brain and spinal cord that provide the structures for the transmission of energy and neural communication
drives
specific actions and behaviors caused by motivational impulses, the drives reduce the motives
nurture
speech development are learned behaviors requiring interaction
operational definition
statement of the procedures used to define research variables (ex. human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures)
emotion
states of "responsive sensation" that contribute to a behavioral "mood"
serial position effect
statistical analysis of memory retrieval accuracy (or retrieval failure) of items in a list based upon their position (location), best at the beginning and end)
general intelligence
statistical factor analysis that indicates an individual's overall mental capacity by level, levels of academic intellect is typically reflected across curricular disciplines
statistical significance
statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
type b
statistically tend to be introverted, generally calm and relaxed disposition, patient, reflective, tolerant to time pressures and stress
type a
statistically tends to be extraverted, impatient, time urgent, competitive, aggressive, ambitious; difficulty relaxing, maintaining sleep; guily for relaxing or resting; long established link to heart disease
denial
step 1, refusal to acknowledge impending death
anger
step 2, resentment and blame towards others
bargaining
step 3, making unrealistic negotiations
algorithms
step-by-step procedures that if properly used will always produce a correct solution
mcgill university study of sensory deprivation
subjects are locked in coffin like boxes and can leave whenever they please - 1/3 quit by first day, experienced cognitive disorientation and time distortion - next third quit by third day, experienced rambled speech, lack of focus, amplified sensation -end of 5th day 3 remain, experienced psychosis, perceptual hallucinations, and delusional behavior
permissive (parent style)
submit to child's need]s desires, make few rules, little punishment
counter conditioning
substituting the fearful stimulus with a more appealing CS so that the phobic response is counteracted/neutralized, this is what Watson was attempting to do
narcolepsy (dysnomia)
sudden (typically brief) onsets of "sleep attacks", hypersomnia, sleep paralysis, and sleep hallucinations
insight
sudden flash of understanding and problem solving ability
spontaneous recovery
sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished CR that is displayed following an extended delay in CS presentation or after a brief reacquisition of the CS
atonia
suppressed muscle tone and paralysis of voluntary muscle control that occurs during sleep
leisoning
surgically graphing and dissecting the organic structures of the brain
functional fixedness example
survivalists, resourceful and can think outside the box
cannon-bard theory
symptoms of physiological arousal and emotional sensation respond simultaneously to stimuli -ex. event > physical symptoms & fear
shaping
technique of instructing complex behaviors by breaking them down into smaller components and applying reinforcement upon the successful completion of each step, building upon prior knowledge and skill sets
sleep apnea (dysnomia)
temporary stoppage of breathing while sleeping, respiratory arrests can range from a few seconds to over a minute, characterized with chronic snoring, high BP, daytime fatigue, heart disease, and a suspected cause of SIDS
anchoring bias
tendency for people to base decisions, attitudes, and opinions solely upon first information that is presented to them
dunning-kruger effect
tendency for people with below-level abilities to inaccurately assess their own competence and to assume superior intelligence
mental set
tendency for previous successful experiences to become reliant and complacent, failure to learn new/alternative strategies
experimenter bias
tendency for the researcher to inadvertently influence the direction and results of an experiment toward their expected conclusions (solution: double blind study)
availability heuristics
tendency to assume and exaggerate the likelihood of events based upon the frequency/availability of information
belief perseverance
tendency to cling to beliefs and positions despite new information that firmly discredits and contradicts your opinions, an inability to admit mistakes
framing and wording bias
tendency to influence/manipulate our thoughts and perceptions based upon how the information is presented (worded)
hindsight bias
tendency to reevaluate an unpredictable event after time has passed and info is made available that was not present at first
false consensus effect
tendency to think others share our beliefs
procedures
test groups receive IV, control groups receive absolutely no level of IV (may receive placebo), behaviors are compared between groups measuring the effectiveness of the IV
thematic apperception test (TAT)
test taker is to make up a story/interpret descriptions about a series of pictures (projective assessment)
relevant information moves from the RF to the...
thalamus
lab-observation method advantages
the ability to control variables
depth perception
the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance
sensory deprivation
the absence of sensory stimulation resulting from being confined in an environment in which it is unattainable to absorb and process sensory signals
set point
the body's natural thermostat for maintaining hunger and weight equilibrium, regulates metabolism based upon food availability, primitive biological protective mechanism to prevent starvation -determined by genetics and early feeding habits
endocrine system
the body's slow chemical communication system, a set of glands that secretes hormones into the bloodstream
stimulus
the cause or modifier of a behavior
fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
sublimation
the channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially constructive pursuits ex. a person channels aggressive impulses into competitive sports
intelligence
the cognitive ability to think, reason, and act purposefully and effectively as to manipulate one's environment and meet in a rational manner
neural plasticity
the flexibility and responsiveness to create new (multiple) circuits, brain's capacity for modification
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors
absolute threshold
the lowest limit of stimulus energy that can be physically detected (sensed) with +50% accuracy
mode
the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point (your eye) in a given time
variable-ratio
the number of correct behaviors fluctuates before reinforcement is awarded, behavioral amount is set to an average, high response rates and high resistance to extinction
grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
parallel processing
the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision, contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing
regression
the return of behavior that is typical of earlier stages of development ex. under stress, a college student starts biting his nails or becomes totally dependent on others
audition
the sense or act of hearing
acuity
the sharpness of vision
visual capture
the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses
young-helmoltz trichromatic theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
displacement
the transfer of unacceptable impulses away from their original objects onto safer or less threatening objects ex. a worker slams a door after his boss chews him out
rationalization
the use of self-justifications to explain away unacceptable behavior ex. when asked why she continues to smoke, a women says "cancer doesn't run in my family"
field study disadvantages
unable to interfere or modify anything, can't ask questions or control variables
oppponent process theory
theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, etc.) enable color vision, ex. some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red
gate-control theory
theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain, the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers coming into the brain
learned optimism
therapy technique in which the patient must learn to "cognitively reprogram" pessimistic attitudes
cerebral cortex
thin, "wrinkly" external surface of the cerebrum, 1/8"-1/4" thick, contains 2/3 of the brain's interneurons, "wrinkles" = fissures that provide surface area expansion, divided into 4 lobes for specialized cognition (forebrain)
representative heuristics example
thinking that a quiet introverted person is more likely to be a librarian than a charismatic extroverted person
conscious
thoughts, emotions, behaviors, etc. that you are aware of and able to control
objectives of classical conditioning
to change the stimuli, not the resulting behavior
perceptual adaptation
top down ability to adjust to images when presented in a distorted or obscured view
home
traditional place to die until the late 1950s
inner ear
transduce sound waves and transmits neural impulses to the RF
system consolidation
transferring short term memories through the hippocampus to promote long term memory storage (STM to LTM)
auditory nerve
transmits neural impulses from cochlea to RF
motor neurons
transmits neural signals from the brain through the spinal cord and onto muscle groups, glands, etc.
sensory neurons
transmits sensory information from sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and relays them through the spinal cord and onto the brain
lens
transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina
auditory canal
tunnel through which sound waves reverberate as they pass through the ear (middle ear)
desensitization via behavior
tying up loose ends and finishing "unfinished business" forces us to deal with death in a concrete manner
form perception
type of top-down processing strategy that quickly provides the perception of an image based upon the relationship between figure and ground
clairvoyance (esp)
types of unproven "abilities" such as telepathy, telekinesis, or precognition
research psychologist
typically working as a professor and doing research under a college or university
psychodynamic explanation (eating disorders)
unconscious conflict ("glitch") with adolescent metamorphosis from child to adult
psyche
underlying motives, impulses, desires, etc. that form the true basis of personality, below the conscious threshold of awareness unable to overtly communicate (unless using hypnosis or dream therapy, or communicated through parapraxes)
natural concepts
understanding the characteristics that define the schema and representing it with a prototype
conservation
understanding the concept that the value of an object remains constant despite changes in form (size, length, volume, etc.)
preparation
understanding the situation, identify and familiarize yourself with relevant data and discard irrelevant info, explicitly define the goal
personality
unique combinations of emotion, motivation, individual behaviors, etc. that characterizes an individual and sets them apart, consistent patterns of mood and emotion
variable-interval
unpredictable amounts of time pass between completion of the behavior and the receipt of the reinforcement, comparably lower responsiveness but more constant rates overall
wake-initiated lucid dreams (WILD)
use of hypnopompic techniques to induce a lucid dream from states of conscious awareness
cross sectional method
used for developmental research using different participants at different ages
longitudinal method
used for developmental research, same participants are observed over an extended period of time
purposes and clinical applications
used to assess cognitive development for psychological /scientific research, used as diagnostic indicators to identify potential learning disabilities (or gifted), used forensically to evaluate legal competency
testing method
used to learn more about human behavior (intelligence tests, aptitude tests, personality tests)
long term memory
various levels of memory retention lasting from several days to years to permanence, extended duration with unlimited capacity
amplitude
vertical height of a wave (y measurement), measuers the energy intensity within the wave, provides the brightness or darkness/dullness
amplitude (sound)
vertical height of wave that measures the energy intensity within the wave providing the volume of the sound
empiricism
view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experiences
iconic memory
vision, 1/2 second duration
saturation
visual field reflecting/absorbing multiple waves of varying lengths, frequencies, and amplitudes = diverse color palette
negative punishment
withdrawing a stimulus as means to lessen the recurrence of a behavior, typically the deprivation of desired stimulus (free time)
memory consolidation
without routine "up-keep" (consolidation) memories will facts and deteriorate, consolidation requires conscious cognitive effort
melatonin
works with serotonin to regulate sleep cycle and induce sleep
positive correlation
x-variable and y-variable both increase or decrease
negative correlation
x-variable increase while y-variable decreases or vice versa
hindsight bias example
years after the 9/11 attacks many blamed government for failing to take action to prevent the threat ahead of time