ap psych exam

correlations do not prove...

causation (only experiment can prove cause-effect)

signal detection

consciously adjusting thresholds to become sensitive to specific signals in the environment, consciously selecting what signals to pay attention to will accelerate response time (ex. skim reading)

stanford-binet intelligence scale

first modern intelligence test, standardized a classification system to label developmentally cognitively disabled children, calculated the "intelligence quotient" formula, where a score of 100 is average

humanism

focus on conscious awareness, awareness = control, behavior/personality shaped by psychological needs and the need for wellness and stability, typically more positive

hospice

focused on treating the patient not just the condition/illness, medical treatment coupled with emotional therapy

cognitive perspective

focuses on complex mental processes (thought), perceptions of information and how that info is stored and retrieved

behavioral perspective

focuses on observable, empirical behaviors viewed as learned responses, because of environmental nurture

bright violet

high frequency & high amplitude

dark/dull violet

high frequency & low amplitude

short sound wavelengths

high frequency, high pitch, max threshold of 20,000 Hz

place theory

high frequency/high pitch sounds are registered with specific places of the cochlea (basilar membrane), aids in transduction, higher than 5000 Hz

narcissistic pd

highly exaggerated sense of self importance, grandiosity relative to an inflated self concept, preoccupation with how others perceive them, pride and flaunting of personal achievement, inability to empathize with the needs of others

declarative anatomical requirements

hippocampus and LAD

prospective anatomical requirements

hippocampus and LAD

episodic memory anatomical requirement

hippocampus only (most basic type of memory)

procedural memory anatomical requirements

hippocampus, LAD, motor cortex, and cerebellum

wavelength

horizontal distance (x- measurement) of a wave

passive-aggressive pd

hostile attitudes through nonviolent behaviors, pervasive patterns of negative attitudes, resentment towards authority figures but with unassertive tactic, stubborn and apathetic

biopsychologist / neuropsychologist

how brain injuries and problems affect behavior

developmental psychologist

how the brain grows from child to adult

cognitive psychologist

how the brain thinks, learns, and works

reflective frequencies provide...

hue

humanistic perspective

human awareness of self-fulfillment and achievement, an opposite of psychoanalysis, an optimistic view towards human nature, people constantly strive to better themselves

socio-cultural theory (motivation)

human behavior is regulated by one's culture, behaviors are responses to social environments, cultural norms and values dictate appropriate standards of behavior and individuals are motivated to conform to social routine and habit

schacter-singer two factor theory

human emotion is dependent upon 2 factors, physiological arousal and cognitive appraisal

abraham maslow

human nature is to strive for self-actualization, achieving self-actualization is difficult and filled with obstacles and defeat, personality is shaped by how one responds to adversity and hardship

recall

identification with full comprehension

raymond cattell

identified 35 dominant/recessive trait patterns of personality, categorized into 16 factors, created the basis of the modern personality test through statistical factors analysis (18,000 traits were grouped into 16 factors)

adolscence

identity vs. confusion erikson 5, 12 to 20, peer conformity = teenage "identity crisis", self reflection of values, principles, future goals, stress of future occupational identity

respiratory failure

if mixing alcohol with barbiturates causes death as the diaphragm relaxes to the point where suffocation occurs

critical period hypothesis

if primary language is not acquired within the critical period of early childhood, not only will learning a language be impossible, but severe cognitive disabilities will result -if a primary language is not acquired by puberty, the brain will become cognitively impaired and intellectually retarded

perceptual sets

illusions resulting when our perceptual adaptations and cognitive assumptions are proven wrong when sensed bottom up

impossible figures

images with objects impossible to construct or design because of laws of physics

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage wither to the Broca's are or the Wernicke's are

authoritarian (parent style)

impose rules and expect obedience

projection

imposing one's own impulses or wishes onto another person ex. a sexually inhibited person misinterprets other people's friendly approaches as sexual advances

case study method advantages

in clinical psychology it can provides archives to reference old cases

autonomy

having (perceived) control over one's self and one's environment, abiility to make independent decisions and choices, control over physical and emotional health and safety

neural networks

interconnected neural cells, with experience, networks can learn, as feedback strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results

the stroop effect

interference resulting when a singular task requires the use of both cerebral hemispheres simultaneously (reading color names written in other colors)

variables

internal and/or external factors that change the effect of the experimental procedures

intrinsic motivation

internal rewards (self accomplishment/self worth)

mental processes

internal, subjective experiences we infer from behavior (ex. sensations, dreams, thoughts, memory)

schematic assimilation

interpreting our new experience in terms of our existing schemas

young adulthood

intimacy vs. isolation erikson 6, 20 to 30, emotional readiness to form long term relationships and monogamous commitments, if identity conflicts continue unresolved, people tend to avoid partnered relationships = isolated

eysenck's domain scale #1

introversion vs. extroversion

stimuli arousal

introverts need for stimuli arousal is consistently self-maintained, extroverts' stimuli arousal need is rarely sustained (easily bored), means reduced monotony

phobias

irrational fears that often develop as a result of exaggerated conditioned learning

counseling psychologist

is a therapist who treats specific people (addiction, marriage, etc)

without filters for sensory screening there may be results like...

sensory overload, inability to concentrate, delayed reactions and response time, cognitive delay or diminished intelligence, synesthesia, psychosis, etc.

operational cognition

sequential mental processing, arranging thoughts in order (piaget stage 2)

education / school psychologist

serve as a therapist and evaluate learning disabilities

episodic memory

memories of specific events and experiences, type of memory most closely influenced by sensory input and emotion, memories most commonly repressed and "unlocked" by physical sensation

industrial / organizational psychologist

serve as therapist in high stress workplace, work in HR and figure out how people can work well together in teams

anorexia nervosa

severe obsession with weight loss, phobic anxiety of weight gain, distorted perception of body image, self imposed starvation and purging -BMI below 15% of normal/healthy weight

personal unconscious

shaped by unique individual experiences and social relationships

myelin

sheath of fatty, waxy plaque that surrounds axons, protecting them and minimizing energy loss due to resistance, accelerates neural processing speed of a circuit

high frequency light waves

short, fast moving waves, produce the color violet, maximum threshold of around 790 THz

depression

stage 4, grief stage of mourning process

acceptance

stage 5, coming to terms with death

one-word stage

stage in speech development from around age 1-2, during which a child speaks in single words

context dependent memory cues

memories that are triggered as a result of reconnecting with the place (context) in which the memory was experiences and encoded, physical cues based upon sensory perception

state dependent memory cues

memories triggered by states of emotional cues (or similar states of consciousness, pain, illness); reconnecting current states of mind to similar emotional states from past experiences

associative memory

memory based upon a stimuli relative similarity to other stimuli within the schema

ebbinghaus forgetting curve

memory decay occurs most rapidly shortly after initial learning, rate of decay them plateaus and slowly deteriorates over time "spaced practice" is more effective than "massed practice"

hippocampus

memory encoder, selects the neural pathways through which memories are stored (midbrain)

desensitization via cognition

spend more time foreseeing their own "ideal death", painless, surrounded by family, mentally sound

single blind study

split group, control is given a placebo

unconscious transference

memory error in which an individual misplaces the presence of a person to an incorrect location (eyewitness thinks another witness is the criminal just because they were also there)

eyewitness testimony

memory is an interpretation of an individual's emotional reaction of an experience, the more an individual discusses a memory amongst a group, the more prone it becomes to distortion of the details

dissociative amnesia

memory loss do to psychological damage, entire time periods of memory are blocked, results from psychological stress disorders in which body is disconnected from the mind (PTSD)

anterograde amnesia

memory loss due to physical brain trauma, damage is located in hippocampus region, inability to encode information and consolidate from STM to LTM, inability to create new memories, "short term memory loss"

retrograde amnesia

memory loss is due to physical trauma in cortical region, amount of memory impairment depends on trauma severity, can cause entire time periods or small fractures to be impaired, memory typically returns when brain heals

rote memory

memory recalled verbatim from the order in which it was encoded "regurgitated info", no analytical synthesis or comprehension of learned behavior

conceptual memory

memory relative to conceptual development; natural, artificial, hierarchical concepts memories of schematic procedures, prototypes, and conceptual rules of assimiliation

schema

mental categories based upon cognitive similarities, constantly redefine as the mind develops to be more sophisticated

adrenal gland

pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys, they secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine which helps arouse the body under stress (also increase HR, blood pressure, and blood sugar)

preoperational stage

piaget 2, 2 to 7, development of symbols and language develop operational cognition, egocentric cognition, animistic cognition, and artificialistic cognition

concrete operational stage

piaget 3, 7 to 11 develop reversibility and conservation

formal operational stage

piaget 4, 11+, cognitive maturity, ability to think logically about abstract concepts, ability to think hypothetically develop metacognition

elizabeth kubler-ross

pioneered the "death awareness movement", creates the 5 stages of coping with loss

accumbens nucleus

pleasure and reward center, procedural learning, repetitive/habitual behaviors (addiction or OCD) (basal ganglia)

confirmation bias example

police detectives with preconceived beliefs of a suspect choose to investigate evidence that supports his hunch, ignoring the other facts

dunning-kruger effect example

politician with below average intelligence assumes they are smarter then all of their advisers

irrelevant information moves from the RF to the...

pons varolii

transmission

process of delaying neural impulses to the brain via sensory neurons (where sensation ends and perception begins)

classical conditioning

process of learning when a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with the natural cause of behavior and creates the behavior

perception

process of organizing sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

encoding

process of translating transduced neural impulses from sensory registers and arranging them into unique neurological codes that can be retained into storage, hippocampus does the encoding

subliminal perception

processing stimuli that meet absolute thresholds of sensations but are perceived below conscious awareness

0-55

profoundly intellectually disabled (0.1%) "idiots"

oxytocin

promotes bonds of social attachment and love

organizational systems

promoting LTM by consolidating information with habit and routine, establishing sequentially ordered systems of step-by-step procedures promote retrieval

reflex arc

protection and physical damage control, in cases of physical trauma to the body, the spinal cord can supercede the brain in these cases

fixed-interval

reinforcement is received after a preset and constant amount of time passes upon successful completion of the behavior, similar to fixed-ratio, behavior progressively increases then drops off

behavioral modifiers

reinforcements or punishments

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

recency effect

retrieval accuracy recovers with stimuli that are positioned at the end of the list

reversibility

reversing the sequential operations developed via operational cognition, counting backwards, subtraction, etc.

raymond cattell

revised spearman's theory of general intelligence, described "g" as being composed of 2 forms (crystallized & fluid)

fixed-ratio

reward is applied after completion of a constant number of behavioral responses, high response rates as you approach the reward followed by a drop-off after receipt

daydreaming hemispherical lateralization

right brain: fanciful dreamlike trance with vivid imagery to provide escape from boredom left brain: extensions of cognitive thoughts and organization, used functionally for creative thinking

iris

ring of muscle tissue that forms around the color portion of the eye around the pupil, controls pupil opening

social-contract orientation

rules and laws are established to provide social welfare and civic protection, human nature is inherent to help others, laws are beneficial and enacted to help people so they must be followed

good child orientation

rules and laws are perceived as "necessary evils" and people should be judged by their intentions, not necessarily by their actions

syntax

rules for organizing and arranging the words within sentences

semantics

rules regulating the selection of words used to properly convey a meaning

participant selection

sample populations must be stratified with target population, group demographics are statistical microcosms of sample and target populations

psychology

scientific study of behavior and mental processes

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

behavior is not reinforced every time, but is reinforced frequently enough so that a conditioned behavior develops or is maintained, more resistant to extinction

socio-cultural perspective

behavior is viewed as a unique combination of biological nature and environmental nurture, focuses on cultural influences as primary factors in behavior

binge eating disorder

behavioral addiction/obsession with food, cyclical binge eating episodes, often results in obesity of morbid obesity

stimulus discrimination

behavioral changes that result from differences between new stimuli that are otherwise similar to the conditioned stimulus, focusing on differences among related stimulus and responding with different behaviors

overjustification effect

behavioral regression due to a reliance of expected extrinsic incentive, even if the activity was originally enjoyable, excessive rewards decreases the intrinsic value and makes it seem like "work"

participant bias (observational)

behaviors/responses are not a true representation of their real/natural behaviors (caused by social desirability)

laboratory-observation method

study done in a controlled artificial environment

parapsychology

study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

psychophysics

study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience with them (light waves, sound waves, color, etc.)

psychoanalysis

study of the subconscious, no awareness = no control, behavior/personality is shaped by conflicts in the psyche, views human nature "negatively"

cross-sectional method

study where people of different ages are compared with one another- short amount of time

psychoactive drug categories

stimulants, depressants, narcotics, hallucinogens

punishment

stimuli added or taken away that will decrease behavioral responses, punishment alone is proven to be effective, but not as much as reinforcement alone

positive reinforcement

stimuli added so that the frequency of learned behavior increases, usually a reward/desirable incentive

positive punishment

stimuli added that will reduce the recurrence of a behavior, stimulus typically aversive or unpleasant, only in pacification is behavior only temporarily stopped

order of classical conditioning

stimuli are presented before thee behavior is displayed

paradox of associative memory

stimuli differences often delay memory retrieval, but sometimes differences can enhance retrieval (ex. saying artichoke in a list of animal names)

primacy effect

stimuli have the highest likelihood of retrieval (and accuracy) when located in the beginning of the list

negative reinforcement

stimuli taken away or the removal/avoidance of a stressor or high anxiety environment to promote behavior, typically the removal of aversive stimuli

avoidance-avoidance method

stress from having to choose 1 option when both options are undesirable but one must be chosen (season ending surgery vs. playing injured)

approach-avoidance method

stress stemming from having to choose between 2 alternatives that will have both desirable and undesirable results (course scheduling)

approach-approach method

stress stemming from having to choose between 2 desirable alternatives (picking between colleges)

brainstem

structural tissue that fuses the spinal cord to the brain, responsible for visceral functions, 1st structures to function at birth and last to fail upon oxygen deprivation

superego

structure of ethical consciousness, development of the "moral principle", restraining behavioral impulses, not because it is against the rules but because of a moral compass of right and wrong

designer drugs

synthetically manufactured chemical compounds designed to elicit psychoactive effects or symptoms, created to have specific effects ex. methamphetamine, LSD, bath salts

cognition

system of multiple mental processes that allow for human introspection and evaluation of thought

midbrain

system of structures bridging the primitive hindbrain to the sophisticated forebrain, aids in perception, cognition, and memory processing

conscientiousness (five factor)

systematic, meticulous; organized vs. unstructured, impulsive vs. disciplined

longitudinal method disadvantages

takes years to conduct the tests, have to wait in real time

papillae

taste buds, gustatory receptors concentrated on the tongue and nasal/sinus passageways, 80% of flavors we detect are processed within the olfactory system

survey

technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes of people, by questioning a random sample of them

infancy

trust vs. mistrust erikson 1, birth to 12 months, the baby's unconscious trust in being provided food, security, emotional comfort, etc., formation of attachment and separation anxiety

louis thurston

"primary mental abilities", human intelligence consists of 7 different abilities, his theories led to the creation of the modern IQ test

REM sleep

active sleep or paradoxical sleep stage, biorhythmic recovery, neo-cortical recovery, brain activity resembles conscious alertness

extroversion

active, self-expressive, more social

John Watson

"Little Albert Experiment" experiment of how phobias can be learned, generalized, and extinguished based upon classical conditioning principles

stanley schacter

"The psychology of affiliation" companionship in relation to emotional stress and anxiety, found that the need for affiliation came with more stress (experiment over whether subject would ask for a friend when about to receive electric shock)

objective personality assessments

"personality inventories" based upon standardized questionnaires, prompts based upon trait theory principles (five factor model), statistical-based factor analysis (traits>factors>personality)

eidetic imagery

"photographic memory" iconic exception, permanent storage of an image after only viewing it once, typically audition as well, persistent in <0.07% of adult population (<3% of population of children have residual eidetic but fades by puberty)

Albert Bandura

"bobo doll experiment" researched aggressive behaviors in children learned via observational modeling

gordon allport

"catalogue of human personalities", categorized ~18,000 human personality trait combinations, first to propose the genetic nature of personality theory

jean piaget

"cognitive development" is biologically universal, regardless of cultural and demographic variables, occurs in 4 stages each marked with cognitive milestons

paul ekman

"cross cultural expression identification study", established a universal taxonomy standardizing human facial expressions, facial action coding system (FACS)

stage 4

"deep sleep", body becomes unresponsive to stimuli, difficult to wake up, even by an alarm clock

stage 3

"delta sleep", slowed respiration and decreased body temp, deep sleep

psychoanalysis perspective

"duality of the mind", conflict between conscious and subconscious

tympanic membrane

"ear drum", layer of elastic tissue that "encloses" the auditory canal, vibrates as sound waves pass through it, activates ossicle bones (middle ear)

procedural memory

"executive functioning" learned skills and operational processes, memories of step-by-step actions with sequential organizational patterns, requires higher level learning abilities (math, recipes, etc.), typically requires muscle coordination

deja vu

"flashback" memory illusions of past experiences, overwhelming sense of familiarity when something logically should not be familiar

taste aversion

"food aversion" a learned (conditioned) avoidance of food, learned association of food and illness, generally require only 1 acquisition for the behavior to develop

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

"functional" video recordings pf brain activity, measures blood flow, oxygen levels, chemical distribution, etc.

crystallized intelligence

"gc", knowledge acquired and solidified through lifelong learning experiences "book smart"

declarative memory

"general knowledge" facts, dates, numbers, images, test questions, song lyrics, phone numbers, and other information typically encoded in language

fluid intelligence

"gf", flexibility of reasoning abilities, speed, and efficiency of information processing "street smarts"

biochemistry of hunger

"hunger chemicals" regulated by serotonin, low glucose levels trigger the release of orexin > initiates hunger response, food consumption controls glucose by secreting insulin > increased insulin triggers release of obestatin, stopping the hunger response

nerve deafness

"inner ear deafness", permanent or temporary hearing loss resulting from abnormalities to the ear's transduction system (ex. dysfunctional cochlea or detached audition nerve)

forebrain

"mammalian brain", responsible for complex "humanistic" traits, self aware consciousness, memory, intelligence, and personality

conduction deafness

"middle ear deafness", permanent or temporary hearins loss resulting from abnormalities to the ear's conduction system (ex. inflammed auditory canal or lacerated eardrum)

lawrence kohlberg

"moral and ethical development", development of moral reasoning occurs within 3 levels, each with 2 stages 1. preconventional level 2. conventional level 3. postconventional level

A4 medial geniculate nucleus (A4-MGN)

"music processor", identifies pitch, harmony, melody, etc. (temporal lobe)

night terror disorder (parasomnia)

"night fright", repeated episodes of intense fear during sleep causing a person to abruptly wake up in panic, typically occurs in stage 4, not triggered by a bad dream but a panic attack

circadian rhythmic disorder (dysnomia)

"non-24 sleep-wake disorder", abnormalities that occur when circadian clocks are not synchronized with a 24-hour cycle of day and night, circadian sleep cycles last longer than 24 hours, or sleep-wake cycles fluctuate daily

acute care facilities

"nursing homes", assisted living institutions

necrosis

"organic/cellular death", accelerated decay of organic tissue cells, cellular structures deteriorate at a rate that outpaces repair

peripheral nervous system

composed of receptor networks, muscles, and glands (endocrine system)

erik erikson

"psychosocial personality development", neofreudian, psychodynamics, personality develops according to 8 stages of psychosocial conflict 1. infancy 2. early childhood 3. play age 4. school age 5. adolescence 6. young adulthood 7. adulthood 8. maturity

hypothalamus

"quality control center", regulates amygdala and pituitary gland, also regulates sex drive (midbrain)

hypnogogic stage

"relaxed wakefulness", not sleep, usually lasts 10-12 minutes

freudian interpretation of dreams

"road to the unconscious", dreams are not random and meaningless but are the "voice of the psyche", wishful fulfillment, unconscious conflicts disguised with symbolism, dream analysis provides insight to the psyche

heuristics

"short cut" typically algorithms modified through experience. requires less time but may be prone to erroe

insular cortex

"the 5th cortical lobe", essential for hand-eye coordination, allows for self-aware consciousness (parietal lobe)

edward thorndike

"the law of effect" learning by trial and error, focused on reinforcement-based behavioral modification, studied animal behavior in "puzzle boxes", created the "learning curve"

howard gardner

"theory of multiple intelligences" described intelligence as unique to individual learning abilities and develop according to cultural influences, intelligence is based upon 8 abilities

bottom-up processing

"thick slicing" analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works to the brain's integration of the information

top-down processing

"thin slicing" information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

metacognition

"thinking about thinking", understanding one's own learning styles

presbyopia

"transitional blindness", inability for the lens to accommodate rapidly as it ages and loses flexibilty

short term memory

"transitional storage" from sensory level to LTM, limited capacity and limited duration (20-30 sec)

robert sternburg

"triarchic theory of successful intelligence", intelligence displayed through practical problem solving, focuses on process of problem solving not the final product using three abilities

interposition

(monocular) depth cue caused when multiple objects overlap, creating an appearance of relative distance or order

motion parallax

(monocular) depth perception cue while in motion, perception of motion is based upon planes of depth, objects near appear faster than objects farther away

linear perception

(monocular) visual appearance of parallel lines converging as they reach a point in distance "vanishing point", based on relative size of objects

collective unconscious

composed of universal archetypes common to all human minds, reflected cross-culturally in art, religion, literature, etc.

eustachian tube

drainage tube, releases air pressure and phlegm to the throat (inner ear)

manifest content

compositions of symbolic imagery that distorts and disguises the true meaning of a dream (archetypes) ex. dreaming you are in the desert on a treasure hunt

cluster b

dramatic, emotional, erratic trait disorders

anal stage (freud)

1 1/2 - 2 1/2, development of one's ego, development of bodily control, fixations are anal-retentiveness or anal-expulsiveness anal-retention- excessive use of self control anal-expulsion- lack of restraint, impulsive

reversible figure illusions

1 picture that contains 2 images depending on what you perceive as the figure and the ground

extraversion (five factor)

outgoing, expressive; sociable vs. reclusive, affectionate vs. reserved

complete cycle

1-2-3-4-3-2-1-REM typically only the first 2-3 cycles are complete, time spent in "deep sleep" decreases, frequency of REM increases

criteria for mental illness diagnosis

1. symptoms intensify or become increasingly more severe if left untreated 2. condition affects ability to maintain interpersonal relationships 3. condition interferes with quality of life, inability to maintain employment or residency 4. condition poses immediate or potential threat to the physical safety of oneself or others

sleep deprivation

1/3 of all Americans suffer from a sleep abnormality, ~40% of women, ~25% of men every year American s spend $98 million on sleep aids and $22 million to wake up 31% of all drivers reported to have fallen asleep for a few seconds while behind the wheel

average IQ

100 +/- 15 (85-115) 68% of the population

schacter's experiment of cognitive appraisal

-control: given a saline placebo -test A: given adrenaline and were told the effect -test B: given adrenaline and uninformed -when confederate acted angry and unreasonable to test B group mirrored their reaction, while test A stayed calm

artificial concepts

-defining the characteristics of the prototype and comparing new stimuli not to the model but to a defined feature list -if a majority of the characteristics of the mental "checklist" are in common, the new stimulus can be assimilated

amount of energy the brain can operate on

15-25 watts (not much energy, making it very efficient)

wechsler tests of intelligence

-most commonly used IQ tests, they created international and age related versions, considered the clinical standard for intelligence measurement (WAIS-III & WISC-IV) -instead of comparing test scores to one's age, they are distributed according to averages

axon terminals

-porous membranes at the tips of axons that house reservoir sacs of neurotransmitters -terminals act as faucets and release the proper types and amounts of chemicals specified by the electric shock

dopamine

-promotes fluid muscle movement, stimulates the brain's reward and pleasure center, enables cognitive focus/concentration -imbalances linked to ADD/ADHD, Schizophrenia, and Parkinson's

serotonin

-regulates mood/emotion, helps regulate circadian rhythmic cycles (sleep, appetite, temperature regulation) -imbalances of serotonin are linked to mood/anxiety disorders

phallic stage (freud)

2 1/2 - 5, discovery of what makes boys and girls different, attraction to parent of the opposite sex and jealousy and resentment toward parent of same sex (rivalry) oedipus complex- "castration anxiety" unresolved conflicts = hatred of authority (males) electra complex- "penis envy", blames mother for "anatomical deficiency" (girls)

illusory / spurious correlation

2 variables that logically appear to have a correlative relationship, but upon mathematical examination, they have no statistical commonality

amount of blood and oxygen supply in brain...

20%

snellen vision chart

20/20 vision is normal, 20/10 is better than normal, legal blindness is 20/200 vision with corrective lenses

biochemical imbalance

3 forms of neurotransmitter imbalances 1. amount of production (ex. deficiency) 2. misdirected circulation (ex. some regions of the brain receive too much/too little of the neurotransmitters) 3. rate of consumption (ex. amount of neurotransmitters produced is exhausted prematurely as seen in bipolar disorder)

computed axial tomography scan (CT/CAT scan)

3D viewing at internal and external angles, provides cross-sectional images of the brain's internal structures

sternburg's 3 abilities

1. analytical intelligence (analysis/evaluations) 2. practical intelligence (application of concepts) 3. creative intelligence (innovation) -successful thinkers use all three

functions of a funeral

1. appropriate disposal of a body 2. physically exposes people to death (allows people to come to terms with their own mortality) 3. provides sense of finality (allows survivors to move on)

scientific research process

1. formulate questions and develop hypotheses 2.observational research methods to collect data 3. analyze correlations to determine relationships 4. design experimental procedures to determine cause-effect 5. publish results and procedures so the process can be replicates and validated by future researchers

classical conditioning formula

1. identify behavior 2.what is natural cause of behavior? 3. what has been linked together (learned cause)

operant conditioning formula

1. identify the behavior 2. is the behavior going to stop or reoccur? 3. why is the behavior stopping or reoccurring?

partial reinforcement schedules formula

1. identify the behavior and reinforcement 2. what are you waiting for? (time or # of completions) 3. is it constant or predictable? (fixed or variable)

night vision

1. iris muscles contract causing the pupil openings to dilate (widen) = maximizing the absorption of light wave energy 2. photoreceptors sensitivity transfers from the cone cells to the rod photoreceptor cells

gardner's 8 abilities

1. logical/mathematical 2. linguistic 3. musical 4. bodily/kinesthetic 5. spatial relations 6. naturalistic 7. interpersonal 8. intrapersonal

thurston's 7 abilities

1. numerical ability 2. spatial relations 3. associative memory 4. vocabulary 5. verbal comprehension 6. reasoning 7. processing

five-factor model

1. openness 2. conscientiousness 3. extraversion 4. agreeableness 5. neuroticism

good theories explain by...

1. organizing and linking observed facts 2. implying hypotheses that offer testable predictions

three parts of creative intelligence (OFF)

1. originality 2. fluency 3. flexibility

elements of human emotion

1. physiological (nervous systems, biochemistry, anatomy) 2. cognitive (emotional intelligence EQ) 3. behavioral (expression & display of states of emotion)

steps to effective problem solving

1. preparation 2. production 3. evaluation

steps in sensation (physical)

1. reception 2. transduction 3. transmission

principles for making generalizations

1. representative samples are better than biased samples 2. less-variable observations are more reliable than more-variable 3. more cases are better then fewer

steps in perception (cognitive)

1. selection 2. coding 3. interpretation

neurological factors of intelligence include...

1. speed and efficiency of neural transmission 2. neural plasticity

latency stage (freud)

5 -12 (puberty), sexual impulses towards opposite sex parent dissolve, resentment is replaces with wanting to be like the parent of the same sex, development of gender roles, fixations during latency period lead to homosexuality in adult behavior

maslow's hierarchy of needs

5. physiological 4. safety 3. love/belonging 2. esteem 1. self-actualization

minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI-II)

500 questions (true/false), standard assessment for clinical diagnosis of personality disorders (DSM-V category 16)

number of colors humans can detect...

7 million hues

biomechanisms of sleep

>retinal photoreceptors (rods) detect changes of available light (amplitude) > activates suprachiasmatic nucleus (hypothalamus) >regulates the pineal gland's production and release of melatonin >norepinephrine maintains sleep >epinephrine and orexin stimulate wake recovery >pons is activates to adjust respiration (yawn)

nociceptor cell

pain receptor nerve cell

autonomic nervous system

regulates involuntary body operations, circulation, respiration, and digestion

ganglion cells

sensory neurons sensitive to specific light frequencies for color detection

bipolar cells

sensory neurons that connect photoreceptors (cones) to ganglion cells

latent content

dream's true (hidden) meaning that is interpreted through psychoanalysis ex. desert= monotony of daily life, treasure hunt= wishful fulfillment of change

range

the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

type a

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people

type b

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people

framing and wording bias example

people overwhelmingly prefer beef that is 90% fat free over the same beef that was marked 10% fat

bereavement

the emotional and behavioral experience of a loss of a loved one due to death

bioelectrical current is primarily generated by the ionic polarization of...

K and Na

diasthesis stress conditions

physiological disorders (or related symptoms) that develop or increase in severity due to stress

touch, taste, sight, and hearing report to the...

RF

primary structures of the limbic system...

RF, amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus

language

allows for sophisticated exchange of thought, communication, promotes social identity and cultural cohesion, foundation of human cognitive development allows for internal comprehension of thought, memory, emotion, sensory perceptions, etc.

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage during which a child speaks in two word phrases

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds which are unrelated

genetics/heredity

physiology, brain anatomy, and neural plasticity are products of one's DNA

reaction formation

behaving in a way that is the opposite of one's true wishes or desires in order to keep these repressed ex. a sexually frustrated person goes on a personal crusade to stamp out pornography

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

visual convergence

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the more the eyes strain to turn inwards to view an object, the closer the object is (note: only a factor at close ranges)

psychoanalysis / psychodynamic

behavior as a result of abstract "inner forces" and conflicts within the subconscious psyche, typically negative toward human behavior (Freud)

standard deviation

a computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

schemas

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

limbic system

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

critical periods of human cognitive development

a maturational stage in a person's life where they are especially sensitive to environmental stimuli

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

change blindness

a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it

conditioned stimulus

a previously neutral stimulus that through sessions of acquisition, causes a learned behavior response

order of operant conditioning

behavior is displayed first, then stimuli follows

functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function, how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish (william james)

testing method disadvantages

a single test can't reveal all intelligence and can't find all personality

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise)

quicker response time is due to...

a thicker coating of myelin around axons due to rehearsal or crystallization during sleep

pitch

a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency

inferiority complex

actions intended to overcompensate for lack of self-worth

priming

activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

visual accommodation

ability of the lens to change the contour of its shape to allow focus far and near, stretched (flattened) for distance visual focus and contracted (rounded) for short-range focus

flexibility (OFF)

ability to interchange various methods of problem solving and make adjustments when circumstances dictate

fluency (OFF)

ability to produce multiple solutions to one problem

proactive interference

ability to recall recent information is impaired due to distortion with older memories

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

ability to recall stored memory but retrieval delay prevents information from becoming verbalized in a timely manner

memory storage

ability to retain encoded neural impulses over a period of time, "storage facility" is not a structure of brain anatomy but is instead in neural circuitry, 2/3 of neurons are within the cortex

source amnesia

ability to retain factual knowledge but unable to remember where, when, or how the information was acquired

testing method advantages

able to get a better understanding of each individual tested, provides data in the form of numbers (empirical)

parasomnia disorders

abnormal behaviors and/or cognitive perceptions during sleep, REM, and sleep transitions

dysnomia disorders

abnormalities and general medical pathologies related to the circadian cycles

transitional sleep disorder (dysnomia)

abnormalities with transcending through the sleep stages and cycles, most commonly unable to progress beyond stage 1 or 2 into deep or 4+ complete stages every night

115-130

above average (14%)

pinna

absorbs sound waves, funnels them into the auditory canal (outer ear)

reception

absorption of environmental stimuli with sensory receptors

gastrointestinal tract

absorption of nutrients into the blood stream, detects glucose-insulin exchange in blood and sends chemical signals to the brain

pseudo psychology

abstract "abilities" of the human mind that cannot be tested and measured by using the scientific method

purposes for personality assessment

academic research and scientific inquiry, employment and career placement, relationship compatibility, clinical applications and diagnostics

instrumental-exchange orientation

acceptance of social rules, rules are obeyed in anticipation of reward

self-actualization

according to Maslow, one of the ultimate psychological needs that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

punishment-obedience orientation

acknowledging the existence of social rues, rules are obeyed in order to avoid punishment

BF Skinner

adapted Thorndike's puzzle boxes with both reinforcements and punishments, called "Skinner box"

schematic accommodation

adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

pupil

adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

accommodation

adjustments and modifications made when differences outweigh similarities 1. redefine parameters (rules) of the schema 2. place new item into a different schema 3. create a new schema

eric lenneberg

advanced chomsky's theories of LAD, "critical period of hypothesis of linguistics"

tertogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

acetylcholine (ACH)

aides in memory encoding and processing, promotes cognitive functioning and learning, works with sympathetic nervous system

phase 1 (general adaptation)

alarm, initial reactions to stressors (shock), sympathetic nervous system (preparation)

population

all the cases in a group from which samples are taken

psychoactive drugs

alters the CNS, alters brain functioning/mental processing, causes a change in emotion, behavior, and sensory processing

intensity

amount of energy in a light or sound wave which we perceive as brightness or loudness, determined by the wave's amplitude

neural plasticity

amount of time spent dreaming is factored upon the neural plasticity of the brain, the flexibility of the axons -infants spend 8/10 hours in REM, adults 70+ spend 1/10 hours in REM

auditory ossicle bones

amplify sound waves by acting as percussion instruments, directs sound waves to oval window (middle ear) (malleus-hamer, incus-anvil, strapes-stirrup)

scientific theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

case study method

an in-depth research study of an individual or a small group with a commonality

gestalt

an organized whole, Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

social eating disorder

anxiety related to eating while around other people or when in social environments, persistent avoidance of social interactions that involve food

cluster c

anxious, fearful trait disorders

neuroticism (five factor)

anxious, temperamental, moody; secure vs. insecure, self-satisfied vs. self-pity

altered states of consciousness

any change (naturally or induced) to one's normal perceptual awareness and alertness ex. sleep, dream, jet lag, hallucination, etc.

unconditioned stimulus

any natural stimulus that causes a reflexive behavior (natural)

reinforcement

any stimuli added or taken away to make a behavior increase frequency, promotes likelihood of recurrence

scientific study

application of the scientific method (inquiry based research and empirical analysis through experiment)

continuous reinforcement

applying a reinforcement upon the completion of every display of conditioned behavior, promotes the quickest response time but also the quickest extinction if reinforcement stops

mean

arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores then dividing by the number of scores

brain's mass

around 3 lbs. (male - 3.2 lbs. female - 2.7 lbs.)

necrobiotic rate of adult papillae

around 30 days, slower rotation means decreased sensitivity

necrobiotic rate of child papillae

around 7 days, higher rotation, increased sensitivity

active euthanasia

assisted suicide, "mercy killing", Dr. Kevorkian and the right to die movement, widely considered ethical and humane, but illegal to administer in the US except a few states

insomnia (dysnomia)

associated with the inability to fall asleep or stay asleep, affects 20% of Americans, symptoms can be attributed to biochemistry, diet, stress, etc.

broca's area

association area responsible for vocal articulation needed for speech production (frontal lobe)

availability heuristics example

assuming local crime rates have increased because you or a friend's car was broken into

artificialistic cognition

assuming that environmental events are due to human actions (piaget stage 2)

eugenics

attempts to engineer the human gene pool by breeding intellectually superior people

echoic memory

auditory, 2-4 second duration

unconditioned response

automatic (unlearned) behavioral reflex of stimulus

early childhood

autonomy vs. shame/doubt erikson 2, 1 to 3, development of self-awareness and self-identity, children test limits to exert their independence, lack of independence creates a defeated self-concept and doubt in a child's capabilities

object permanence

awareness that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, "out-of-sight, out-of-mind", concept is typically mastered by 8-9 months

achievement motivation

basic human impulses that drive individuals to obtain goals, prior success serves as a motivation for future accomplishment and achievement, the application of incentive-based learning

recognition

basic identification of stimuli, people. places. information, etc. (basic familiarity)

stimulus arousal theory

basic need to seek stimulation for amusement and/or exploration, curiosity is essential to initiate learning, lack of sensory stimulation creates boredom and leads to new stimulating behavior

hospitals

become most common place to die from late 1950s-1980s due to new technology, but the restrictive visiting hours, rules, and treatment schedules were not accommodating to the special needs of the patient and family

animistic cognition

believing all things are living and have human characteristics/emotion, attributing life and consciousness to objects (piaget stage 2)

70-85

below average (14%) "morons"

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

representative heuristics

bias based on stereotypes, tendency to make judgments and evaluations based upon conceptual schemes with characteristics that create generalizations

sensation

bio-cognitive process of gathering environmental stimuli and avoiding monotony

memory

bio-cognitive process of recording information and experiences in a manner that can be organized and recalled repetitively over time

neurotransmitters

biochemical molecules that are released from one neuron and are absorbed by a receiving neuron

biological explanation (eating disorders)

biochemical, genetic, anatomical abnormalities

needs

biological and emotional necessities that when lacking, cause a change of behavior, requirements for physical and emotional well being (food, sleep, etc.)

activation synthesis hypothesis

biological definition, dreams are the remnants of insignificant stimuli filtered by the RF and recycled by the pons during REM sleep, random discharged bio-energies are absorbed into the cerebral cortex, cortex attempts to interpret bioelectrical impulses by arranging dream sequence (nightmares are from a hyperactive amygdala)

lifespan development

biological growth from prenatal to death

instinct theory

biological perspective (nature), fixed action patterns, genetic transmissions of innate behavior, behavioral patterns that are bio-cognitive, not learned by nurture, motivation for primal actions and behavioral reflexes

pheromones

biologically-produced, airborne-emitted chemicals that unconsciously cause a change of behavior

clinical death

biomedical definition, cessation of blood circulation, respiration, and brain activity, time interval starting from the onset of symptoms until the body is resuscitated, average of 4 minutes of natural life support, oxygen deprivation leads to brain damage or death

oral stage (freud)

birth-18 months, infantile need to explore surroundings with mouth (rooting reflex), establishes mother-child bond over indulgence- dependency and passiveness (over eating, nail biting) under indulgence- aggressive and sadistic

antisocial pd

blatant disregard for the rights & feelings of others, characterized by callous & cruel actions, most violent of all mental disorders = "sociopaths"

chemical withdrawal

body becomes chemically altered and physically requires drug to function, abstaining from chemical interaction can create severe physical ailments including nausea, tremors, muscle aches, seizures, and migraines

authoritative (parent style)

both demanding and responsive, control by setting rues and explaining why they are necessary, encourage open discussion

double blind study

both participants and researchers are made unaware as to which group is receiving the IV or the placebo, requires 3rd party assistance (usually a nurse or computer)

persistent vegetative state

brain death characterized by total cortical failure but structures within hindbrain remain functional, vital organs and life systems remain operational, inability to speak or voluntarily move muscles, sleep-wake cycle remains, eyes open and close, feeding tube needed

catatonic vegetative coma

brain death with only parts of the hindbrain active, physiological deactivation of bodily systems, absence of sleep-wake, lack of gag reflex and corneal (blink) reflex, unrecoverable

language activation device

brain is wired from language acquisition, learning is required but is only possible when structures of the brain have matured enough (broca's/wernicke's areas) -mostresponsivefrom 2-5 but if primary language isn't developed by puberty it never will -LAD will decompose and the ability to learn a language becomes impossible and may cause other neurological issues/disabilities

accubens nucleus

brain's pleasure and reward center

light amplitude=________ sound amplitude=________

brightness, volume

legal ways to dispose of body

burial, cremation, donation to scientific research

anchoring bias example

business negotiations are often based upon the first offer proposed and then develop accordingly

introverted-stable

calm, even-tempered, quiet (eysenck personality type)

emotional stability

calm, less reactive to stress

cross sectional method advantages

can be done in less time than longitudinal

cross sectional method disadvantages

can be less reliable as outside factors can be affecting each individual participant differently

avoidant pd

characterized by extreme feelings of inadequacy, cripplingly low sense of self worth, repetitive avoidance of social interactions and limited interpersonal relationships, fear of rejection, humiliation, self loathing

paranoid pd

characterized by high levels of suspicion, distrust, exaggerated envy, and jealously, often misidentified as paranoid schizophrenia, not a psychotic condition, no loss of reality

boderline pd

characterized by volatile emotional instability, lack of impulse control, extreme mood swings, fragile sense of self concept, low self esteem, destructive behaviors become outlet for tension (drug abuse, sexual promiscuity, self mutilation)

hormones

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactures by the endocrine systems, produced in one tissue and affect another (affect growth, reproduction, metabolism, mood, etc.)

reuptake inhibitors

chemical substances that block reuptake, increase the neurotransmitters' functionality

antagonist

chemicals that block the exchange of neurotransmitters, minimizing their effects

agonist

chemicals that mimic neurotransmitters and bind at the receptor site increasing effectiveness

telegraphic speech

child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs in two word phrases like "go car"

color deficient vision

chromosomal defects affecting the sensitivity of cone photorecpetors, significantly more prevalent in males, most commonly in erd-green color system

hans eysenck

classified personality traits and factors into 2 dimensional domains, 4 personalty types

goal setting

clearly define your goals and objectives, establish a methodical action plan, keep a record of progress, make "mini" goals that are more obtainable

mental retardation/intellectual disabilities

clinically defined by IQ scores below 70, 85% pf mentally retarded population is "mild"

sports psychologist

coach in a mental aspect, helps with stress and control

ear=_______, eye=________

cochlea, retina

when finding correlations...

coefficients should be as close to -1 or 1 as possible for there to be a mathematical correlation (less of a relationship the closer to 0 the number is)

central nervous system

composed of 2 physiological structures: brain and spinal cord

unconscious information processing

cognitive explanation, REM is an extension of daytime cognition, information is encoded during conscious alertness but is controlled in REM (consolidated), dreams are perceptual reflections of "cognitive housekeeping"

habituation

cognitive filtering when exposed to repeated stimuli over extended (mulitple) period of time = learning to desensitize due to habitual exposure (cerebral cortex) (ex. odors in your car or house)

sensory adaptation

cognitive filtering when incoming sensory messages within an environment remain constant (ex. no longer feeling your clothes throughout the day)

piaget's stage theory

cognitive milestones 1. sensorimeter stage 2. preoperational stage 3. concrete opertational stage 4. formal operational stage

illusions

cognitive misconceptions that result when assumptions and expectations are proven wrong, top down strategies are proven wrong by bottom up strategies

hermann ebbinghaus

cognitive psychologist, empirical measurement of memory and decay, known for serial position effect and forgetting curve

alfred binet

collaborated with theodore simon and created the binet-simon intelligence test, foundation of modern intelligence assessment, test measured multiple cognitive abilities, not a measure of aptitude - NOT the first clinically used IQ tests

archetypes

collections of images, symbols, etc. that represent stereotypical human roles, dream symbolism is the voice of the psyche

meditation

collective group of techniques designed to reduce physical and mental tension, controls the brain's tendency to wander, produces a heightened state of concentration, able to reduce sensitivity, stress and anxiety, self-induced

purging

common methods include self induced vomiting, misusing laxatives, abusing thermogenics or weight loss pills, compulsive exercise

reticular formation (RF)

complex system of nerve fibers composing the inner core of the brainstem, processes incoming messages and regulates where they go, sensitive to threats, danger, and situations that arouse stress

range (tone)

complexity of sound when mixed with multiple waves of various frequencies and amplitudes

interpretation (forebrain)

comprehension, analysis, and evaluation in cortical loves = memory

farsightedness

condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because near objects focus behind the retina

nearsightedness

condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

split brains

condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the fibers between them

consciousness

condition of being physically alert and cognitively aware of one's self and environment

ivan pavlov

conditioned response experiments, did classical conditioning experiments on dogs by training them to associate a bell with food

stimulus generalization

conditioned responses that are triggered not only by the conditioned stimulus but also by stimuli that resemble the CS

middle ear

conducts and amplifies sound waves

interference

conflicts within "working memory" that exists when older and more recent info "compete" for the same limited space

basal ganglia

connects the cerebellum (hindbrain) to the motor cortex (forebrain), responsible for voluntary muscle movement, known as the dopamine center

self-concept

conscious self-assessment of physical/psychological traits, attitudes, goals, accomplishments, etc. (rogers)

cognitive appraisal

conscious understanding of the arousal, used to interpret the meaning of physiological reactions to stimuli

sensorimeter stage

piaget 1, birth to 2, sensory development and stimuli exploration, development of rudimentary schemas develop object permanence

somatic death

constitutes legal definition, permanent, irreversible death, result of failure to resuscitate from clinical death, can be intervened with life support (respirator, heart pump, feeding tube)

neofreudians

contemporaries of freud, advanced and "mainstreamed" psychoanalysis, focused on the fundamentals of psychoanalysis (unconscious conflicts of the psyche, defense mechanisms, dream analysis, psychotherapy), changes name to psychodynamics to signify the evolving changes of human personality

maintenance rehearsal

continual repetition of information, delays decay by encoding info through the hippocampus multiple times

hypothalmus

control center of the limbic system

experiment

controlled scientific procedure conducted to determine cause-effect relationships among variables

right cerebral hemisphere

controls left-side body function, creative functions, emotional thought, spatial relationships, imagination

left cerebral hemisphere

controls right-side body functions, analytical functions (math), logical thought, structured organization, and language

extrasensory perception (ESP)

controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input, said to include telepathy, clairvoyance and precognition

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another, in sensation the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

psychological dependency

cravings for the intoxicating effects of chemical substances leading to repetitive abuse and continued consumption

francis galton

created and believed in theories centered around eugenics

evolutionary perspective

describes behavior as being adaptive, similar to natural selection describing continual physiological changes in organisms, behavior patterns are genetic

ames room

created through cognitive assumptions and the removal of true depth perception by getting rid of binocular cues

socio-cultural explanation (eating disorders)

cultural conformity and peer-influence pressures, can be made by media, "Barbie doll image"

necrobiosis

cyclical exchange of old cells to be continually replaced by new cells

consumer psychologist

decides what will sell and how to promote it

4 categories of memory

declarative, prospective, procedural, and episodic

learned helplessness

defeated/depressed condition that develops from a perceived absence of control over the outcome of a situation, "self-defeating prophecy" (seligman)

grammar

defined set of rules that dictate the organization and proper use of words and sentences to express a comprehensible meaning, provides standardization for communication

validity

degree to which a study measures what it is intended to represent (accuracy), measure the hypothesis not variables

self-esteem

degree to which one is satisfied/dissatisfies with their self-concept

reliability

degree to which the research remains accurate/valid over time and repetition

sample bias

demographic compositions of control and test groups are not accurate representations of the larger sample population and/or the overall target population

corpus callosum

dense, compacted band of axons and nerve fibers that bind the 2 cerebral hemispheres together, bridge that allows for cerebral lateralization (forebrain)

norepinephrine

depresses and tranquilizes the body after stress, released in response of the parasympathetic nervous system, works with serotonin to regulate mood/emotion, allows body to maintain sleep

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity, that depend on the use of two eyes

biological perspective

describes behavior as a reflection of biology, because of nature; behavior, intelligence, personality, emotions, etc. can be explained by one's bio-composition

David Premack

desirable stimuli are effected motivators to modify undesirable behaviors (incentive based behavior), reinforcement after the fact to reward behavior

constancy illusion

despite equal values, the perceived shape size or color appears to change relative to different frames (muller-lyer illusion)

benjamin whorf

developed the linguistic determination hypothesis

embryo

developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization to second month

fetus

developing human organism from about 9 weeks after conception until birth

production

developing hypotheses and producing solutions, can be done in various ways (algorithms of heuristics)

conceptualization

developmental classifications for a collective group of objects, stimuli, etc. that share similar characteristics, identifying and placing stimuli into schema

DSM-V

diagnostic and statisical manual- 5th edition, required in order for psychological diagnosis

drawbacks to objective assessments

difficult to truly quantify the unique nature of human personality, typing overly simplifies and generalizes the unique nature of a person's individual personalities

hue

dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as color names

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

extinction

diminishing of a CR when the US does not follow a CS

noam chomsky

disagreed with skinner, responsible for "language activation device"

histrionic pd

displays of excessive dramatic emotions, highly-excitable, over-reactive, excessive demands for attention, constant need for approval/validation from others

motion sickness

disruptions between the visual perception of motion and the vestibular detection of changes in elevation and gravitational force, causes build up of air pressure in semicircular canals

perceptual interference

disruptions, delays, and processing failure resulting from conflicts when processing multiple cognitive tasks at once

stage 2

distinct decrease in blood circulation

psychologist

doctor with a PhD

psychiatrist

doctor with an MD

critical thinking

does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, and assesses conclusions

lucid dream

dreams in which one becomes aware that they are dreaming and can take active roles to direct the course of the storyline

dream-initiated lucid dreams (DILD)

dreams that originate as typical dreamscape, "reality checks" allow for realization of lucidity

structuralism

early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the mind (wundt and titchener)

socio-cultural mechanisms of hunger

eating as a focal point of social functions: banquettes, parties, dates, holidays, etc.

scizotypal od

eccentric behaviors, odd, weird, obnoxious, lack of social and communication skills, capable of social attachment but difficult to maintain relationships because of odd, vulgar, and inappropriate behaviors and/or appearance

lewis terman

educational/developmental psychologist, adjusted binet's test and revised scoring calculation to identify cognitive disabilities in children, creating stanford-binet intelligence scale -the first clinically used IQ test

maturity

ego integrity vs. despair erikson 8, 65+, final reflections on life experiences, decisions, goals achieved and goals unattained, etc., satisified with life = death with integrity, unsatisfied = death with despair

dream

everyone dreams everyday assuming they sleep according to a healthy circadian rhythmic sleep cycle with REM, with exceptions being those with severe intellectual disabilities, neurological sleep abnormalities, and physical brain trauma

catharsis

emotional release. releasing aggressive energy relieves aggressive urges (crying, exercising, etc)

grief

emotional responses to a loss of life

eysenck's domain scale #2

emotional stability vs. neurosis

humanism explanation (eating disorders)

emotional vulnerability and inadequacies, control mechanisms, ability to have control over anything they can

motivation

emotional, cognitive, and physiological impulses that stimulate a person to behave in ways to accomplish a specific goal, a result of unfulfilled needs, the cause of behavioral actions

schizoid pd

emotionally non-responsive, (flat affect), slow, elongated, monotonous speech, inability to become emotionally attached to people and even pets

james-lange theory

emotions are products of the physiological reactions to events, emotions operate sequentially to stimuli -ex. event > physical symptoms > feeling fear

biological explanation (emotion)

emotions are psychosomatic sensations caused by the release of hormones and other biochemicals (regulated by serotonin) as a result of nervous system activation (frontal lobe & amygdala)

humanistic psychology

emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality

semantic encoding

encoding of meaning (like word meaning)

acoustic encoding

encoding of sound

mneumonic

encoding technique using unique cues of phrases and words that trigger meanings to larger groups of memory schemas

stages of memory

encoding, storage, retrieval

pituitary gland

endocrine system's most influential gland, under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates and controls other endocrine glands

personality disorders

enduring patterns of neurotic character and behavior traits that deviate dysfunctionally from the norms of social appropriateness, categorized in 3 clusters

flashbulb memory

episodic memories of events associated with intense emotion (trauma) that can be recalled with vivid detail, trauma activates sympathetic nervous system, initiates release of acetylcholine

ego

establishment of rules or limits, development of the "reality principle", realizing that you can't always get what you want when you want it, instant gratification ids unrealistic

desensitization via perception

exceeding our own perceived life expectancy gives us a sense of "living on borrowed time" which brings acceptance of the inevitable

obsessive-compulsive pd

excessive concern with perfectionism, exaggerated dependency of structure and order, associated with "addictive personality" traits

hypersomnia (dysnomia)

excessive drowsiness or chronic sleepiness that is not in symptomatic with other physical issues, sleep episodes impair social functioning and occupational performance

dependent pd

excessive reliance on others, submissiveness, difficulty making independent decisions, characterized by high levels of anxiety and/or depression when removed from or absent of interpersonal relationships

phase 3 (general adaptation)

exhaustion, emotional and physical recovery, time period in which the immune system is most depleted, making one most vulnerable to illness

mouth

expansion/contraction of jaw muscles elicit saliva which stimulates serotonin

clairvoyance

experiencing sensations by means other than the natural means of top-down or bottom-up processing

stage theory

explanations of developmental milestones as sequential steps of biological calendar

flooding

exposure to overwhelming amounts of the fear-provoking stimulus

repression

expulsion from awareness of unacceptable ideas or motives ex. a person remains unaware of harboring hateful or destructive impulses toward others

axon

extension cords that carry neural signals (bioelectrical current) from the nucleus of the cell body towards a receiving neuron

extrinsic motivation

external rewards (recognition, money, etc.)

phobia therapy

extinction of upon conditioning principles of disassociation, can be done in several ways

personality types

factors > traits > types (factors make up traits, traits make up types)

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

superstition

false and irrational associations of stimuli conditioned through only coincidence

hyperopia

farsightedness, inability to focus images at a closer range, image is focused beyond the retina

sigmund freud

father of modern psychology, first clinical psychologist, founder of psychoanalysis

death anxiety

fear of death reduces as we age and approach our own death

V1 lateral geniculate nucleus (V1-LGN)

feature detector within the visual cortex, perception and recognition of color (occipital lobe)

cognitive dissonance

feelings of uncomfortable stress which comes from inconsistencies between one's thoughts and conflicting actions, typically leads to rationalization

zygote

fertilized egg, enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

dendrites

fibers branching out from the neural soma that contains neurotransmitters receptor sites, receive biochemical signals from axon terminals, relays signals onto the nucleus of receiving neuron

selection (hindbrain)

filtering neural impulses in RF

evaluation

final analysis of solution, revisiting the problem and making sure the solution answers the question, determining whether there are alternative ways or scenarios where the solution doesn't work

selective attention

focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, cocktail party effect

unfulfilled needs > motivation > drives

food > hunger > eating

emotional mechanisms of hunger

food/eating serves as a stress reliever, provides emotional comfort (stress, boredom, etc.), foods high in starch and sugar promote the release of serotonin (emotional regulator)

selective perception bias example

football fans believing their team is penalized more than the opposing team

pons varolii

found in the brainstem, regulates respiration, serves as a temporary "recycling bin" for neural impulses filtered/discarded by the RF, plays essential role in REM sleep-dreamscapes

martin seligman

founder of "positive psychology", self-fulfilling prophecy, learned helplessness and optimism

carl rogers

founder of humanistic client-centered therapy ("rogerian therapy"), personality is developed with conscious evaluation and self-reflection

abraham maslow

founder of humanistic perspective, human behavior is motivated to achieve "meaningful significance"

franz gall

founder of phrenology, theorized personality as a result of brain specialty ares, attempted to construct personality profiles by measurement of cranial bumps and indentations

desensitization via exposure

frequent dealings with death (loss of friends and family) especially if living in an age segregated community (nursing home), increased exposure brings self reflection and acceptance

oral stage

freud 1, birth to 18 months, infantile need to explore surroundings with the mouth, rooting reflex establishes mother and child bond, unfulfilled needs = fixations into adult behavior over indulgence = dependency and passiveness under indulgence = aggressive and sadistic

anal stage

freud 2, 1.5 to 2.5, development of one's ego, development of bodily control (sef-control) anal retention = excessive use of self control anal expulsion = lack of restraint, impulsive

phallic stage

freud 3, 2.5 to 5, discovery of what makes boys and girls different, attraction to parent of the opposite sex and jealousy and resentment towards parent of the same sex oedipus complex = "castration anxiety", unresolved conflicts lead to hatred of authority in boys electra complex = "penis envy", girls blame mother for their "anatomical deficiency"

latency stage

freud 4, 5 to puberty (12), sexual impulses towards opposite sex parent dissolve, resentment is replaces with wanting to be like the parent of the same sex, development of gender roles, fixations during latency could lead to homosexuality in adults

genital stage

freud 5, puberty to adulthood, childhood conflicts are now manifested into adult psychosexual behaviors and tendencies, personalities become solidified due to any lingering unresolved issues and conflicts

paraprax

freudian slip, accidental "slip-of-the-tongue" in which the subconscious thoughts are now revealed

accomodation

process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

hans selye

general adaptation syndrome, application of endocrinology and biochemical stress responses

functional fixedness

general inabilities to recognize alternative uses for manufactures objects other than the designer's intended purposes

adulthood

generativity vs. stagnation erikson 7, 30 to 65, emotional and biological need to have children, creating a family and future generations = legacy, no emotional need/lack of readiness = stagnation and self-centeredness

causes of mental retardation

genetics- down syndrome, PKU prenatal teratogen- birth defect, fetal alcohol syndrome physical brain injury- head trauma, stroke, asphyxiation environmental factors- neglect, disease, lang. deprivation

145-200

genius (0.1%)

mental set example

getting lost on your way home from school because there was a detour and you don't know an alternate route

130-145

gifted (2%)

survey method

given a series of questions about a specific topic, either an interview or questionnaire

stimulus extinction

gradual erosion of conditioned behaviors due to a dissociation of CS and UCS, learned association of stimuli becomes broken

systematic desensitization

gradual exposure to progressive increments of the fear-provoking stimulus in conjunction with relaxation techniques

memory decay

gradual inability to retrieve previously encoded and stored memories from STM or LTM, natural memory loss, erosion of vividness and accuracy of details over time

scatterplot

graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables, the slop suggests the direction of the relationship

linguistic aptitude and IQ

have a positive correlation (go hand-in-hand)

stress

the emotional, cognitive, and physical responses to an adverse or threatening stimulus

unconscious

in freudian theory: emotional and cognitive unawareness biomedical definition: lowest level of physiological alertness (coma, concussion, anesthesia)

weber's law

in order to sense a difference between a stimuli of the same form but of varying levels of intensity, the degree of change must be based upon a proportionate ratio, not a raw amount

infantile amnesia

inability to recall information from early childhood, typically before age 3, result of underdeveloped hippocampus and LAD and lack of language skills to aid memory encoding

egocentric cognition

inability to understand concepts through a perspective other than their own, assuming everyone sees, hears, and feels the same as they do, can't empathize (piaget stage 2)

assimilation

inclusion of a stimulus into an existing schema, "fitting in" when similarities outweigh differences

chemical tolerance

increased amount of chemical substance required to elicit same level of intoxication the drug once produced

life expectancy

increasing since 1950, longer in females

hypnosis

induced state of intense focus and concentration, highly attentive but mentally/physically relaxed, able to "tune-out" other stimuli, heightened suggestibility and relaxed inhibitions allows the psyche to communicate more openly

school age

industry vs. inferiority erikson 4, 6 to 12, critical period for learning and self-confidence, if learning fosters curiosity = motivated student, if inabilities cause inferiority = apathetic student

survey method disadvantages

information may not be truthful or accurate, questionnaire often not accurate as people aren't answering face to face

originality (OFF)

ingenuity to create unique ways to solve problems

sensory memory

initial recordings of environmental information, selection, and filtering of stimuli, time transitions (RF>Pons or Thalamus) large capacity but limited duration (with exception of olfactory which is unfiltered)

acquisition

initial stage in CC, the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response

dream memory

initially recorded in sensory level storage, typically the RF will filter and discard dream sensations within 2-4 seconds, dreams are more likely to be recalled if... -we wake during REM sleep or if RF becomes aroused because dream is scary, emotional, or exceptionally odd

lateral hypothalamus

initiates hunger and thirst

ventromedial hypothalamus

initiates satiety reflex

play age

initiative vs. guilt erikson 3, 3 to 6, children self-direct their own course of activity, learning of preschool tasks creates pride, ex. speech potty training, riding a bike, etc., failure to learn creates guilt, frustration, and anger

openness (five factor)

inquisitive, open to new ideas; imaginative vs. practical, independent vs. conforming

Wolfgang Kohler

insight, studied problem solving insight through a series of "chimpanzee experiments"

tachistoscope

instrument that flashes visual images slow enough the meet absolute threshold so they can be physically sensed but too fast for conscious perception

55-70

intellectually disabled (2%) "imbeciles"

charles spearman

intelligence is composed of a single cognitive ability, "general intelligence" (g), various levels of intelligence but not different types of ability -his theories led to the development of standardized testing

out-of-body experience triggers

intense emotion, near death experiences, anesthetic-induced unconsciousness, sensory deprivation, oxygen deprivation, extreme changes in altitude/g-force

cerebellum

known as "mini brain", bi-hemispherical, helps body coordination, balance, and posture

hindbrain

known as "reptilian brain", primitive structures shared by all vertebrate creatures, responsible for basic autonomic function

transverse temporal gyrus

known as herschel's gyrus, responsible for vocal signature identification or voice recognition (temporal lobe)

clinical psychologist

known as therapists

preconventional level

kohlberg 1, birth to adolescence, the individual/self, self-centered moral judgment based upon individual interests and learned behaviors -punishment-obedience orientation -instrumental-exchange orientation

conventional level

kohlberg 2, adolescence to young adulthood, the society/groups, altruism, moral and ethical dilemmas (ex. the heinz dilemma) -good child orientation -law and order orientation

postconventional level

kohlberg 3, young adulthood+, universal humanity, rules and moral compass of right vs. wrong are largely influenced by essential human rights -social-contract orientation -universal-ethics orientation

bulimia nervosa

lack of self control and guilt with over eating, cycles of binge eating and purging or fasting, purging as a guilt reflex to prevent weight gain, not necessarily to lose weight -average to above average BMI (fluctuates)

wernicke's area

language comprehension (left temporal lobe)

nature

language develops in biological stages and must coincide with anatomical development but is NOT nature based instinct

cerebrum

largest part of the brain, 80% of the mass, divided into 2 hemispheres that lateralize for specialized functioning (forebrain)

frontal lobe

largest surface area of the cortical lobes, speech production, mood-related emotion, personality, voluntary muscle control, advanced cognition (including hypothetical thought and problem solving)

Edward Tolman

latent learning, "cognitive mapping experiments", incentive based behavioral modification with mouse mazes (groups with no reinforcement go through maze slowly until they are suddenly given reward, they then have the fastest maze times)

law and order orientation

laws viewed as essential to preserve social order, violations of law (even if intentions are good) lead to societal decay and chaos

operant conditioning

learned associations between actions and behavioral consequences, learning in response to trial and error

conditioned response

learned behavior developed in association with CS

latent learning

learned behaviors that develop with no direct reinforcement and only tend to appear out of necessity, learning with no awareness of doing so

conditioning

learned responses by association, application of memory to create learned responses

factors affecting life expectancy

medical technology & proactive care, genetics, government policy (ex. FDA), sanitation & hygiene, and education/healthier lifestyles

living will

legal documents that can express the patient's intentions if rendered in a state of physical or mental incapacitation

threshold

level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

stage 1

light sleep, can be easily awakened, when the body should/wants to wake up

infra red

light wave frequencies <430 THz, too low of a frequency for human detection

ultra-violet

light wave frequencies >790 THz, too high of a frequency for human detection

retina

light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

color=_________ sound=_________

lightwave, soundwave

universal-ethics orientation

like freud's superego, moral reasoning reflects universal and spiritual consciousness of right vs. wrong/good vs. evil

orthoexia nervosa

limited to normal food intake (not starving/not binging), purging behaviors cause below normal BMI, but above the anorexic mark of 15%

immediate retention span

limits STM, maximum amount of information that can be recalled perfectly after just one presentation (7 items)

low frequency light waves

long, slow moving waves that produce the color red, minimum threshold of around 430 THz

forensic psychologist

look for behavioral clues at a crime scene, profilers

bright red

low frequency & high amplitude

dark/dull red

low frequency & low amplitude

long sound wavelength

low frequency, low pith, at least 20 Hz

frequency theory

low pitch/low frequency sounds are registered by the rate of frequency of neural impulses transmitted through the auditory nerve, aids in transmission, lower than 5000 Hz

meditation vs. hypnosis

meditation: self-induced, focus causes relaxation hypnosis: someone else must induce, relaxation causes focus

stratified random assignment

maintains same statistical breakdowns between different variables within the group (ex. age, class status, etc.)

sleep cycles

marked by 2 phases (REM and nonREM), stages are characterized by distinct changes in neural activity and biorhythms, could be respiration, circulation, body temp, etc., one cycle is 2 hours (1 hour from stage 1 to 4)

correlative coefficient

mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to 1

lab-observation method disadvantages

may not be as accurate because it isn't a natural environment

dependent variable

measurable results caused by the IV (psychological DV's = changes in behavior)

correlation

measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus how well either factor predicts the other

wavelength frequency (sound)

measured as vibrations per second, as wavelength decreases, frequency increases, this provides pitch

difference threshold

measurement of a stimulus' lowest amount of detectable change in intensity

median

middle score of a distribution, half are above it and half are below

daydreaming

mild form of an altered state, 1/3 of "waking" day, hypnagogic state, physical and metal relaxation with eyes open, not sleeping, mental wandering as a result of limited sensory and cognitive stimulation

memory summation

mind's natural tendency to draw conclusions and generalize the contents of a list or schema, brain's efficient information processing system allows us to "label" schematic categories contributor to false memory syndrome

sensory reduction

minimizing (reducing) the amount of energy absorption at the sensory level (eyes, ears, etc.)

control experiment by...

minimizing and keeping all other variables, besides the IV, constant only if everything is controlled can results be published and validated

difference threshold

minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection, a noticeable difference

cognitive explanation (eating disorders)

misperception with body image (dysmorphia), distorted mental processing and thoughts

symptoms of altered states

misperceptions of time, impaired focus/attention, change of sensitivity/responsiveness to stimuli, changes in emotion, memory distortion

figure-ground illusion

misperceptions resulting when distinctions between an image's figure and ground become blurred/indistinguishable

astigmatism

misshaped eye (cornea), creates multiple focal points, causing visual impairment

prototype

model examples that contain all the essential features and characteristics of the schema by which new stimuli are compared to

objectives of operant conditioning

modify the behavior, not the stimuli

co-morbid diagnosis

mood disorders (category 6) such as depression, anxiety disorders (cat. 7) such as OCD, and somatosensory disorders (cat. 8) such as perceptual identity, may be diagnosed alongside an eating disorder, one of which most likely causing the other

neurosis

mood swings, negative emotional states

longitudinal method advantages

more accurate data since the same participants are used

phonemes

most basic unit of sound, english contains 43 phonemes, 869 combined phonetical sounds within all world languages

eating disorders

most fatalistic of all recognized DSM disorders and psychiatric pathologies statistically correlated most with females (14-27) -women (35-45) compose the most rapidly diagnosed population group since 2000 -males (15-30) mark diagnostic increases at "alarming rate" since 2000

anger

most recognizable emotion

drive reduction theory

motivation is viewed as unpleasant stress and tension in response to unfulfilled needs, tension becomes the impetus of behavior, drives replenish needs to homeostatic balance

angular gyrus

multi-sensory processing, parallel processing (thalamus)

convergent thinking

multivariable problems that direct thinking to one solution ("conventional thinking")

white matter

myelinated axons

figure

natural interest of an image (color or detail)

language acquisition combines...

nature and nurture

myopia

nearsightedness, visual impairment at a distance, image is focused at a point in front of the retina (macula-fovea)

neuron

nerve cell, the basic building block of the nervous system

glial cells (astrocytes)

neural "support" cells, replenish nutrients and biochemicals, removal of cellular waste from neurons, pruning and decomposition of unused neurons, some may have the potential to process information

gray matter

neural cell bodies

action potential

neural circuit of energy transference, system of bioelectrical and biochemical energy and cognitive impulse codes throughout a neural circuit -activated by the polarization of K and Na electrons

neurology

neural circuitry, perceptual processing speed, number of synaptic connections, and neural plasticity

hemispherical laterlization

neural electricity indicates the brain's right hemisphere becomes significantly more active during REM, left hemisphere decreases in neural activity

deja vu: biological explanation

neurological "short circuit" within the parahippocampus gyrus regions, memories are retrieved as they are simultaneously being encoded

restless legs syndrome (dysnomia)

neurological sensorimotor disorder of persistent sleep-time muscle spasms and cramps, discomfort leads to chronic sleep interruption

gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

neurotransmitter that decreases within the ventromedial prefrontal cortex when consuming alcohol, causes lack of judgement

serotonin and anandamide

neurotransmitters primarily affected by hallucinogenic drugs

endorphins and dopamine

neurotransmitters primarily affected by narcotic drugs

sleepwalking disorder

nightime "wandering" while asleep, stage 4 abnormality, not REM, person becomes susceptible to fall and injury

hypnopompic techniques of WILD

objective is to enter sleep cycle while maintaining thought and self-awareness from one's waking state maintaining consciousness in hypnogogic sleep ex. counting, mental imagery, control of breathing to prevent thoughts from wandering

naturalistic-observation method (field study)

observation of participants in their natural environment

case study

observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing principles

modeling

observational learning, process of learning new behaviors by mimicking the actions of others

naturalistic observations

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulation

partial symptom orthoexia

obsessive commitment to healthy eating/dieting

color perception takes place in...

occipital lobe, using feature detector V1-LGN that helps in identification

cluster a

odd or eccentric trait disorders

case study method disadvantages

often creates false generalizations

retroactive interference

old memories become distorted when blurred with new information

brain

only about 15% developed at birth, powered by bioelectrical and biochemical energy, operates through a network of subsystems connected by electrical circuits

endorphins

opiate-based, biologically-produced molecules, body's natural pain supressors

encoding specificity principle

optimal memory retrieval is recalled in the same manner in which it was first learned, the coding sequence used to create a memory also establishes the same neural pathway used to retrieve it, issues can lead to memory delay

infarction

organ failure

brain death

organic infarction due to cessation of circulation and respiration or physical trauma, body is successfully resuscitated but after suffering prolonged oxygen deprivation, 60% or more cortical failure, begins at cortex level then spreads to hindbrain

chunking methods

organization of serial stimuli into manageable units typically with the use of rhythmic pauses

multisensory input

organization of stimuli with combinations of various sensory signals to increase duration and accuracy of working memory (parallel processing: thalamus (angular gyrus))

figure-ground

organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from surroundings (ground)

prospective memory

organizational memory used to recall appointments, dates, and tasks scheduled to be completed in the future

coding (midbrain)

organizing stimuli and relaying filtered stimuli to the cerebral cortex

frame of reference perception

our ability to perceive size, shape, color, time, etc. is largely based upon comparison stimuli

smell reports directly to the...

parietal lobe

medulla oblongata

part of brainstem that regulates circulatory system: pulse, bp, etc., and visceral reflexes like swallowing, gagging, sneezing, or blinking

sympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system, prepares the body for physical and emotional stress (freeze-flight-fight) (epinephrine/adrenaline)

parasympathetic nervous system

part of the autonomic nervous system, relaxes the body after stresss encounters calms the body back to homeostasis (releases norepinephrine/noradrenaline)

amygdala

part of the limbic system responsible for generating primal/instinctive emotion such as fear, anxiety, aggression, or rage (midbrain)

field study advantages

participants are displaying their most natural behavior

social desirability response

participants behaving in ways and providing information which is socially appropriate or that meet the assumed expectations of the researcher (solution: confidentiality agreements)

placebo effect

participants expectations of thinking they ingested the IV inadvertently compromises the authenticity of their behavior

participant bias (experimental)

participants realize which group (test/control) they are assigned to and behave differently (solution: single blind study)

nightmare disorder (parasomnia)

patterns of frequent, high anxiety dreams that typically occur in REM, chronic bouts of vivid (reoccuring) bad dreams, can be treated by learning to lucid dream

watson; skinner

pavlov; thorndike (skinner and watson built off pavlov and thorndike's theories)

humanistic theory (motivation)

people are motivated by a conscious desire for personal growth and fulfillment of needs, achievement of goals and self-accomplishment, fulfillment of essential human needs

savants

people with extreme cognitive deficiencies yet are gifted in specific areas such as math, memory, music, art, or drawing

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

external locus of control

perceiving one's fate as determined by circumstances beyond self control (chance, fate, destiny, etc.) (rotter)

primary elements of cognition

perception of environmental sensations, memory and learned behavior, problem solving and decision making, and language

internal locus of control

perception of having control over one's own fate, studies show people are more optimistic, motivated, successful, and healthy

selective perception bias

perceptions or reality are typically based upon our self-motivated interests and experiences, reality blinded by emotion and point of view

closure illusions

perceptual tendency to compare or finish an image when the figure and ground are indistinguishable

pica

persistent eating of non-nutritive substances, appestite is inappropriate for age development, either environmental (dirt, clay, chalk) or bodily (skin, hair, feces)

freud's stage theory

personality develops in 5 unconscious stages, consisting of psychosexual conflicts, if unresolved they can become fixations 1. oral stage 2. anal stage 3. phallic stage 4. latancy stage 5. genital stage

freud's stage theory

personality develops in 5 unconscious stages, each stages, each stage consists of a series of subconscious conflicts that need to be resolved, if conflicts are not resolved at the appropriate time, behaviors will become fixated into adulthood behaviors

julian rotter

personality is shaped by and is reflected with perceived control within a state of free will

erik erikson

personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and interpersonal and social relationships, personality develops according to 8 psychosocial stages

karen horney

personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and socio-cultural factors, feministic psychology, neurosis as social and cultural reactions

alfred adler

personality od shpaed by unconscious conflicts and inferiority complexes

trait theory

personality traits are genetic and coded into DNA just as physical traits are

general adaptation syndrome

phase 1: alarm phase 2: resistance phase 3: exhaustion

spinal cord

physically bridges the brain to body, uses reflex arc and nerve endings to send messages to the brain

epinephrine

prepares emotional and physical stress responses, released upon activation of sympathetic nervous system, used for alertness and blood circulation daily, used to wake from sleep

stomach

pressure receptors respond to expansion of stomach lining, sends signals to the brain, smaller role than once believed

dopamine

primary biochemical/neurotransmitter of addiction

independent variable

primary factor researchers hypothesize to determine the source of the correlative relationships, only manipulated variable

gag reflex

primitive screen to help prevent harmful/toxic substances from entering the digestive tract

sensory interaction

principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences the taste

natural selection

principle that, among inherited traits, those that contribute to reproduction and survival will be passed to succeeding generations

hierarchical concepts

prioritizing the checklist into a ranked order, new stimuli are assimilated not necessarily by the plurality of features but by the most important characteristics

divergent thinking

problems intended to have multiple solutions ("brainstorms")

somatosensory cortex

process "bodily sensations", things like pressure, temperature, or pain (parietal lobe)

imprinting

process by which organisms form attachments during crititcal period very early in life

sensation

process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies

gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)

regulates impulsivity, inhibition, and anxiety

carl jung

psyche is composed of collective unconscious and personal unconscious, personality is shaped by unconscious conflicts and archetypal relationships

projective personality assessments

psychodynamic assessment of personality, allows the test taker to "project" their unconscious personality onto a series of unstructured stimuli, allows therapists and researchers to lower the inhibitions of the conscious mind, allowing the psyche to openly communicate

affiliation

psychological need to join with others and form a group, social interactions, emotional need of "belonging" and "fitting-in", social isolation and exclusion can be the most powerful deprivation emotion

cognitive consistancy

psychological need to maintain a stable emotional equilibrium, consistent between one's inner personality and their outward behaviors, imbalances/conflicts between thoughts and behavior leads to cognitive dissonance

out-of-body experience

psychological phenomenon of becoming "detached" from one's conscious or physical self -compressed blood flow within occipital lobe= tunnel vision, "gray out", "fade to black" -decreased activity within the parietal lobe=sensations of floating -neural short circuit within the angular gyrus= brain's multi-sensory synthesis center

memory repression

psychosomatic defense mechanism, no physical brain injury, specific memories and information can sometimes be blocked from retrieval, can be unlocked through hypnosis or context/state cues

gential stage (freud)

puberty - adulthood, childhood conflicts are now manifested into adult psychosexual behaviors and tendencies, personalities become solidified due to any lingering unresolved issues and conflicts

timbre

quality/clarity of sound, the difference between noise and music

survey method advantages

quickly gathers data, large volume of data collected, very cheap

introversion

quiet, reserved, independent

position emission tomography (PET scan)

radioactive glucose is injected into the carotid artery providing the energy needed for the brain to perform a series of operational tasks, the glucose lights of the brain structures being used on a screen (most of what we know about the brain comes from this)

reuptake

reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters from the presynaptic neuron following an action potential firing

recovery

readjustment to daily life by assuming new roles and responsibilities

thalamus

receives filtered sensory messages from RF, codes, sorts, and relays info to the cortex (midbrain)

outer ear

reception/absorption of sound waves

ground

recessive backdrop that naturally causes the figure to stand out

extroverted-neurotic

reckless, carelessly impulsive (eysenck personality type)

introverted-neurotic

reclusive, unsociable, pessimistic (eysenck personalty type)

electroencephalogram (EEG)

records the bioelectrical activity of the brain's neural circuitry (cerebral cortex), commonly used to conduct sleep studies

belief perseverance example

refusal to accept that Earth's climate is changing despite scientific evidence

denial

refusal to recognize a threatening impulse or desire ex. a person who nearly chokes someone to death acts afterward like it was "no big deal"

suprachiasmatic nucleus

regulates biorhythms (ex. sleep) (hypothalamus)

synaptic consolidation

reinforcing trace memories from sensory experience to short term memory (sensory to STM)

elaborative rehearsal

relating new information into concepts that are currently part of your working memory, building upon prior knowledge, translating new concepts into your own words memories become more permanent with meaningful significance

rorschach ink blot test

remains most common projective test, researchers record a patients verbal and physical responses to a series of cards with non-structured, symmetrical stimuli

legacy

remembrance beyond one's own lifetime, memorializing your own life so that your existence can be marked after your death

passive euthanasia

removal of artificial life support with the intention of resuming the natural dying process

circadian rhythms

repeatable biological patterns marked by time

physical addiction

repetitive use of controlled substances in which the physiology of the body requires psychoactive chemicals in order to alleviate/minimize withdrawal symptoms

sleep paralysis

residual REM atonia that persists into wake-recovery, awake and alert but unable to move or speak, paralysis ranges from a few seconds to over a minute

after image illusion

residual, phantom appearance of an image that temporarily permits after prolonged exposure or because of bold color contrasts (American flag illusion)

phase 2 (general adaptation)

resistance, physiological attempt to revert back to homeostatic balances, parasympathetic nervous system and stress hormones (cortisol) reduce

fusiform gyrus

responsible for facial recognition (occipital lobe)

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

responsible for judgement and decision making (frontal lobe)

inferior gyrus

responsible for object recognition (occipital lobe)

lateral superior olive

responsible for source location for sound (temporal lobe)

temporal lobe

responsible for the perceptions of auditory sensations, houses auditory cortex, involved in long-term storage of memory

parietal lobe

responsible for the perceptions of touch, taste, and smell

occipital lobe

responsible for the perceptions of visual sensation, houses the visual cortex (signals from the left eye are processed in the right side visual cortex and vice versa)

substance p

responsible for the physical pain sensations

behavior

responsive actions of stimuli

color sensation takes place in...

retina, using cone photoreceptors to transduce light waves

confirmation bias

selectively picking and choosing information and data that supports your preconceived opinions and ignoring information the contradicts your beliefs

motor cortex

sends bioelectrical impulses to muscles to enable voluntary muscle movement (frontal lobe)

kinesthesis

sense of awareness of body muscle groups and being able to control them while in motion and ability to make adjustments in space= agility, and athleticism, processed in the motor cortex

vestibular sense

sense of bodily orientation, equilibrium, and balance relative to gravity, processed within the the cerebellum and more importantly the semicircular canals of the inner ear

olfaction

sense of smell, olfactory chemicals are transduced within the olfactory bulb with the parietal lobe, done within the brain unlike sight and sound, bypasses RF

gustation

sense of taste, there are 5 gustatory sensations (sweet, salty, bitter, sour, umami), in the tongue itself

tactical sense

sense of touch, processed within the somatosensory cortex of parietal lobe

agreeableness (five factor)

sensitive, empathetic; trusting vs. suspicious, kind-hearted vs. callous

sleep hallucination disorder (parasomnia)

sensory illusions (dreams) that occur/continue in hypnogogic states and wake-recover transitions, described as very real and vivid images

3 levels of memory storage

sensory memory, short term memory, long term memory

sensation & perception (hunger)

sight, smell, and taste activate hunger response even when already full

linguistic determination hypothesis

significance of language is more than a mechanism for external communication, language provides neurological framework for internal human cognition/introspection, human intelligence is determined by language

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

similar to CT scan but uses magnetic waves, not radiation, creating better resolutions

retrograde & anterograde amnesia (similarities/differences)

similar: physical brain trauma different: retrograde- cortical & forget old memories anterograde- hippocampus & can't create new memories

memory repression & dissociative amnesia (similarities/differences)

similarities: no physical injury to brain differences: repression is only specifics, dissociative is whole time periods forgotten

diseases causing death

since 1950s more people die from degenerative diseases (alzheimer's, cancer, etc.) than communicable diseases (small pox, flu, etc.), significant because it prolongs the dying process

somatic nervous system

skeletal, controls voluntary body movements and actions

feature detectors

small, highly specialized areas within the cerebral cortex that allow for the perception/comprehension of specific stimuli information (fusiform, transverse, A4-MN, V1-LGN)

morphemes

smallest element of sound with meaning

most powerful sense in memory...

smell

cochlea

snail-like structure that transduces sound waves into neural impulses, cochlear fluid and nerve hair (inner ear)

extroverted-stable

sociable, outgoing, leadership qualities (eysenck personality type)

social psychologist

social workers, how individuals react to each other

developmental maturation

social, cognitive, behavioral development that is acquired through biological growth processes

mourning

socio-cultural actions and behaviors, ways of expressing grief, allows for psychological healing and recovery

id

source of human's most basic and most primitive drives and urges, development of the "pleasure principle" or instant gratification

synapse

space/gap separating physical connections between neurons, creates open circuit breaks, junction where neurotransmitters are dispersed

interneurons

specialized nerve cells within the brain and spinal cord that provide the structures for the transmission of energy and neural communication

drives

specific actions and behaviors caused by motivational impulses, the drives reduce the motives

nurture

speech development are learned behaviors requiring interaction

operational definition

statement of the procedures used to define research variables (ex. human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures)

emotion

states of "responsive sensation" that contribute to a behavioral "mood"

serial position effect

statistical analysis of memory retrieval accuracy (or retrieval failure) of items in a list based upon their position (location), best at the beginning and end)

general intelligence

statistical factor analysis that indicates an individual's overall mental capacity by level, levels of academic intellect is typically reflected across curricular disciplines

statistical significance

statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance

type b

statistically tend to be introverted, generally calm and relaxed disposition, patient, reflective, tolerant to time pressures and stress

type a

statistically tends to be extraverted, impatient, time urgent, competitive, aggressive, ambitious; difficulty relaxing, maintaining sleep; guily for relaxing or resting; long established link to heart disease

denial

step 1, refusal to acknowledge impending death

anger

step 2, resentment and blame towards others

bargaining

step 3, making unrealistic negotiations

algorithms

step-by-step procedures that if properly used will always produce a correct solution

mcgill university study of sensory deprivation

subjects are locked in coffin like boxes and can leave whenever they please - 1/3 quit by first day, experienced cognitive disorientation and time distortion - next third quit by third day, experienced rambled speech, lack of focus, amplified sensation -end of 5th day 3 remain, experienced psychosis, perceptual hallucinations, and delusional behavior

permissive (parent style)

submit to child's need]s desires, make few rules, little punishment

counter conditioning

substituting the fearful stimulus with a more appealing CS so that the phobic response is counteracted/neutralized, this is what Watson was attempting to do

narcolepsy (dysnomia)

sudden (typically brief) onsets of "sleep attacks", hypersomnia, sleep paralysis, and sleep hallucinations

insight

sudden flash of understanding and problem solving ability

spontaneous recovery

sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished CR that is displayed following an extended delay in CS presentation or after a brief reacquisition of the CS

atonia

suppressed muscle tone and paralysis of voluntary muscle control that occurs during sleep

leisoning

surgically graphing and dissecting the organic structures of the brain

functional fixedness example

survivalists, resourceful and can think outside the box

cannon-bard theory

symptoms of physiological arousal and emotional sensation respond simultaneously to stimuli -ex. event > physical symptoms & fear

shaping

technique of instructing complex behaviors by breaking them down into smaller components and applying reinforcement upon the successful completion of each step, building upon prior knowledge and skill sets

sleep apnea (dysnomia)

temporary stoppage of breathing while sleeping, respiratory arrests can range from a few seconds to over a minute, characterized with chronic snoring, high BP, daytime fatigue, heart disease, and a suspected cause of SIDS

anchoring bias

tendency for people to base decisions, attitudes, and opinions solely upon first information that is presented to them

dunning-kruger effect

tendency for people with below-level abilities to inaccurately assess their own competence and to assume superior intelligence

mental set

tendency for previous successful experiences to become reliant and complacent, failure to learn new/alternative strategies

experimenter bias

tendency for the researcher to inadvertently influence the direction and results of an experiment toward their expected conclusions (solution: double blind study)

availability heuristics

tendency to assume and exaggerate the likelihood of events based upon the frequency/availability of information

belief perseverance

tendency to cling to beliefs and positions despite new information that firmly discredits and contradicts your opinions, an inability to admit mistakes

framing and wording bias

tendency to influence/manipulate our thoughts and perceptions based upon how the information is presented (worded)

hindsight bias

tendency to reevaluate an unpredictable event after time has passed and info is made available that was not present at first

false consensus effect

tendency to think others share our beliefs

procedures

test groups receive IV, control groups receive absolutely no level of IV (may receive placebo), behaviors are compared between groups measuring the effectiveness of the IV

thematic apperception test (TAT)

test taker is to make up a story/interpret descriptions about a series of pictures (projective assessment)

relevant information moves from the RF to the...

thalamus

lab-observation method advantages

the ability to control variables

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

sensory deprivation

the absence of sensory stimulation resulting from being confined in an environment in which it is unattainable to absorb and process sensory signals

set point

the body's natural thermostat for maintaining hunger and weight equilibrium, regulates metabolism based upon food availability, primitive biological protective mechanism to prevent starvation -determined by genetics and early feeding habits

endocrine system

the body's slow chemical communication system, a set of glands that secretes hormones into the bloodstream

stimulus

the cause or modifier of a behavior

fovea

the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster

sublimation

the channeling of unacceptable impulses into socially constructive pursuits ex. a person channels aggressive impulses into competitive sports

intelligence

the cognitive ability to think, reason, and act purposefully and effectively as to manipulate one's environment and meet in a rational manner

neural plasticity

the flexibility and responsiveness to create new (multiple) circuits, brain's capacity for modification

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

absolute threshold

the lowest limit of stimulus energy that can be physically detected (sensed) with +50% accuracy

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point (your eye) in a given time

variable-ratio

the number of correct behaviors fluctuates before reinforcement is awarded, behavioral amount is set to an average, high response rates and high resistance to extinction

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision, contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing

regression

the return of behavior that is typical of earlier stages of development ex. under stress, a college student starts biting his nails or becomes totally dependent on others

audition

the sense or act of hearing

acuity

the sharpness of vision

visual capture

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

young-helmoltz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.

displacement

the transfer of unacceptable impulses away from their original objects onto safer or less threatening objects ex. a worker slams a door after his boss chews him out

rationalization

the use of self-justifications to explain away unacceptable behavior ex. when asked why she continues to smoke, a women says "cancer doesn't run in my family"

field study disadvantages

unable to interfere or modify anything, can't ask questions or control variables

oppponent process theory

theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, etc.) enable color vision, ex. some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red

gate-control theory

theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain, the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers coming into the brain

learned optimism

therapy technique in which the patient must learn to "cognitively reprogram" pessimistic attitudes

cerebral cortex

thin, "wrinkly" external surface of the cerebrum, 1/8"-1/4" thick, contains 2/3 of the brain's interneurons, "wrinkles" = fissures that provide surface area expansion, divided into 4 lobes for specialized cognition (forebrain)

representative heuristics example

thinking that a quiet introverted person is more likely to be a librarian than a charismatic extroverted person

conscious

thoughts, emotions, behaviors, etc. that you are aware of and able to control

objectives of classical conditioning

to change the stimuli, not the resulting behavior

perceptual adaptation

top down ability to adjust to images when presented in a distorted or obscured view

home

traditional place to die until the late 1950s

inner ear

transduce sound waves and transmits neural impulses to the RF

system consolidation

transferring short term memories through the hippocampus to promote long term memory storage (STM to LTM)

auditory nerve

transmits neural impulses from cochlea to RF

motor neurons

transmits neural signals from the brain through the spinal cord and onto muscle groups, glands, etc.

sensory neurons

transmits sensory information from sensory receptors (eyes, ears, etc.) and relays them through the spinal cord and onto the brain

lens

transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus near or far objects on the retina

auditory canal

tunnel through which sound waves reverberate as they pass through the ear (middle ear)

desensitization via behavior

tying up loose ends and finishing "unfinished business" forces us to deal with death in a concrete manner

form perception

type of top-down processing strategy that quickly provides the perception of an image based upon the relationship between figure and ground

clairvoyance (esp)

types of unproven "abilities" such as telepathy, telekinesis, or precognition

research psychologist

typically working as a professor and doing research under a college or university

psychodynamic explanation (eating disorders)

unconscious conflict ("glitch") with adolescent metamorphosis from child to adult

psyche

underlying motives, impulses, desires, etc. that form the true basis of personality, below the conscious threshold of awareness unable to overtly communicate (unless using hypnosis or dream therapy, or communicated through parapraxes)

natural concepts

understanding the characteristics that define the schema and representing it with a prototype

conservation

understanding the concept that the value of an object remains constant despite changes in form (size, length, volume, etc.)

preparation

understanding the situation, identify and familiarize yourself with relevant data and discard irrelevant info, explicitly define the goal

personality

unique combinations of emotion, motivation, individual behaviors, etc. that characterizes an individual and sets them apart, consistent patterns of mood and emotion

variable-interval

unpredictable amounts of time pass between completion of the behavior and the receipt of the reinforcement, comparably lower responsiveness but more constant rates overall

wake-initiated lucid dreams (WILD)

use of hypnopompic techniques to induce a lucid dream from states of conscious awareness

cross sectional method

used for developmental research using different participants at different ages

longitudinal method

used for developmental research, same participants are observed over an extended period of time

purposes and clinical applications

used to assess cognitive development for psychological /scientific research, used as diagnostic indicators to identify potential learning disabilities (or gifted), used forensically to evaluate legal competency

testing method

used to learn more about human behavior (intelligence tests, aptitude tests, personality tests)

long term memory

various levels of memory retention lasting from several days to years to permanence, extended duration with unlimited capacity

amplitude

vertical height of a wave (y measurement), measuers the energy intensity within the wave, provides the brightness or darkness/dullness

amplitude (sound)

vertical height of wave that measures the energy intensity within the wave providing the volume of the sound

empiricism

view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should rely on observation and experiences

iconic memory

vision, 1/2 second duration

saturation

visual field reflecting/absorbing multiple waves of varying lengths, frequencies, and amplitudes = diverse color palette

negative punishment

withdrawing a stimulus as means to lessen the recurrence of a behavior, typically the deprivation of desired stimulus (free time)

memory consolidation

without routine "up-keep" (consolidation) memories will facts and deteriorate, consolidation requires conscious cognitive effort

melatonin

works with serotonin to regulate sleep cycle and induce sleep

positive correlation

x-variable and y-variable both increase or decrease

negative correlation

x-variable increase while y-variable decreases or vice versa

hindsight bias example

years after the 9/11 attacks many blamed government for failing to take action to prevent the threat ahead of time