AP Psychology

basilar membrane

membrane within the cochlea that is lined with cilia; when triggered by vibrations to the oval window, its movement causes the cilia to bend, activating neural impulses

mnemonic

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare;" aka declarative memory

telepathy

mind-to-mind communication

glial cells

most abundant type of cell located within the central nervous system that surround neurons and provide support and insulation for them.

mode

most frequent score in a distribution

physiological needs

need to satisfy hunger and thirst

nerve

neural "cables" that contain many axons. as an important part of the PNS, they connect the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.

humanistic perspective

new perspective developed to counter Freud's negative ideas presented in the psychoanalytic theory. instead, it argues that all people are born good, and analyzes how "healthy" people strive for self-determination and self-actualization. critics argue that this perspective is vague, subjective, self-centered, individualistic, and naively optimistic.

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

how does reification apply?

often, people falsely accuse abstract concepts as concrete things; for example, it is common to believe that intelligence can be measured just as height or weight can. however, because intelligence is a concept and not a concrete thing (like height and weight), it cannot be measured in the same way. when a person says, "he has an IQ of 135," they are perceiving the IQ to be something that the person has rather than a score earned on a test.

how does grouping apply?

once the figure-ground relationship is identified, the brain must use this technique to organize stimuli into coherent groups. in doing so, the brain brings order and form to basic color, texture, movement, and light/dark contrast, together based on rules developed by German psychologists. these organizational rules include proximity, similarity, continuity, connectedness, and closure.

stage two sleep

once the first sleep stage prepares your body for sleep, this stage is ready to take place. it is the first stage where we can fully be classified as "asleep." taking up 45-60% of nightly sleep, this stage helps the sleeper transfer between deep sleep and REM sleep throughout the night. during this stage, body temperature drops, heart/breathing rhythms decrease, eyes stop moving, and the muscles contract and relax spontaneously. sleep spindles and nonsensical sleep-talking make up part of this stage. the spindles, in particular, help to improve performance memory. as a whole, this stage strengthens procedural memory.

fluid intelligence

one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

crystallized intelligence

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age

opiate

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; it depresses neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

Ernest Hilgard

pain-control theory of hypnosis

authoritarian parenting style

parenting style where high discipline is paired with very little warmth. they tend to expect obedience without explaining why their children must comply with the imposed rules. this leads to fearful obedience when the parents are present and rebellion against the rules when they are not. for this reason, the children can seem to lack social skills and self esteem.

neglectful parenting style

parenting style where low discipline is paired with low warmth. they only seem to meet the physiological needs of the children causing them to lack confidence and success.

macrophage

part of the immune system that identifies, pursues, and ingests human invaders

ingroup

people with whom one shares a common identity ("us")

trait

people's characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act, as assessed by self-report inventories and peer reports

theory of mind

people's ideas about their own and others' mental states -- about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts and the behavior these might predict

feel-good, do-good phenomenon

people's tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

color constancy

perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color, even if changing illumination alters the wavelengths reflected by the object

histrionic personality disorder

personality disorder classified by shallow, attention-seeking emotions/behaviors

behavioral perspective

perspective that describes how behavior is affected by experience and observable responses

psychodynamic perspective

perspective that describes how behavior is affected by unconscious drives (often sexual and aggressive); also known as "psychoanalytic"

biological perspective

perspective that describes how the brain, chemicals and genes affect personality traits, behavior and attitude; also known as "neuroscience" and "neurobiological"

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt another

erogenous zones

pleasure-sensitive areas of the body where the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on during the development of the psychosexual stages

biomedical therapy

prescribed medications or medical procedures that act directly on the patient's nervous system

reuptake

process where the sending neuron reabsorbs excess neurotransmitter molecules during the transfer of chemical messages.

Lawrence Kohlberg

psychologist who described the development of moral reasoning in three basic steps: the preconventional, conventional, and postconventional morality. as we develop intellectually, he believed that we likewise develop morally. because of this, he believed that our behaviors become less and less selfish as we age. some claim that his theory is biased towards individualist cultures because it bases the levels of morality off of their values.

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base

pons

region in brain that sits just above the medulla and coordinates movement.

hippocampus

region in the limbic system that processes memory. without this, an individual would not be able to process new memories of facts and episodes.

cerebellum

region of the brain that plays a significant role in the development of implicit memories. explains why a patient with amnesia, who was daily introduced to her doctor by shaking his hand (for she had forgotten who he was), stopped shaking his hand after he had accidentally pricked her while doing so. although she could not explain why she didn't want to give him a handshake, her brain knew, as it was conditioned that handshakes with the physician were dangerous.

partial reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

Paul Costa/Robert McCrae

Big Five Factor personality trait model of identifying different personalities (OCEAN - Openness to experience, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism)

interneurons

CNS neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs.

mania

a mood disorder marked by a hyperactive, wildly optimistic state

self-serving bias

a readiness to perceive oneself favorably

pitch

a tone's highness or lowness, depending on frequency

how does hallucinogens apply?

also known as psychedelics (meaning "mind-manifesting"), these psychoactive drugs distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without any present sensory input. they can be either natural or synthetic. through blocking the reuptake of serotonin, these drugs produce similar mind-altering results. examples include marijuana, LSD, and ecstasy.

analytical intelligence

aspect of Sternberg's intelligence theory; academic problem-solving intelligence that is tested by intelligence tests

secure attachment

attachment between a mother and her infant where the child can explore his/her environment independently in her presence; often develops in infants whose mothers are sensitive and responsive to their children

mean

average of a distribution; often can be skewed by extreme values

Francis Galton

believed that intelligence could be measured in a scientific way - tried to measure it with reaction time tests before intelligence tests came out

Diana Baumrind

came up with three of the four parenting styles (not permissive)

erectile dysfunction

can sometimes occur in men during REM sleep; often causes morning erections. found to be more of an issue with young men than old men.

neurotransmitter

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, they travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse.

hormones

chemical messengers, mostly those manufactured by the endocrine system, that are produced in one tissue and affect another.

scatterplot

clusters of dots graphed to demonstrate the relationship between two values; the amount of scatter indicates the strength of the correlation (little scatter = high correlation; vise versa) and the slope indicates the direction of the relationship (positive = both variables increase together)

how does cognition apply?

cognition is the source of all mental activities as it influences communication, thinking, knowing and remembering information. it is analyzed by cognitive psychologists, who devise logical and illogical ways of solving problems, forming judgments and making decisions.

Leon Festinger

cognitive dissonance theory

how does reflex apply?

composed of a single sensory neuron and a single motor neuron, these actions are quick and involuntary, communicating through interneurons. examples include the knee-jerk response and the pain response. when one's hand touches a hot pan, the neural activity that is energized by the heat travels to interneurons in the spinal cord (via sensory neurons) and then is activated by the motor neurons to move the hand away. this reflex runs through the spinal cord, making the brain often receive, identify, and respond to the pain after the jerk has already occurred. for this reason, pain is often felt after the reflex already took place. when the spinal cord is severed, reflexes fail.

prosopagnosia

condition where individuals are capable of sensation but not perception

equity

condition where people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it

how does conformity apply?

conformity causes one's ideas and values to shift when they are feeling pressured by foreign ideas and values by a crowd of respected people. factors that strengthen conformity include situations where the victim is made to feel insecure, the group consists of at least three people, the group is unanimous, one admires the group's social status and attractiveness, one has not made any prior commitment to any response, others in the group observe one's behavior and when one's culture strongly encourages respect for social standards.

Wolfgang Kohler

contributed to gestalt principles, developed insight learning theory

how does creativity apply?

creativity surrounds us - in jobs, community projects, and school assignments. studies of intelligence suggest that there is a certain level of aptitude that correlates with creativity. most people who score well on intelligence tests do well on creativity tests; however, this does not apply to people who score above 120 as the correlation between creativity and intelligence begins to shrink. creativity tests tend to assess divergent thinking, which imagines multiple correct answers to a given question and is found in the frontal lobe of the brain. creativity can be divided into five subgroups: expertise, imaginative thinking skills, venturesome personality, intrinsic motivation, and creative environment.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

Hermann Rorschach

developed Rorschach inkblot projective test

how does intelligence quotient (IQ) apply?

developed by William Stern, this equation related one's mental and chronological age through a simple test that almost every child took to record their general intelligence. now, IQ scores are not calculated but rather obtained by comparing the participant's intelligence with those of their same age. unfortunately, this formula is not always accurate as it is difficult to depict mental age; additionally, the formula labels children rather than improving their education.

Charles Darwin

developed evolution theory

Howard Gardner

developed multiple intelligence theory

Edward Titchener

developed structuralism

Robert Sternberg

developed triarchic intelligence theory

PPY

digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain

Paul Broca

discovered Broca's area

Carl Wernicke

discovered Wernicke's area

dissociative disorder

disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated (dissociated) from previous memories, thoughts, and feelings

information-processing theory

dream theory that states that dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories. this theory falls short of a perfect explanation about dreaming, however, because it does not apply to situations where we dream about information we have not yet learned about.

physiological function theory

dream theory that states that regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways. unfortunately, it does not explain why we experience meaningful dreams.

how does social facilitation apply?

during sports events, math competitions, and mock trial, social facilitation gives participants an extra boost to excel on simple tasks; however, a trick play, a puzzling question and stunning argument may leave participants stuck in their tracks and unable to respond well.

perception

the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-- "go car" --using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting auxiliary words

anorexia nervosa

eating disorder in which a normal weight person (usually an adolescent female) diets and becomes significantly (15% or more) underweight, yet, still feeling fat, continues to starve

hawthorne effect

effect that states the control group of an experiment may also experience changes. for example, just being aware that one is a part of an experiment can cause behavior/attitude change

catharsis

emotional response. in psychology, the ______ hypothesis maintains that "releasing" aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges

positive emotions

emotions where brain activity is dominant in the left frontal lobe. may occur because of the increased supply of dopamine receptors in this area.

negative emotions

emotions where brain activity is dominant in the right prefrontal cortex. the amygdala is also significant, especially in cases of extreme anger or fear.

active listening

empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifies. a feature of Rogers' client-centered therapy

blood-brain barrier

enables the brain to fence out unwanted chemicals circulating in the brain; makes it difficult for scientists to develop new drugs to alleviate depression, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders caused by imbalances of neurotransmitters.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

sexual orientation

enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation)

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in our memory (retrieve information based on how recent it is, how distinct it is, how common it is)

inattentional blindness

failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere

delusions

false beliefs, often of persecution or grandeur, that may accompany psychotic disorders

hallucinations

false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus

Dorothea Dix

famous nurse seeking to improve the rights of the mentally ill and ended up instituting mental asylums

John B. Watson

famous psychologist who was inspired by Pavlov's work. he believed that human emotions and behavior were composed of conditioned responses. he performed the "little Albert" experiment where the infant was conditioned to fear white rats (as it was paired with a loud, obnoxious noise). eventually, Albert generalized white rats, rabbits, dogs, and sealskin coats together, showing signs of fear to all the stimuli. his findings are very important to psychology today, begging psychologists to wonder if terrible emotions can be controlled by extinction or new conditioning to more pleasurable stimuli.

attitude

feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people and events

how does zygote apply?

fewer than half of these fertilized cells survive past the two week mark to become embryos. they are made up of around 100 cells by the first week through its continual replication process. around this time, the cells start to differentiate, or specialize in structure and function. developmental psychologists are still investigating how the cells decide which function to take up as their own.

asperger syndrome

form of autism that is defined by normal intelligence, exceptional skills/talents in certain areas, and deficient social and communication skills; sometimes referred to as a "high functioning" form of autism

Edward Tolman

founded latent learning principles and purposive behaviorism

how does social clock apply?

from culture to culture, the preferred timing of specific social events varies. for example, in Jordan 40% of its brides are teenagers; however, in Hong Kong, only 3% of its brides are that young. some sequences are more strict, while others are looser. because these roles occur at different times, many psychologists are skeptical of age-induced midlife crises.

stereotype

generalized belief about a group of people

collectivism

giving priority to the goals of one's group and defining one's identity accordingly

task leadership

goal-oriented leadership that sets standards, organizes work, and focuses attention on goals

how does group polarization apply?

group polarization initiates action upon ideas stirring within a group and their discussion. it can cause awareness for a spiritual belief to increase and strengthen relationships between diverse people within a low-prejudice group. however, negative preexisting attitudes can lead to terrorist attacks by extremists and racial offenses by high-prejudice groups.

social leadership

group-oriented leadership that builds teamwork, mediates conflict, and offers support

how does posthypnotic suggestion apply?

helping to alleviate headaches, asthma, and stress-related skin disorders, this hypnotic suggestion is rather beneficial. one example of this taking place occurred to a woman who had been suffering from open sores all over her body for the past twenty years. when asked to imagine herself swimming in a special liquid that would cleanse her skin into a smooth and unblemished substance, her sores were able to disappear within three months. in particular, these hypnotic sessions help those suffering from obesity.

anterior cingulate cortex

higher-level center for processing emotion that relies information to the amygdala

how does hindsight bias apply?

hindsight bias plays a huge role in the everyday life of all individuals. it often plays tricks with our minds to make us believe that [the fact/idea/situation] is common sense. because of this, psychologists must rely on research to determine reasoning behind one's feelings/sensations/images because one's initial responses are occasionally misleading.

humanistic psychology

historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people; used personalized methods to study personality in hopes of fostering personal growth

insulin

hormone secreted by the pancreas that diminishes blood glucose by converting it to stored fat

Carl Rogers

humanistic psychologist who believed that all people are truly good; grow with acceptance, genuineness, and empathy - supported client-centered therapy

ghrelin

hunger-arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach

orexin

hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus

facial feedback hypothesis

idea that expressions amplify our emotions by activating muscles associated with specific states, and the muscles signal the body to respond as though we were experiencing those states

behavior feedback hypothesis

idea that if we move our body as we would when experiencing some emotion, we are likely to feel that emotion to some degree

how do identical/fraternal twins apply?

identical and fraternal twins provide the perfect opportunity to test the heated debate of the importance of nature vs. nurture on one's development. out of the twins that were raised in the same environment (both fraternal and identical), identical twins were reported more similar in abilities, personality traits and interests. moreover, identical twins with parallel developmental environments were more similar than identical twins who were separated at birth.

aphasia

impairment of a language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6/7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about two years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6/7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

unconditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

projection

in the psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism by which people disguise their own threatening impulses by attributing them to others

reaction formation

in the psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism by which the ego unconsciously switches unacceptable impulses into their opposites; often, people express the opposite idea from that of which their anxiety is stemming from.

defense mechanisms

in the psychoanalytic theory, the ego's protective methods of reducing anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

how does formal operational stage apply?

in this fourth stage of childhood cognitive development (that lasts from 11 years to death), children/adults think abstractly, which include the use of imagined realities and symbols. they are capable of using deductive reasoning to make conclusions, often following the format, "if this... then that..." this type of systematic reasoning became the core of focus for this stage.

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food

informational social influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept others' opinions about reality

top-down processing

information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations

how does intelligence apply?

intelligence is influenced by many factors, especially culture as it shapes what attributes should be valued among its people (as these often lead to the most success). yet intelligence remains a heated topic as two main controversies still poke at psychologists: is intelligence a single ability or several abilities? can intelligence be located and/or measured within the brain?

neural networks

interconnected neural cells. with experience, networks can learn, as feedback stregthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. computer simulations of neural networks show analogous learning.

assimilate

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas

tardive dyskinesia

involuntary movements of the facial muscles, tongue, and limbs; a possible neurotoxic side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic drugs target D2 dopamine receptors

outer ear canal

the tube through which sound travels to the eardrum

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems

barnum effect

tendency for people to accept vague/general characterizations of themselves and take them to be accurate

recency effect

tendency to remember terms at the end of a list

circadian rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24 hour schedule

wavelength

the distance from peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next.

somatic nervous system

the division of the PNS that controls the body's skeletal muscles. (aka the skeletal nervous system)

frequency

the number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time (for example, per second)

stress

the process by which we perceive and respond to certain events, called stressors, that we appraise as threatening or challenging

identification

the process by which, according to Freud, children incorporate their parents' values into their developing superegos

Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory

the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors - one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue - which when stimulated in combination can produce the perception of any color

cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence

lymphocytes

the two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system

Stanford-Binet

the widely used American revision of Binet's original intelligence test

how does spacing effect apply?

this effect occurs when the studying of learned information is spread out, as it gives our brains time to process and store the material. it is significant in schooling, as it can help to develop good study habits. for example, if there was a big test next week on 25 vocabulary words for science, it would be wise to study 5 words for 15 minutes, go for a 15 min run, study 5 more words for another 15 minutes, make yourself a snack, study another 5 words... and so on to allow for the information to be spread out.

how does the social trap apply?

this idea affects our everyday lives as we debate the well being of our community against our own personal interests. sometimes, social traps can lead to conflict among friends, communities or nations. through accepted regulations, better communication and promoting awareness of communal/national/international responsibilities, people will more often cooperate and conflict will be avoided.

how does phi phenomenon apply?

this illusion is used in signs around town where a rapid series of lights is flashed to make an arrow seem like it's moving, pointing observers in the direction of a certain product. it takes advantage of our brains, which construct our perceptions.

how does WAIS apply?

this intelligence test was developed by David Wechsler to score not only individual intelligence scores (similar to Stanford-Binet), but also separate verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed abilities. these separate tests can help psychologists diagnose those with reading comprehension difficulties or other mental disabilities more easily and get them the help they need.

how does inattentional blindness apply?

this type of attention is so strong and so focused that it leads to a failure in noticing obvious visual objects around us. for example, in one video where watchers are asked to count the number of passes made between a group of young teens, more than half miss the visible gorilla that impedes their game to pump his fist in the air. change blindness is one application of this type of attention, where individuals do not notice obvious changes taking place around them.

how does conduction hearing loss apply?

this type of hearing loss results when the mechanical system of the ear, that conducts sound waves to the cochlea, starts malfunctioning. it can take place when the eardrum is punctured or the hammer, anvil, or stirrup stop vibrating.

how does internal locus of control apply?

this type of personal control explains why some attribute their achievements, failures and other happenings to themselves as they believe that they are in control of their destiny. often, this leads to a strong self-confidence and thus they are more successful in school, more independent of others, and are less depressed than those who possess an external locus of control. they can often delay gratification and cope with conflict well.

how does anxiety disorder apply?

this type of psychological disorder is distinct from everyday shyness, nervousness, or restlessness; rather, it is marked by a persistent pattern of distress, restlessness, and anxiety. generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, phobias, and obsessive-compulsive disorder all fall under this category of psychological disorders.

how does unconditioned response apply?

this type of response occurs naturally when exposed to the unconditioned stimulus. for example, when receiving a bad grade from a math test, a student may feel unhappy. in this scenario, the UR would be the unhappy feeling, as it responds to the US, which is the bad grade. this feeling may transform into a CR to a neutral stimulus, like a specific look on the teacher's face, if paired with bad grades on math tests.

chromosomes

threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes

reification

viewing an abstract, immaterial concept as if it were a concrete thing

Torsten Wiesel

worked with Hubel to discover feature detector neurons and their function in the visual cortex

Michael Gazzaniga

worked with Sperry to investigate the functions of each side of the brain and how they communicate with one another

observational learning

learning by observing others

Philip Zimbardo

Zimbardo prison experiment, studied the social influence power had on social roles.

human factors psychology

a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use

norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior

personality

characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

fovea

the central focal point in the retina around which the eye's cones cluster

self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others

ideal self

the person one strives to be; different from the person one actually is

cocktail party effect

ability to attend to only one voice among many (though let another voice speak your name and your cognitive radar will instantly bring that voice to consciousness)

Roger Sperry

dealt with split-brain research - received Nobel Prize awards for his work

Stark Hathaway

developed MMPI: famous personality inventory

Konrad Lorenz

founded imprinting

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual characteristics such as female breast and hips, male voice quality, and body hair

episodic buffer

part of the working memory that funnels sensory input to the central executive

cornea

protects the eye and bends light to provide focus

glucocorticoid

stress hormones released by the adrenal glands. one type is cortisol.

attribution theory

suggests how we explain someone's behavior, either by crediting the situation or the person's disposition

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory stage

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average

behaviorism

the view that psychology should be an objective science that studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis stating that language determines the way we think

rooting reflex

a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open his/her mouths, and look for food/drink.

convergence

a binocular cue for perceiving depth; the extent to which the eyes converge inward when looking at an object. the greater the inward strain, the closer the object.

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods

savant syndrome

a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as in computation or drawing

nearsightedness

a condition in which nearby objects are seen more clearly than distant objects because distant objects focus in front of the retina

autism

a disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind

reward deficiency system

a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain systems for pleasure and well-being that leads people to crave whatever provides them missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings; some addictive disorders stem from this disease

client-centered therapy

a humanistic therapy, developed by Carl Rogers, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening within a genuine, accepting, empathetic environment to facilitate clients' growth; aka person-centered therapy

visual cliff

a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals

polygraph

a machine, commonly used in attempts to detect lies, that measures several of the physiological responses accompanying emotion (such as perspiration and cardiovascular and breathing changes); it does not accurately detect lies because the sudden change in physiological symptoms can apply to multiple feelings, like anxiety, frustration, or confusion (not just guilt!)

glutamate

a major excitory neurotransmitter that is involved in the memory. too much can produce migranes or seizures because it overstimulates the brain. for this reason, some avoid MSG (monosodium glutamate) in food.

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

a major inhibitory neurotransmitter, whose undersupply can lead to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

correlation

a measure of how two factors vary together and how well they predict each other

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

motivation

a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

hippocampus

a neural center that is located in the limbic system and helps process explicit memories for storage

adrenal glands

a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys that secrete hormones (epinephrine and norephinephrine) to help arouse the body in times of stress.

temperament

a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity

sexual disorder

a problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

estrogen

a sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than in males.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one's total score

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem; it contrasts with strategy-based solutions

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors

fMRI (functional MRI)

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successful MRI scans. it reveals brain function.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that confirms one's perceptions

achievement test

a test designed to assess what a person has learned

systematic desensitization

a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli. commonly used to treat phobias

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

unconscious

according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memories. according to contemporary psychologists, information processing of which we are unaware

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). he believed that this content of a dream functions as a safety valve

self-actualization

according to Maslow, the ultimate psychological need that arises after basic physical and psychological needs are met and self-esteem is achieved; the motivation to fulfill one's potential

how does self-actualization apply?

according to Maslow, this ideal is striven for by all human beings, rationalizing its placement at the top of the hierarchy of needs pyramid. characteristics of this psychological need include self-aware, self-accepting, open, spontaneous, loving, caring, and secure in their opinions, making their interests revolve around the activity itself rather than the person. additionally, this ideal motivates individuals toward fulfilling passions, helps them form intimate relationships with a select few people, and leads them toward spiritual experiences that peak ordinary consciousness.

unconditional positive regard

according to Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person

how does self-concept apply?

according to Rogers, this idea is central to one's personality as it determines the way one perceives him/herself and their greater outlook on life as a whole. if one has a positive self-concept, they tend to behave and perceive the world more positively; likewise, if one has a negative self-concept, their outlook on life and behaviors will be cynical. for this reason, it is wise to stay close to one's true self, as this will lead us to developing the traits possessed by our ideal self -- this can then contribute to a more positive self-concept.

accommodation

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information

conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard

moderate mental retardation

affecting about 10% of the mental retardation population, these individuals score between a 35-50 on their intelligence tests. they are able to develop academic skills to a second grade level and work at small workshops as an adult.

how does embryo apply?

after developing from a zygote after two weeks of conception, this organism lasts for another six weeks before becoming a fetus. it is made up of the inner cells within the placenta, that form after the outer layer of cells attach themselves to the uterine wall. this flow of nutrients allows for the organism's organs to start developing and the heart to start beating.

pinna

also called the auricle, the visible part of the outer ear. it collects sound and directs it into the outer ear canal.

hammer

also called the malleus, a tiny bone that passes vibrations from the eardrum to the anvil

how does thematic apperception test apply?

also known as the (TAT), this type of projective test was developed by Henry Murray to test how individuals create stories from ambiguous photos. their stories would reveal information to him about unconscious fears, thoughts, feelings, and conflicts. for example, a photo about a boy daydreaming is meant to analyze motivation; stories created about it would reveal the individual's goals.

guilty knowledge test

alternative to polygraph that tests a suspect's physiological responses to crime-scene details known only to the police and the guilty person

intuition

although it can sometimes be inaccurate, it is an efficient way of helping us when necessary. as more and more experience is gained in a certain area, the more accurate human intuition will become regarding issues with this idea. unfortunately, overconfidence, hindsight bias, illusory correlation and the fundamental attribution error can affect intuition; smart thinkers will become aware of these faults and work to avoid them when using their intuition.

Edward Thorndike

"Law of Effect" was created by him, which greatly influenced the development of operant conditioning in behaviorism

how does structuralism apply?

although structuralism no longer is used to study the human mind, it was used regularly to develop ideas on how one felt emotionally, physically and mentally in every situation. because it relied on people to verbally express their feelings -- often of which people themselves did not understand -- it was proved unreliable. despite this, structuralism extended the body of knowledge psychology was built upon.

how does algorithm apply?

although these are rather laborious means of devising the answer to a problem, they always guarantee the correct solution. it can be rather time consuming, but sometimes the time is worth it because it is functional and accurate. it is classified as the "best way" to solve a problem because it always guarantees the right answer.

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Mary Cover Jones

"little Peter" experiment where concept of desensitization was acquired

general intelligence

(g) a general intelligence factor that (according to Spearman and others) underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

Solomon Asch

Asch line experiment, where participants were asked blatantly obvious questions but answered incorrectly because they were influenced by the incorrect responses of others (conformity)

GRIT

Graduated and Reciprocated Initiatives in Tension-Reduction - a strategy designed to decrease international tensions

collective unconscious

Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history.

Alfred Adler

Neo-Freudian who also countered Freud's perspective regarding sexual/aggressive desires; developed the inferiority complex, where he believed that children who feel inferior to adults at a young age compensate by acting superior to them when they develop in their later teen years

Carl Jung

Neo-Freudian who believed in a collective unconscious

Alfred Adler

as a neo-Freudian, he agreed with some of Freud's ideas (such that childhood is vital to the development of the personality) but argued others (especially that sexual desires shaped the personality, as he believed that social experiences were more dominant of a factor). for example, his illness-prone childhood led him to believe that his behavior was driven by the desire to overcome these feelings of anxiety and inferiority that developed. in addition, he proposed the well-accepted idea of inferiority complex.

how does learning apply?

as one of most important concepts within psychology, learning allows for ideas, processes, or activities to spread. with adaptability, individuals are able to learn from their mistakes in order to improve the efficiency or effectiveness of a behavior. psychology stresses that we cannot ever lose hope because learning will always allow us to turn our lives around if need be. this idea motivates coaches, parents, educators, trainers, counselors, and therapists.

how does myelin sheath apply?

as the axon insulator, this fatty layer is significant in improving the speed at which messages travel throughout the body. if this is lacking, problems occur. for example, multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease where the myelin sheath deteriorates over time causing communication between muscles to decrease until muscle control is lost completely. some believe that ALD is also caused by a similar deterioration; however, this has not yet been confirmed.

how does manifest content apply?

as the story line of our dreams, this can sometimes incorporate information from our daily lives. for example, many who experience traumatic events have nightmares corresponding with the situation. similarly, the sensory stimuli of our sleeping environment may play a role, which shows that we can maintain some awareness of our external environment even when we are in REM sleep. unfortunately, information that is presented to us while we are asleep does not get manifested into our dreams nor memories. so listening to a tape with a foreign language on it will not help you retain the language easier.

how does heuristic apply?

because algorithms can be time and energy consuming, an individual will often fall to heuristics when solving a problem. heuristics helps eliminate obviously incorrect solutions to an issue and then allows for trial and error to take over. this problem solving method, while it can be rather dysfunctional, is also very popular as it is easy and efficient.

how do theories and hypotheses apply?

because experimentation is necessary to extend the understanding of the human mind, theories and hypotheses are created, tested and adjusted.

broca's area

controls language expression; an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

wernicke's area

controls language reception; a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression, that is usually located in the left temporal lobe

phototransduction

conversion of light energy into neural impulses that the brain can understand

how does correlation apply?

correlation measures can be used to make predictions about behavior, attitudes, responses, etc. it helps reveal how different variables affect one another. it is important to realize that correlation does not mean causation -- meaning that just because two variables correlate, does not mean they cause each other to occur

how does natural selection apply?

darwin's theory of natural selection applies to psychology as it suggests that nature plays an important role in the physical and behavioral aspects of organisms. due to medicine (to treat illness) and different innovations (to assist ignorant people), natural selection does not play as big of a role in society as it used to.

Ivan Pavlov

dealt with classical conditioning; famous dog-bell experiment. Started the different classical conditioning applications, like acquisition, extinction, generalization, etc.

how does pitch apply?

dependent on frequency, this characteristic of audition is very important in distinguishing various sounds from each other. short wavelengths correspond with high frequencies and high pitched noises. on the other hand, long wavelengths lead to low frequencies and low-pitched sounds.

John Garcia

developed "Garcia effect" of conditioned taste aversion

Alfred Kinsey

developed Kinsey scale to measure sexual orientation (0 to 6, 0 being heterosexual and 6 being homosexual), stressed the psychological need for sex

Erik Erikson

developed eight stages of psychosocial development throughout a lifetime, proposing that each stage involves overcoming a particular task

Martin Seligman

developed idea of positive psychology

Hermann Ebbighaus

developed the learning curve, the spacing effect, the serial position effect, the forgetting curve, the overlearning effect, the voluntary/involuntary memory, and the Ebbighaus optical illusion

Franz Gall

developed theory of phrenology to explain mental abilities and character traits

Hans Selye

developed theory on stress which noted that people responded in the same way to stress no matter the stimulus

psychological disorder

deviant, distressed, and dysfunctional behavior patterns

how does automatic nervous system apply?

divided into two sections, this part of the PNS enables involuntary control of muscles and glands, such as the heart, stomach, or adrenal gland. heartbeat, blood pressure, digestion, and glandular activity is all affected by this system.

how does methamphetamine apply?

even more addictive than its counterpart (amphetamine), this drug increases heart and breathing rates, causes pupils to dilate, appetites to diminish, energy to rise, and self-confidence to improve like all other stimulants; however, it also can produce around eight hours of increased energy and euphoria, as related to its triggering of dopamine release. it is highly addictive and can produce aftereffects of irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures, periods of disorientation, and occasional violent behavior. it also reduces baseline dopamine levels overtime.

how does near-death experience apply?

experienced by 12-14% of the population who undergoes extremely physical trauma, these experiences involve the replay of old memories, out-of-body sensations, and visions of tunnels/funnels with a central bright light. they are oddly similar to hallucinations and to temporal lobe seizure experiences. some scientists believe that these events are triggered by an oxygen deprivation, as inhibitory cells stop working, neural activity increases in the visual cortex, and a growing patch of light can seem to appear. others disagree with the simplicity of this because they believe that near-death experiences deserve a more elaborate explanation as to why they seem to change the individual in ways that drug hallucinations cannot. this controversy relates to a basic mind-body issue debated by dualists and monists.

how does self-esteem apply?

experimentation shows that those with higher self-esteems prove to be happier, more resistant to peer pressure, more persistent in difficult tasks, more friendly, and more supported by family/friends. on the other hand, those with lower self-esteem tend to be unhappy, more compliant with peer pressure, more judgmental, and more cynical. there are many potential correlations between low self-esteem and personal problems (for example that those with low-self esteem is a side effect of challenges or an indicator of troublesome relationships); however, few have been accepted. the bottom line is that those who love themselves tend to love others, while those who disparage themselves tend to disparage others. it is important to note that minority groups do not suffer from lower self-esteem... in fact, research shows that these groups actually have a greater self-esteem than majority groups because they value the things at which they excel, attribute problems to prejudice, and compare themselves to those within their own group.

B.F. Skinner

famous psychologist from the twentieth century who was very influential in behaviorism. in following Thorndike's law of effect, he developed different techniques of controlling behavior. his most famous experiments involved pigeons, who were taught how to read, play ping pong, and succeed in video games using these behavior technologies. also known as a Skinner box, an operant chamber was designed by this man in order to control external environment factors during the experiments.

bystander effect

idea that people are less likely to help a victim when other bystanders are present and not helping

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood

how does schema apply?

in order to make sense of the world, our brain builds these concepts to pour our experiences. children are constantly creating them in order to construct more advanced understandings of the world. by adulthood, we have thousands of these from spiders to skyscrapers to our idea of love. this idea was developed by Piaget.

rationalization

in the psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism that offers self-justifying explanations in place of the real, more threatening, unconscious reasons for one's actions

sublimation

in the psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism that re-channels unacceptable aggressive and sexual impulses toward socially acceptable activities.

normative social influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disappointment

mental processes

internal, subjective experiences one can infer from behavior - sensations, perceptions, dreams, thoughts, beliefs and feelings

representative heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead one to ignore other relevant information

how does storage apply?

like any computer-system, this process is important in obtaining the details of any given memory, as it provides a home for the memories to dwell in until they need to be retrieved.

how does extrasensory perception apply?

made up of telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition, this controversial claim states that perception can occur apart from sensory input. this is rather controversial because parapsychologists have been unable to replicate ESP phenomena under controlled situations.

how does inner ear apply?

made up of the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs, this area of the ear is very significant in audition. located furthest in the ear, this region is the last to receive vibrations from the sound waves. it connects to the auditory nerve, allowing for the sound to be interpreted by the brain.

Gordon Allport

making his debut in the 1930s, this psychologist supported the trait perspective, and went on to fully explain the reasoning behind the theory. he stated that everyone has cardinal traits, central traits, and secondary traits that make up their developing personality. although some use his ideas in various areas, few accept his perspective as 100% reliable.

how does biological rhythm apply?

many biological periods take place throughout an individual's lifetime that cause fluctuations in mood, appetite, sleep lengths, etc. annual clocks are one example of these rhythms. seasonal affective disorder falls underneath this category of change, as victims of this experience an extreme fluctuation in mood when the months are changing (particularly during dark, cold winter months). 28-day cycles also fall underneath these biological fluctuations. women's menstrual cycles are perceived to affect their moods, however, research shows that they perceive more fluctuation than is actually taking place. twenty-four hour cycles are also common, which take place every single day when humans experience various alertness, body temperatures, and growth hormone secretions. finally, ninety-minute cycles control important sleep cycles that take place during the night.

imagery

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding

WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)

most widely used intelligence test that contains eleven verbal and nonverbal performance subtests

instinct theory

motivation theory that is propelled by incentives. not accepted by psychologists because it merely names behaviors rather than explaining them. replaced by evolutionary perspective, which studies behaviors in search of their adaptive functions. underlying idea is the same, that genes predispose species-typical behavior

esteem needs

need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others

safety needs

need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; need to feel safe, secure, and stable

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the CNS

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the CNS to the muscles and glands

how does self-serving bias apply?

no matter our self-esteem, most of use have a decent reputation with ourselves. research finds that people accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad, and for successes than for failures, and that most people see themselves as better than average. this explains why 87% of the American population believed they would make it to heaven, but only 79% believed that Mother Teresa would make it.

biological rhythm

periodic psychological fluctuations

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

incentive

positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior

leptin

protein secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

personality disorder

psychological disorder characterized by inflexible and enduring behavior patterns that impair social functioning

object relation theorist

psychologist who presumes that our early childhood relations with parents, caregivers, and everything else influences our developing identity, personality, and frailties.

how does case study apply?

psychologists use case studies to observe one person's behavior in hope of revealing principles that apply to the entire human population. while this has its advantages (such as suggesting fruitful ideas and prompting further research), it also can be very misleading as every human being is different, so not all will respond to a certain situation in the same exact way.

illusory correlation

random events that we notice and falsely assume are related

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

connectedness

rule of grouping that states we perceive objects that are uniform and linked as single units

how does a scatterplot apply?

scatterplots are used to demonstrate the correlation between two variables; it is a common visual tool used in psychology

disorganized schizophrenia

schizophrenia that includes disorganized speech or behavior, or flat or inappropriate emotion

catatonic schizophrenia

schizophrenia that includes immobility (or excessive, purposeless movement), extreme negativism, and/or parrot-like repeating of another's speech or movements

undifferentiated schizophrenia

schizophrenia that includes many and varied symptoms

Lev Vygotsky

social development theory, which stresses the vital role that social interactions play in cognitive development

how does social loafing apply?

social loafing causes group participants of various tasks to exert less effort than when they are performing the same task alone. this results from feeling less accountable for one's actions and less examined by the fellow participants taking pressure to excel off their shoulders.

resting potential

stage that the neuron is in before an action potential is produced, where the negatively-charged ions are present inside the axon and positively charged ions are located outside the cell. with its selectively permeable membrane, the neuron blocks positively charged sodium ions from entering, which is also blocking the production of an action potential.

how does standard deviation apply?

standard deviation is used to determine the difference in a distribution; it accurately gauges whether scores are tightly packed or widely dispersed because it uses information from each score. standard deviation is more reliable than range.

homeostasis

tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level

visual encoding

the encoding of picture images

content validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

just-world phenomenon

the idea that the world is just and people get what they deserve

how does empiricism apply?

the ideas of modern empiricism apply to the world today (as they support scientific research, psychological views on the birth of knowledge, etc.). in fact, they stem from ideas that originated in the early 1600s from Francis Bacon and John Locke

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective as an impediment to problem solving

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them.

threshold

the level of stimulation needed to trigger a neural impulse

grouping

the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups

mere exposure effect

the phenomenon that states that one is more likely to grow fond of another they see often

Weber's law

the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)

heritability

the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes; this may vary within a trait, depending on the range of populations and environments studied

positive psychology

the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

molecular genetics

the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

overconfidence

the tendency to think we know more than we actually do

groupthink

the way of thinking that occurs when harmonious desires within a decision-making group override realistic appraisal of alternatives

behavior therapy

therapy that applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors

cognitive therapy

therapy that teaches people now, more adaptive ways of thinking and acting; based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

family therapy

therapy that treats the family as a system. views an individual's unwanted behaviors as influenced by or directed at other family members; attempts to guide family members toward positive relationships and improved communication

how does subliminal apply?

these types of thresholds are unconsciously recognized, thus influencing our behaviors. for a while, many businesses used this in advertising in attempt to sway viewers into viewing their products more positively without awareness. however, after experimentation on this, one psychologist found that this type of influence only truly altered cognition when recipients were aware of the threshold ahead of time. this guaranteed that subliminal procedures did not bring any value to marketing. in general, subliminal thresholds only slightly influence people. it is distinct from absolute thresholds because responses only take place less than 50% of the time to the stimuli.

how does priming apply?

this activation is significant in perception, as it prepares one's brain for more information on a particular subject. in one experiment, a positive/negative word or image was flashed for a group of people (too quickly to be noticed) before presenting a slideshow of different people. the people were interpreted more positively when primed with positive words/images than those with a negative priming experience. this helps explain why we we can feel something without knowing why it is there. weak triggers can sometimes evoke feelings without conscious awareness of the stimulus.

how does wernicke's area apply?

this area is rather significant in the comprehension and expression of speech, as damage to this area disrupts understanding. in one situation where this area was damaged, a person who was asked to describe a picture of two boys stealing cookies behind a woman's back, the individual was hardly able to verbalize the situation. he used less than twenty words to make his description. he hardly explained what was going on, as he could not express advanced vocabulary words. this area also works with the angular gyrus to derive meaning from sounds.

how does personality apply?

this aspect of our individuality is significant. it has been applied to many different areas of psychology (including social psychology, cognitive psychology, psychological health, and psychological development). because of its importance to the field, history has provided two important perspectives that drive personality psychologists forward in their work: the psychoanalytical theory and the humanistic approach. these theories attempted to explain human behaviors, thoughts, and attitudes; however, current approaches to this topic are more focused on specific aspects of our personality (including traits, uniqueness, sense of personal control, and concept of self.)

how does dendrite apply?

this busy extension off the cell body is essential in receiving chemical messages. it connects perfectly with the opposing axon terminal branches. unlike the axon, these branches are short.

how does personality disorder apply?

this category of psychological disorders occur when disruptive behavioral patterns impair social functioning. this can be broken down into three main clusters that express anxiety, eccentric behaviors, and drama/impulsion. a well-known personality disorder is antisocial personality disorder, which affects 60% of all prisoners.

how does rehearsal apply?

this directly affects the ability for information to be processed. as time spent doing this task increases, the time spent relearning the concept decreases. this proves that using this tactic to obtain and retain unfamiliar information is extremely useful. by studying vocabulary terms over and over again for a few weeks, the retention of the words will become long and strong.

how does mania apply?

this heightened state of being affects those diagnosed with bipolar disorder. symptoms of this stage include being overtalkative, overactive, elated, and not tired (even if they have not been getting much sleep). unfortunately, during this time, overconfidence and greater perceived self-esteem can lead to individuals making poor decisions, like gambling all their money away or going on a huge shopping spree. milder cases of this condition have encouraged creativity, as many people have become successful from works created during this time.

how does generalization apply?

this major classical conditioning process takes place when stimuli similar to the CS start eliciting similar responses as the CR. for example, if a particular bunny brings a child comfort and joy when distressed, other stuffed animals may be capable of producing similar results (as the child generalizes the stimuli together). the opposite of this process is discrimination.

how does recall apply?

this measure of memory is significant in test taking scenarios, as it directly tests how well an individual can retrieve learned information and apply it to the questions. the stronger our ability to recall information, the stronger our memory.

how does gestalt apply?

this organization technique allows for our brains to interpret sensory information as meaningful wholes. for example, the necker cube illusion is interpreted as more than just multiple pacman circles, but rather as a white cube outlined with blue accents. our brain views the circles together to see the whole picture.

how does physical dependence apply?

this particular dependency to a substance (such as alcohol or drugs) is highlighted when withdrawal occurs, as it leaves behind uncomfortable physical symptoms like headaches, stomach aches, intense cravings, and other painful experiences. these effects are all based on the body's physical need for the drug and do not have anything to do with the mental aspect of addictions.

how does object permanence apply?

this phenomenon is developed around the age of 8 months in infants. before this is obtained, children are unaware of anything that does not sit right in front of them. this is why a child may become very excited while playing peek-a-boo, as they may not realize that the person still exists when their hands are covering their face.

how does somatic nervous system apply?

this section of the PNS enables voluntary control of skeletal muscles, such as the biceps, triceps, quadricepts, hamstrings, etc. turning a page once finishing the content presented, turning the corner of a street, and turning on and off the lights are all controlled by this section of the PNS.

how does dissociation apply?

this theory explains why pain is not felt during surgeries when anesthesia is replaced with hypnosis. it suggests that hypnosis dissociates the sensation of the conscious pain stimulus from the emotional suffering that helps define "pain."

how does sensorineural hearing loss apply?

this type of hearing loss is pretty common. most of the time it results from damage to the cilia or their associated nerves; however, occasionally, disease can produce it too. heredity, aging, and prolonged exposure to loud noises leads to this damage. unfortunately, the damage is irreversible. despite this many hearing devices can be prescribed to help amplify enough sound to stimulate surrounding cilia. with research showing that animals are able to regenerate cilia, scientists hope to find a way to fix damaged human cilia in the future.

how does observational learning apply?

this type of learning is distinct from conditioning, as it applies to direct experience. for example, a child who sees her sister burn her fingers on the stove will learn not to touch it in order to avoid the pain she experienced. this process, of learning and imitating behaviors is referred to as modeling and plays a big role in observational learning. mirror neurons provide a basis for this type of learning, as they fire when the brain notes imitation of some kind.

how does bottom-up processing apply?

this type of processing aligns with sensation. it occurs when receptor cells detect a stimulus, encode the physical energy as a neural stimulus (transduction), and finally transmit it to the brain. for example, in sensing a bonfire, this process would first detect a flicker, crackle, or smokey smell, then transduce the stimulus energy into something the brain can understand, and finally ship it off to the brain to be perceived by top-down processing.

how does fixed-ratio schedule apply?

this type of reinforcement schedule occurs when rewards are administered after a certain number of responses. for example, monthly paychecks influence workers to work hard to thirty days in a row. usually, resistance to the desired behavior only lasts for a little bit after initially receiving the reward but picks up again soon after.

outgroup

those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup ("them")

T lymphocytes

type of lymphocyte that forms in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue; attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign organs (sometimes even good ones, like transported organs).

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings

social-cognitive perspective

views behavior as influenced by the interaction between persons (and their thinking) and their social context

Stanley Milgram

wanted to know how Hitler influenced his soldiers to do such horrible things during WWII, so he created an experiment where a teacher shocked students based on incorrect answers - found that the teachers were more likely to follow through when the experimenter overseer was in the room

factors contributing to increased rates of pregnancy

- ignorance about birth control - guilt after engaging in sexual activity (often teens who feel this way will not carry contraceptives on them in the future) - minimal communication about contraceptives - alcohol use - mass media portraying sex without consequences

hierarchy of needs

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active

conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals or ideas

aversive conditioning

a type of counterconditioning that associates an unpleasant state (such as nausea) with an unwanted behavior (such as drinking alcohol)

effects of prolonged stress

after experiencing stress for long periods of time, the body starts to physically deteriorate. one effect causes some extremely stressed individuals to age much faster than the average person. this occurs because their telomeres become shortened, inhibiting the cells from healthfully dividing. another effect causes the hippocampus to shrink.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm

self-concept

all of our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question "who am I?"

population

all the cases in a group from which samples may be drawn for a study

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behaviors

critical period

an optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development

gestalt

an organized whole. psychologists who specialize in this idea emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes

prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members; involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action

bottom-up processing

analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy another person or thing

behavior

anything an organism does; any observable and recordable observation

how does standardization apply?

as one of the three requirements for test scores to be meaningful, this aspect of determining good tests from bad is rather important. it allows for test scores to be compared with other scores from a random sample, which ensures that the variety of answers and learning styles of the individuals will be covered. then, those who take the test after can be compared with this standard. usually, this results in a normal distribution curve that represents the general trend for scores within the population. these tests are constantly being restandardized by different groups of people to keep the average scores accurate/reliable in the normal distribution.

how does electroencephalogram apply?

because the brain gives off electrical, metabolic, and magnetic signals, microelectrodes are able to detect these pulses, allowing neuroscientists to precisely analyze where information is coming from and traveling to within the brain. this machine makes this entire process possible.

adenosine

chemical inhibitor that makes us sleepy. as we sleep, these concentrations decline. the longer we are awake, the more these inhibitors accumulate in the body. caffeine blocks these inhibitors from making us feel sleepy, which is why many drink it to get re-energized.

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use

id

contains a reservoir of unconscious psychic energy that, according to Freud, strives to satisfy the basic sexual and aggressive drives. it operates on the pleasure principle, demanding immediate gratification.

transduction

conversion of one form of energy into another. in sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret

acoustical transduction

conversion of sound waves into neural impulses in the hair cells of the inner ear. these sounds waves are composed of the compression and rarefaction of air molecules.

standardization

defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested standardization group

how does deindividuation apply?

deindividuation often occurs when participants feel aroused and anonymous within a group. this explains why people are more comfortable committing a crime if their face is painted or covered in a mask.

how does confirmation bias apply?

demonstrated by Peter Watson, this phenomenon led students within his experiment to develop incorrect algorithms based on a simple number sequence. students formed a wrong idea about the numbers and then thoroughly searched for evidence that would confirm it. this experiment revealed that we more often search for evidence verifying our ideas than evidence refuting them. this explains why business managers are more likely to focus on the strong traits of the employees they have hired than of those they have rejected in order to build up their own hiring ability. it also explains why prestigious leaders often look to the minute amount of evidence that proves them innocent in a heated situation and ignore the myriad of evidence that proves them guilty.

monocular cues

depth cues, such as interposition and linear perspective, available to either eye alone

binocular cues

depth cues, such as retinal disparity and convergence, that depend on the use of two eyes

how does factor analysis apply?

developed by Charles Spearman, this idea supports the idea that individual strengths are found in common clusters. for example, one who is proficient in reading comprehension most likely has a strong vocabulary.

environment

every external influence, from maternal nutrition in the womb to social support while nearing the tomb

experimenter bias

example of a confounding variable that occurs unconsciously; can be avoided by double-blind procedures where those participating in the experiment are unaware of what is happening

order of effects

example of a confounding variable that occurs when the order of events is inconsistent causing changes in the results

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any behavioral effect caused by the administration of inert substance/condition that is supposedly the prescribed treatment option

conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

unconditioned response

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

how does sensation apply?

in cooperation with perception, this process helps us detect external stimuli so that it can be organized and interpreted by our brains. it is paired with bottom-up processing, where receptor cells detect a stimulus, transduction encodes the energy as a neural signal, and it is transmitted to the brain. this is affected by the five senses (smell, sight, sound, taste, and touch).

place theory

in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated

frequency theory

in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

transference

in psychoanalysis, the patient's transfer to the analyst of emotions linked with other relationships (such as love or hatred for a parent)

David Hubel

investigated the neural basis of visual perception

how does encoding apply?

like any computer-system, this process is important to the development of memories. without it, memories could not be retained nor retrieved. it allows for the information to get into our brain. in retrieving sensory information, this process translates it into a neural language for the neurons to understand. long-term memories rely on this process; if they are not encoded, they do not become long-term memories and are soon forgotten. as we age, encoding efficiency starts to diminish. this causes age-related memory decline.

how does acoustic encoding apply?

like visual encoding, this type of encoding does not compare with semantic encoding; however, it can be stronger than its visual partner. this type of encoding enables memorability and seeming truth of rhyming aporisms, making sentences like, "hugs not ughs" more significant and easier to recall than sentences like, "hugs not complaints."

psychophysiological illness

literally, "mind-body" illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches. examples include hypertension and headaches.

ventromedial hypothalamus

lower mid-hypothalamus that depresses feelings of hunger

schizoid personality disorder

personality disorder classified by emotionless disengagement

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. opposite of antisocial behavior

social control

power of a situation that affects the power of individuals within a social situation

Louis Terman

published the Stanford-Binet test which is widely used across America today

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection; aka procedural memory

rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

how does two-word stage apply?

right before their second birthday, children in this stage start combining words into small phrases. these two-word combos are short and sweet; for example, "me dog," might mean "I want that dog." within this stage, telegraphic speech plays a strong role because of the basic noun-verb combinations that often follow some syntax rules, like adjective before noun ("big kitty").

closure

rule of grouping that allows for us to fill in the gaps to create a complete, whole object

proximity

rule of grouping that states that we group nearby figures together.

median

score located in the middle of the distribution

introspection

self-reflective method of determining one's immediate sensations, images, feelings, etc. from their experiences

stressor

something that induces stress

organizational psychology

subfield of industrial-organizational psychology that examines organizational influences on worker satisfaction and productivity and facilitates organizational change

nervous system

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

extrasensory perception (ESP)

the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input. said to include telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition

social clock

the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement

embryo

the developing human organism from about two weeks after fertilization through the second month

fetus

the developing human organism from nine weeks after conception to birth

levels of analysis

the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon

hue

the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names, "blue," "green," and so forth

spermarche

the first ejaculation

temporal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear. those with schizophrenia are active within these lobes during their hallucinations.

imprinting

the process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system that includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

storage

the retention of encoded information over time

syntax

the rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

audition

the sense or act of hearing

semantics

the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in both men and women. females have two x chromosomes, while males have one x chromosome.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome found only in males.

acuity

the sharpness of vision

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to age 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

companionate love

the steady, deep affectionate attachment we feel for those our lives are intertwined with

chameleon effect

the tendency for one to mimic others' expressions, postures and voice tones unconsciously in order to understand why they are feeling the way they are

belief bias

the tendency for one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid or valid conclusions seem invalid

foot-in-the-door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to later comply with a larger request

fundamental attribution error

the tendency for those observing another's behavior to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition

visual capture

the tendency for vision to dominate the other senses

ingroup bias

the tendency to favor one's own group

rosy retrospection

the tendency to recall events such as a camping holiday more positively than they evaluated them at the time. this affects and predicts our future choices regarding these things.

how does nerve apply?

these bundles of neurons are extremely important, as they direct the neurons toward the brain or other organs in need of direction. the grouped axons carry PNS information. one such example is the optic nerve, which is composed of axon fibers that send information from the eye to the brain allowing for observations to be identified and responded to.

how does binocular cues apply?

these cues significantly contribute to perceiving depth. they rely on use of both eyes. such cues include retinal disparity and convergence.

how does delusion apply?

these false beliefs are rather confusing for those who are affected by them. they often target those with paranoid tendencies and schizophrenia.

vitreous

thick transparent liquid that fills the center of the eye; made of mostly water, giving the eye its distinct shape

critical thinking

thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions, but rather examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence and assesses conclusions.

how does cognition apply?

thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating is central to our abilities as human beings. until the 20th century, most people assumed that children thought in a parallel fashion to adults; however, Jean Piaget challenged this with his four stages of cognitive development theory. each stage has its own characteristics, as the ways that children obtain and relay information varies with age.

exhaustion

third step in GAS where the effort placed on the body by the extreme amount of stress starts to take its toll. in this stage, an individual becomes vulnerable to illness, collapse, and death.

how does fovea apply?

this area of the retina forms the focal point for images. because it deals with fine detail, it is made up of only cones. this allows for the cones to have their own bipolar cells to relay precise message to the visual cortex.

how does language apply?

this aspect of humanity sets us apart from other creatures. it allows us to communicate, allowing for knowledge to be passed down from generation to generation. when we speak to one another, our brain and voice box produce pressure waves in the air, that bang up against the ear drums of other people, allowing for our thoughts to be shared. within the structure of language includes phonemes, morphemes, grammar, semantics, and syntax: aspects that are necessary for a language to be developed by individuals within the civilization and passed down to the next generation. as individuals move from learning these phonemes to morphemes to words to sentences, their language becomes more and more complex. for this reason, language is often referred to as complexity built upon simplicity. language is developed in chronological stages, from the babbling stage to one-word/two-word stages to the longer phrases stage. this development has been debated by two important psychologists: B.F. Skinner and Noam Chomsky.

how does predictive validity apply?

this aspect of validity is key in assigning aptitude tests. it depends on the criterion, of future performance, to be used as a comparison for later on. psychologists have found that as age increases, the predictive power of these tests decreases because the diverse population that the scores were based off of often does not apply to the smaller, more specific groups of individuals that adults often find themselves among.

how does imprinting apply?

this attachment forms during the first few hours after birth when a baby animal first sees something it associates with familiarity. often, this forms between a mother and its baby; however, experiments have shown that baby animals can also develop close relationships with other moving objects or animals of different species. although it is very significant in animals, this process does not apply to humans. they do become attached to what they know, as the mere exposure effect to people and things breeds familiarity and fondness.

how does personal control apply?

this depicts our abilities to control our environments or conversely, the environments' abilities to control us. these are described by two main types of personal control, which include external locus of control and internal locus of control. to study personal control, psychologists can either use experimentation or correlation between one's feelings of control with their achievements.

how does lesion apply?

this destruction of brain tissue can be performed purposely to observe their effects. sometimes it is done to destroy unhealthy cells; other times, healthy cells are destroyed. in rats, a lesion in one area of the brain reduces eating. it is a medical and scientific method of studying the brain, in order to try and understand how it functions and why. other techniques of studying the brain include clinical observation, manipulation, electrical activity recordings, and neuroimaging techniques.

how does peripheral nervous system apply?

this division of the nervous system is divided into two more sections: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous system. these subdivisions enable voluntary and involuntary control of muscles. within the involuntary control (autonomic nervous system), the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system are present. they arouse and pacify the individual, allowing for a steady internal state to be obtained through their cooperation. this division of the nervous system is important, as it connects the brain and spinal cord with the rest of the body's needs.

how does deja vu apply?

this eerie experience occurs when the situation is flooded with similar retrieval cues as a previous memory, allowing for one to unconsciously recognize the details and assume that the event had already occurred.

how does linguistic determinism apply?

this hypothesis supports the idea that different languages impose different concepts of reality. for example, the hopi tribe (a native american group), does not have a past tense in their language; from this, whorf infers that they do not think about the past either. although this idea does not apply to individuals who only speak one language, it greatly affects those who are bilingual. many bilinguists claim that they think differently within their two languages. for example, one who speaks english will develop more self-focused vocabulary due to the individualist culture that corresponds with the language; however, thinking in japanese results in more interpersonal thoughts due to the collectivist culture in japan. one experiment even found that chinese-english bilinguists who took two personality tests (one in each language) scored differently with each language. this shows that people can even come so far as to develop different personalities with the languages they learn. it also shows that the culture of the native speakers of a language greatly influence the vocabulary of the language, and thus the cognition that corresponds with it.

how does absolute threshold apply?

this idea coincides with sensation. it is illustrated well by hearing tests: when being asked to report when they hear a tone, the point where the recipient accurately detects the sound 50% of the time is their absolute threshold. this concept varies form person to person.

how does minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI) apply?

this personality inventory is the most extensively used method of determining one's personality today. it was originally designed to identify emotional disorders; however, its use was extended once it was discovered that it is a reliable and valid method of determining personality. (many tests were performed to come to this conclusion). with the length of this test and the distinct wording, it is impossible to "play the test" meaning that those who would lie to get out of therapy or treatment would fail as this test accurately reveals one's true emotional feelings.

how does color constancy apply?

this phenomenon supports the idea that color is interpreted based on its surroundings. for example, a green leaf may reflect the same amount of light energy as the brown branch it is attached to when illumination changes; however, our eyes will continue to perceive the leaf as green and the branch as brown. similarly, the colors of vegetables in a bowl will seem to remain constant when admiring them as a whole; however, when staring at one segment of a tomato, for example, the perceived color may seem to change slightly. this shows that no matter the circumstance, the colors of known objects remain constant in lightness and darkness.

how does sympathetic nervous system apply?

this section of the automatic nervous system arouses. it is responsible for the famous "fight or flight" response to unusual stimulations, as the alarm accelerates heartbeat, raises blood pressure, slows digestion, raises blood sugar, and cools with perspiration. this allows the individual to be alert and ready for anything. other stressful situations may be state-championship games, important job interviews, or heated conflicts between employees. this is why someone who just finishes a stressful soccer game may not be hungry afterwards (even though they just burned a bunch of calories).

how does threshold apply?

this stipulates that more excitory signals (which want the action to be completed) are needed than inhibitory signals (which do not want the action to be completed) for an action potential to be produced. it can also be referred to as a minimum intensity, as it dictates how much stimulation is needed for a neural impulse to be fired. the intensity of the action potential cannot be altered by the intensity of threshold, or the amount of stimulus above the threshold; rather, the intensity of the threshold alters how many neurons fire. the strength of the action potential cannot be changed.

how does cross-sectional study apply?

this test compares people of different ages for intellectual decline. these studies often find that older adults answer fewer questions correctly than younger adults. from this Wechsler (creator of the intelligence test) concluded that the decline of mental ability with age is a natural part of the aging process. many psychologists do not support these studies because they compare people of two different eras where different information had been taught. many environmental factors, like the size, wealthy, and motivation of family life, play a role in intelligence, which are not accounted for in this type of study.

how does variable-interval schedule apply?

this type of reinforcement schedule often produces steady patterns of responses as the individual does not know when the reward will be administered. for example, employees may check their email every two hours in order to stay prepared for the unpredictable time when they receive a message.

how does negative reinforcement apply?

this type of reinforcement takes place when an unwanted stimulus is removed. it affects drug users greatly, as the desire to escape withdrawal becomes so severe that they often fall back into using the substance. this strengthens the behavior of using the drugs, as it promises protection from unwanted withdrawal symptoms. it is important to remember that this type of reinforcement is distinct from punishment, which weakens a behavior, because it always serves to strengthen behavior.

Eustachian tube

tube that connects the middle ear to the back of the nose; it equalizes the pressure between the middle ear and the air outside. when you "pop" your ears as altitude changes, you are equalizing the air pressure in your middle ear.

amygdala

two lima bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and contribute to emotion

ganglion cell

type of cell activated from neighboring bipolar cells. its axons converge to form the optic nerve.

B lymphocytes

type of lymphocyte that forms in bone marrow and releases antibodies that fight bacterial infections

dependent variable

variable that may change depending on the manipulations of the independent variable

hierarchies

way of organizing mental categories, with larger subgroups near the top of the chain and lower subgroups branching off from them

how does defense mechanisms apply?

when the ego fears losing the internal battle with the id, anxiety begins to develop, causing an individual to feel unsettled for reasons unknown. in order to protect itself from these uncomfortable and confusing feelings of anxiety, the ego acts on various defensive mechanisms. such mechanisms include repression, regression, sublimation, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, and displacement. these mechanisms occur unconsciously. they minimize anxiety by disguising our impulses toward aggression and sex (and thus distorting reality).

flat affect

zombielike state of apparent apathy

lobotomy

a now-rare psychosurgical procedure once used to calm uncontrollably emotional or violent patients. the procedure cut the nerves that connect the frontal lobes to the emotion-controlling centers of the inner brain

meta analysis

a procedure for statistically combining the results of many different research studies

sensory adaptation

diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation

how does Weber's law apply?

discovered by Ernst Weber, this principle dictates that two stimuli must differ by a constant proportion for their difference to be perceptible. these proportions vary depending on the stimulus. for example, light varies by 8%, weight varies by 2%, and tone varies by 0.3%. despite these exact measurements, it is important to keep in mind that the values are approximations so they will not yield perfect results.

antipsychotic drugs

drugs that dampen responsiveness to irrelevant stimuli, often used for schizophrenia patients

resistance

in psychoanalysis, the blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material

how does optic nerve apply?

made up of the axons of ganglion cells, this nerve is extremely important, as it relies neural impulses from the retina to the brain, where the thalamus receives and distributes the information to the visual cortex. it has been found that almost a million messages can be sent by the optic nerve simultaneously through its near million ganglion fibers.

additive color mixing

occurs when mixing colors results in more wavelengths than when the colors stood alone; takes place with mixing light

opponent-process theory

the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. for example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green

Charles Spearman

British psychologist who developed the idea of factor analysis and theory of general intelligence (or g). he grouped natural abilities into common clusters, such as spatial ability factor and reasoning ability factor.

Hans and Sybil Eysenck

British psychologists who developed a personality test that classified individuals based on two-three different dimensions. they believe that genetic influence and modern-day research supports their ideas; however, critics argue that their Eysenck Personality Questionarre is too vague. for this reason, it is not used too much anymore.

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality that attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts; the techniques used in treating psychological disorders by seeking to expose and interpret unconscious tensions

Karen Horney

Neo-Freudian who believed that social factors were more dominant in the development of one's personality than sexual/aggressive desires, believing that childhood acceptance by peers and family are significant

psychoanalysis

Sigmund Freud's therapeutic technique. he believed that patient's free associations, resistances, dreams, and transferences - and the therapist's interpretations of them - released previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

counterconditioning

a behavior therapy procedure that conditions new responses to stimuli that trigger unwanted behaviors; based on classical conditioning. includes exposure therapy and aversive conditioning

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth. by comparing images from the two eyeballs, the brain computes distance - the greater disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

a biomedical therapy for severely depressed patients in which a brief electric current is sent through the brain of an anesthetized patient

biological psychology

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the lifespan

operant chamber

a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

intrinsic motivation

a component of creativity that focuses on the inner challenges and pleasures of the work.

expertise

a component of creativity that is a well-developed base of knowledge. the more ideas, images and phrases available through accumulated learning, the more chances to combine these things in novel ways.

imaginative thinking skills

a component of creativity that provides the ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections.

creative environment

a component of creativity that sparks, supports and refines creative ideas. often those who are mentored, challenged and supported become the most successful because they have been raised to challenge themselves and think critically about a new way of solving a given situation.

venturesome personality

a component of creativity that tolerates ambiguity and risk, perseveres in overcoming obstacles, and seeks new experiences rather than conforming with the majority.

how does critical thinking apply?

a curious, scientific attitude challenges scientists (psychologists in this case) to think beyond the facts and question their information. this leads to new diagnoses, new treatments and furthermore, a wider body of knowledge that psychology is built upon.

achievement motivation

a desire for significant accomplishment: for mastery of things, people, or ideas; for attaining a high standard

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

cochlear implant

a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve through electrodes threaded into the cochlea

schizophrenia

a group of severe disorders characterized by disorganized and delusional thinking, disturbed perceptions, and inappropriate emotions and actions

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

relearning

a memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

how does flashbulb memory apply?

a memory whose exact details can be recited as if the event took place at that moment. examples include memories of 9/11, the Nazi invasion of Denmark, Princess Diana's death, or the birth of your firstborn child.

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. matching new items to this provides a quick and easy method for including items in a category

perceptual set

a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment.

intelligence test

a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. it is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system, and is linked to emotion.

serotonin

a neurotransmitter that affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal. when it is lacking, depression can occur. luckily, medications can be prescribed to raise these levels allowing for the individual to thrive once more.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.

suprachiasmatic nucleus

a pair of pinhead-sized clusters of 20,000 cells that control the circadian clock. when triggered, it causes the brain's pineal gland to decrease (in the morning) or increase (in the evening) in its production of the sleep-inducing hormone melatonin.

antisocial personality disorder

a personality disorder in which the person (usually a man) exhibits a lack of conscience for wrongdoing, even toward friends and family members. may be aggressive and ruthless or a clever con artist.

projective test

a personality test, such as the Rorschach or TAT, that provides ambiguous stimuli designed to trigger projection of one's inner dynamics

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

personality inventory

a questionnaire (often with true-false or agree-disagree items) on which people respond to items designed to gauge a wide range of feelings and behaviors; used to assess selected personality traits

mutation

a random error in gene replication that leads to a change

dissociative identity disorder (DID)

a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities. aka multiple personality disorder

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

self-concept

a sense of one's identity and personal worth

dream

a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passed through a sleeping person's mind. they are notable for their hallucinatory imagery, discontinuities, and incongruities, and for the dreamer's delusional acceptance of the content and later difficulties remembering it

role

a set of expectations about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave

gender role

a set of expected behaviors for males and females

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

reflex

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus

social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered.

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

factor analysis

a statistical procedure that proposes the dominant traits of an individual and relates them to their personality. Raymond Cattell assigned the name of this process "factor analysis" and used it to help him develop the 16 Personality Factor Inventory. he found that large groups of traits can be reduced to 16 core personality types based on statistical correlations; similar to Allport, he uses the idea of one basic/dominant trait to determine the corresponding superficial traits that branch off of it. this is not used too much anymore.

health psychology

a subfield of psychology that provides psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine

ecstasy (MDMA)

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen that produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in a particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

empirically derived test

a test (such as the MMPI) developed by testing a pool of items and then selecting those that discriminate between groups

aptitude test

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; the capacity to learn

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

signal detection theory

a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus ("signal") amid background stimulation ("noise"). assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue

angular gyrus

a third brain area involved in reading, where visual information is received, transformed into an auditory form, and sent off to Wernicke's area for its meaning to be derived. damage to this area leaves a person unable to read.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli; a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus; aka Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

positron emission tomography (PET) scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech, begins to develop around four months of age. children begin distinguishing different phonemes with the corresponding shape of the mouth that forms it.

Harry and Margaret Haslow

accidently came upon the idea of attachment when performing an experiment on monkeys; when producing two artificial mothers, they found that the monkeys were drawn to the mother that was softer and warmer than the other one

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

social intuitionist

account of morality stating that moral feelings precede moral reasoning

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing before the information is stored or forgotten

how does ADHD apply?

affecting 4% of children, this psychological disorder is classified by consistent patterns of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity. more often than not (approximately 2-3 x as much), boys are diagnosed with this disease (over girls). diagnosis varies across the world with this disorder. for many areas, people view hyperactivity and impulsivity as normal childish behavior; while other areas have scheduled disorder testing in schools for the children there. the question really comes down to whether or not the label is overused in normal energetic children who are just placed in a boring environment. research has found that this disorder is affected by biological factors, as it is heritable, and environmental factors, such as TV habits. despite this, sugar intake and poor education centers do not affect its development. often, children who suffer this disorder also deal with learning issues. medication can be prescribed to help victims. these medicines are stimulants that calm hyperactivity and increase attention span. research continues, as the prolonged effects of these drugs have not yet been confirmed.

how does aggression apply?

aggression can be greatly affected by both biological, psychological and social-cultural influences. the biology of aggression includes genetic influences, neural influences and biochemistry influences. for example, individuals with the y chromosome and high testosterone levels (young males) are more likely to behave aggressively. additionally, the brain has a certain area that controls aggressive behavior (the frontal lobe), so when this is damaged aggressive behavior is more prominent. the psychology of aggression includes averse events, where suffering unleashes anger, frustration and thus aggression; believing one has consumed alcohol; and dominating behavior, which increases testosterone levels in the blood. the social-cultural influence includes learning that aggression is rewarding, in situations where aggressive behavior leads to success; observing models of aggression, which diminish the severity of the actions; and acquiring social scripts that dictate how one should behave.

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

coping

alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods

anvil

also called the incus, a tiny bone that passes vibrations from the hammer to the stirrup

stirrup

also called the stapes, a tiny, U-shaped bone that passes vibrations from the anvil to the cochlea. it is the smallest bone in the human body.

how does conditioned reinforcer apply?

also known as secondary reinforcer, this type of reinforcer develops through associative learning. it relies on its relationship with basic needs satisfied by primary reinforcers. for example, had a red light been turned on right before food was given to the rat in Skinner's experiment, the light would have become the secondary reinforcer, influencing the rat to find a way to turn on the light. other reinforcers include money, good grades, and praise.

how does DSM-IV apply?

also known as the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, this book was instituted into the psychological world in 1994. it is very significant, as it provides five different axis points to help find the perfect diagnosis for those suffering from psychiatric disorders. the first axis asks if a clinical syndrome is present, the second asking if a personality disorder or mental retardation is present, the third asking if a general medical condition is present, the fourth asking if a psychological/environmental problem is present, and the last deciding the global assessment of the person's functioning. this diagnosis process is rather accurate; in fact, one study showed that 83% of patients were given the same diagnosis by two different psychologists who used the DSM-IV independently from each other. unfortunately, this method produces the labeling effect, where the thoughts and behaviors of victims can be interpreted different after diagnosed. recently, a new edition of this manual came out called the DSM-V. it is similar to the DSM-IV but has altered a few of the categories and added a few more disorders to the list.

how does delta wave apply?

also known as the slow-sleep waves, these occur during the third and fourth stages of the sleep cycle when you sleep deeply with very few external influences being able to wake you. near the end of these waves (that have been traced to last for around 30 minutes), individuals can start sleepwalking. around 20% of young children sleepwalk at least once in their lives.

quality

also known as timbre, this characteristic of sound allows for two objects to be distinguished from each other. for example, the sound of a zither and the sound of a guitar can be perceived as different with regards to this characteristic. it uses overtones to create distinctions between instruments.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

although defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100, it is now scored based on average ability starting at a value of 100.

how does functionalism apply?

although functionalism is no used to study the function of the human mind, it was used to determine how mental and behavioral processes function. it was significant as it changed psychology's focus to the study of observable behavior and contributed to the extent of understanding of the human mind.

how does evolutionary psychology apply?

although human differences are prevalent, the human genome is extremely similar - most likely a result of natural selection and human evolution. for example, humans tend to mate with those who are able to produce and nurture offspring. this allowed for certain traits to be avoided over the years and eventually led to the disappearance of some of them as only the individuals who were the most fit were selected by their partners. additionally, the adapted and loved taste of sweets and fats arouse when fats and sweets were necessary to keep the starving alive during famines. now, the love for this taste is still present, but the lack of substantial food is not, which contributes to the widespread obesity that has taken over the western hemisphere.

how does synapse apply?

although scientists once believed that axon terminals and dendrites were once fused to send messages efficiently, modern day studies show that the axon terminal is separated from the receiving dendrites by less than one millionth of an inch wide. psychologist, Charles Sherrington, called the area the "synapse" and the actual gap the "synaptic gap" or "cleft." because action potentials cannot cross the synaptic gap, neurotransmitters are used to cross the space and carry the message to and from neurons.

how does effortful processing apply?

although some information can be encoded and processed without our conscious awareness, many concepts need rehearsing and effort to become learned. Hermann Ebbinghaus performed an experiment where he created a small list of three letter words with two consonants on the outsides and a vowel in the middle. he found that the amount of words remembered depended on the amount of time spent learning the day before; therefore, overlearning increases retention. this supports the idea that practice makes perfect. by studying vocabulary words for AP Psychology a little bit every night, the retention will be longer, making it easier to score well on the tests.

how does altruism apply?

altruism describes situations where someone performs extraordinary and selfish acts of goodness to benefit his/her surroundings. often, this is contrary to social standards as it is natural for self-protection and self-benefits to rise above compassionate and selfless works.

saturation

amount of color and light in an image that contributes to its purity

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation

psychotherapy

an emotionally charged, confiding interaction between a trained therapist and someone who suffers from psychological difficulties

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior it follows

social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them

reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events

retrieval cues

anchor points you can use to access target information when you want to retrieve something. as the number of these increase, the ability to retrieve a memory increases. mnemonics are good examples of retrieval cues. the imagery associated with the word "shark" may help an individual to remember that he wanted to ask his mom if he could watch Soul Surfer with his friend later that weekend. similarly, the acronym ROY G BIV allows us to recall the different shades of visible light. other examples include those associated with sights, sounds, smells, tastes, places, foods -- smells are the strongest trigger of old memories. these cues are also affected by the context of a situation. if one is triggered by a retrieval cue in one room but has to move to another room to fulfill the duty, they may forget why they traveled to that room because the cue is no longer present.

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking

how does glial cells apply?

as the "neuron nannies," these cells lie in the cerebral cortex at a ratio of nine to one as compared to neurons. they guide neural connections, provide nutrients, insulate myelin, and clean up excess ions/neurotransmitters. some scientists believe that these cells are significant in learning and thinking; through their communication with neurons, they play a role in transmitting information and contributing to the memory. the number of these cells changes with the complexity of the individual; for example, rats have a much smaller glial cell:neuron ratio compared to humans. Einstein, too, was found to have a greater ratio of these molecules than in the average human's brain.

how does axon apply?

as the connection between the received message and the given message, this long extension can sometimes extend several feet throughout the body (i.e. the leg). it is placed in between the cell body/dendrites and the terminal buttons and is wrapped in the myelin sheath, which allows for the message to be sent quickly.

how does THC apply?

as the major active ingredient in marijuana, this substance is very significant. it produces very distinct effects that make it rather distinguishable from other substances. such effects can mimic depressants as they include relaxation, disinhibition, and euphoria; however, they can also mimic hallucinogens including effects of increasing sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. increasing the use of marijuana increases feelings at the time. for example, if an anxious and depressed individual starts using this drug, these feelings will intensify as usage increases. on the other hand, an individual who experiences nausea, pain, and weight loss associated with AIDS may experience relief from marijuana. unfortunately, marijuana also holds some negative effects including impairment of motor coordination, perceptual skills, reaction time, memory development, and immediate recollection. in the limbic system, frontal lobes, and motor cortex, scientists have found natural THC-like molecules that help control pain. unlike alcohol, THC and its by-products linger in the body for a long time, causing users to experience a high with small amounts of the drug.

how does amphetamine apply?

as the parent drug to methamphetamine, this particular stimulant can produce some pretty extreme results once ingested. it increases heart and breathing rates, causes pupils to dilate, appetite to decrease, blood sugar to increase, energy to rise, and self-confidence to improve. like all other drugs, withdrawal experiences can be painful, especially if an extreme physical or psychological dependency has developed.

creative intelligence

aspect of Sternberg's intelligence theory; demonstrated in reacting adaptively to novel situations and generating novel ideas

babbling stage

at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

how does fetus apply?

at this point in prenatal development, the organism's human features can be easily distinguished, explaining why the term for this is Latin for "offspring" or "young one." the organism is classified under this title for about six months (from the nine week mark until birth). by the sixth month of development, the organs have completely formed and are able to function (which is why many premature babies born after the sixth month are still able to survive). this month also marks the time when the child starts to recognize sounds, particularly that of his/her mother's muffled voice.

how does blind spot apply?

because of the lack of receptor cells where the optic nerve leaves the eye, a blind spot is created in our vision. usually, eyes are moving so fast and are working together to pick up details the other may have missed, the blind spot does not impair vision.

how does retinal disparity apply?

because our eyes are spaced a few inches apart, they take in slightly different information. this disparity is taken into account when the brain compares the information. it gives clues to how far objects are from ourselves. as distance increases, disparity decreases. 3-D images take this disparity into account by setting up two different cameras they mimic the right and left eye.

two-word stage

beginning at age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements

genes

biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; a segment of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience

how do equity/self-disclosure apply?

both equity and self-disclosure are necessary to building a healthy relationship (companionate love). equity requires effort from the partners, which ensures that the two acknowledge that they want the relationship to continue even though they understand it means sacrifice. self-disclosure bonds the two partners as intimacy breeds liking and liking breeds intimacy. when one responds positively (supportive) to another's intimate ideas/experiences/emotions, the other feels appreciated and understood, thus creating a stronger bond among the two individuals.

psychiatry

branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy

counseling psychology

branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (school, work, marriage) and in achieving greater well-being

clinical psychology

branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders

papillae

bumps on the tongue that aid in grabbing food and detecting its taste (contain taste buds)

how does grammar apply?

by combining the ideas of semantics and syntax, a set of rules can be formed (called grammar) for a language to thrive. these rules often vary from culture to culture. because of this, bilingual people can often be mistaken as uneducated if they fail to follow the standard grammatical rules, as they may mistake the syntax of two different phrases as equally grammatically acceptable. for example, the phrase "ain't got none" may seem to have the same syntax as "doesn't have anything." despite these differences, scientist Noam Chomsky believed that there is a common grammatical structure among all languages, that includes nouns and verbs, subjects and objects, questions and negations, as he concludes that it is impossible to communicate without these basic linguistic assets.

stressful life events

catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

George A. Miller

cognitive psychologist who stressed the 7 +-2 idea with short-term memory; believed in the idea of recoding information; came up with TOTE (a theory on how humans pursue and carry out goals)

automatic nervous system

controls physiological arousal. its sympathetic division is in charge of alerting the body by dilating its pupils, decreasing salivation, increasing perspiration, increasing respiration, accelerating heart rates, inhibiting digestion, and secreting stress hormones from the adrenal glands. this is the fight-or-flight response that is necessary to handle some situations. the other division, the parasympathetic division, calms the body. with this, pupils contract, salivation increases, skin dries out, respiration decreases, heart rate slows, digestion becomes activated, and adrenal glands decrease their secretion of stress hormones. these areas of the nervous system is very important in controlling performance levels; low levels of arousal aid in difficult tasks while high levels of arousal aid in easy tasks.

how does operant chamber apply?

designed by Skinner, this box allowed for external environmental factors to be controlled during behavioral experiments. it contained a bar/key that could be controlled by the animals inside to release positive reinforcements, such as food and water, which aided in strengthening desired behaviors. outside the box, technology allowed for measurements to be taken of the animal's responses.

William James

developed fundamentalism, pragmatism, and James-Lange emotion theory. Also initiated idea of stream of consciousness, where conscious ideas flow from one idea to the next

how does self-concept apply?

developing throughout childhood, this sense of one's identity is very influential in behavior and self-awareness. Darwin believed that self-awareness begins when we are able to understand that a mirrored image of ourselves is us (often around 18 months). by the time children start attending school, they are able to talk about themselves in terms of their gender, psychological traits and group affiliations. once the age of 8-10 is reached, self-images become pretty stable. those who form positive self-images are confident, independent, optimistic, assertive, and socialable. some wonder whether or not parenting styles can affect self-image.

bulimia nervosa

eating disorder characterized by episodes of overeating, usually of high-calorie foods, followed by vomiting, laxative use, fasting, or excessive exercise

how do experimental/control conditions and random assigning apply?

experimental and control conditions can be paired together to create a double-blind procedure. by randomly assigning experimental and control conditions to different patients, the variation among the two groups can be guaranteed identical.

social anxiety

fear of any situation in which public scrutiny may occur, usually with the fear of behaving in a way that is embarrassing or humiliating

alarm

first step in GAS where an individual experiences sudden activation of the sympathetic nervous system. in this, heart rate increases, blood is diverted to skeletal muscles, and shock starts to kick in.

fissures

folds within the cerebral cortex; prominent ones produce the divisions of the four main lobes

Gustav Fechner

founded psychophysics and initiated experimental procedures that measured sensation

genital stage

from puberty until death, individuals find themselves in this stage where their sexual interests mature.

individualism

giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications

cilia

hair cells within the ear. when damaged, hearling loss results

John B. Watson

headed up the "little Albert" experiment, initiated school of behaviorism

sensorineural hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or to the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness

conduction hearing loss

hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word

how does dualism apply?

in believing that the mind and body are two distinct entities that interact, these individuals support the idea of spiritual near-death experiences because they believe that the mind is nonphysical and completely separate from the body. they tend to view death as a person's liberation from the bodily prison.

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of exploring the unconscious in which the person relaxes and says whatever comes to mind, no matter how trivial or embarrassing

how does sensorimotor stage apply?

in this first stage in childhood cognitive development (which lasts from birth to 2 years old), children learn through sensory and motor interactions, especially those that revolve around looking, hearing, touching, tasting, and grasping. Piaget found that children under the 8 months of age lack object permanence, which rationalizes why children only cry for a second or two after taking a toy away from them. stranger anxiety starts to develop during this time, around the same time that infants grasp object permanence. some psychologists reject Piaget's ideas revolving around this stage, as they believe that infants are competent enough to think on their own.

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. distinct from punishment

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

how does retrieval apply?

like any computer-system, this process is very important in allowing for the memories to be accessed after they have been stored away. as we age, memory accessibility starts to diminish, leading to forgetfulness.

how does reticular formation apply?

lying between the ears inside the brainstem, this nerve network helps to connect the spinal cord to the thalamus (which lies right above it). because of this, sensory information that travels through the spinal cord travels through this network, allowing for incoming stimuli to be filtered and relayed to other areas of the brain. studies show that this area is significant in arousal; one experiment showed that a cat whose network was severed fell into a deep coma, never to wake up again. within this area of the brainstem, neurons are active, aiding in relaxation.

independent variable

manipulated variable whose effect is being studied

hypochondriasis

misinterpreting normal physical sensations as symptoms of a disease

how does naturalistic observation apply?

naturalistic observation is a beneficial research method that seeks to describe behavior rather than explain it. it often leads to further research through the questions it prompts.

how does the social learning theory apply?

often created by parents, this theory explains why children develop certain qualities of their designated gender. sayings like "big boys don't cry" or "you're such a good mommy to your dolls" explain why male toughness (resistance to express emotion) and female sensitivity arise.

how does the double-blind procedure apply?

often, double-blind procedures are used in drug studies. the advantage of these procedures is that users and staff cannot fall under misconception as to whether the treatment is successful or not because they are unaware as to what type of drug they are receiving (placebo/actual treatment).

gender identity

one's sense of being male or female

identity

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

how do operational definitions and replications apply today?

operational definitions are used by psychologists to report their research. they are worded in such a way that other psychologists could potentially replicate their experiment. if the experiment results are similar, the confidence in the reliability of the phenomenon grows.

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment

how does interaction apply?

our genes and environment are constantly interacting to produce behaviors, attitudes and personality traits. often, our genes provide a template and environmental factors pick what traits, attitudes and behaviors rise to the surface of our disposition.

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

adaptation-level phenomenon

our tendency to form judgments (of sounds, of lights, of income) relative to a neutral level defined by our prior experience

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

central nervous system (CNS)

part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

part of the nervous system that consists of the sensory and motor neurons, which connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

precognition

perceiving future events, such as a sporting event's outcome or a political candidate's death

memory

persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

cognitive perspective

perspective that describes how information is encoded, processed, stored and retrieved

humanistic perspective

perspective that describes how love and acceptance/connection are obtained by every individual

volley principle

principle of sound stating that neural cells can alternate firing off impulses to the brain. with the frequency theory, scientists have helped rationalize how sounds with a frequency higher than 1000 waves per second can be interpreted by the brain.

how does repression apply?

proposed by Freud, this concept stipulates that certain, unpleasant, traumatic memories will be repressed by the individual in order to maintain well-being. for example, victims of abuse, rape, and witnessing murder/fatal car-accidents would be believed to repress these thoughts. few agree with this idea any more because it is unnatural to repress anything for too long.

susto

psychological disorder marked by severe anxiety, restlessness, and a fear of black magic; common in Latin America

taijin-kyofusho

psychological disorder that combines social anxiety about one's appearance with a readiness to blush and a fear of eye contact; common in Japan

anxiety disorder

psychological disorders characterized by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety

mood disorder

psychological disorders characterized by emotional extremes. includes major depressive disorder, mania, and bipolar disorder

biological maturation

rapid development of the cerebellum at the back of the brain that creates readiness to learn in infants

cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. they detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations

residual schizophrenia

schizophrenia that includes withdrawal, after hallucinations and delusions have disappeared

behavior genetics

science that studies our differences and weigh the relative effects of heredity and environment

mood linkage

sharing up and down moods with others unconsciously

Albert Bandura

social learning theory, where individuals learn from observation; supported modeling. Famous experiment with Bobo dolls

how does norm apply?

social norms dictate the lifestyle of its members. they determine how a person should approach life and what goals/values should be attained. the difference in social norms across the world correspondingly effect personal identities. because norms may change over time, it is important to remember that the human gene pool cannot always be attributed to this change as it evolves much slower than norms do.

conditioned reinforcer

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

positive reinforcer

stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

negative reinforcer

stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

personnel psychology

subfield of industrial-organizational psychology that focuses on employee recruitment, selection, placement, training, appraisal, and development

psychosurgery

surgery that removes or destroys brain tissue in an effort to change behavior

how do surveys, random sampling and wording effects apply?

surveys are a common method of studying the self-reported behavior of others. however, they are only successful if a random sample is surveyed (so that the range in results is well-represented) and the audience comprehends the wording effectively (if not, the responses could be swayed). additionally, the person who is surveying the participants and the effect certain vocabulary words (jargon) has on the participants may sway the survey results.

aerobic exercise

sustained exercise that increases heart and lung fitness; may also alleviate stress, depression, and anxiety. because exercise increases the secretion of mood-altering chemicals in the brain (norepinephrine, serotonin, endorphins), improves cognition and memory, and promotes the growth of new brain cells, scientists believe emotions are significantly affected by it.

Type B

term to describe those who are easygoing and relaxed people. when subjected to challenging situations, they remain calm.

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations

gender-typing

the acquisition of traditional masculine or feminine role

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

criterion

the behavior that a test is designed to predict; the measure used in defining whether the test has predictive validity

gender

the biologically and socially influenced characteristics by which people define male and female

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible

basal metabolic rate

the body's resting rate of energy expenditure

personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around ourselves

middle ear

the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window

coronary heart disease

the clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the automatic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations.

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the automatic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy.

deja vu

the eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a two week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo

selective attention

the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus, as in the cocktail party effect

sexual response cycle

the four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson - excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)

the most widely researched and clinically used of all personality tests. originally developed to identify emotional disorders (still considered its most appropriate use), this test is now used for many other screening purposes.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing

frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration (the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal) creates anger, which can generate aggression

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs

empiricism

the view that knowledge comes from experience via the senses and that science stems from observation and experiment

how do mean, mode, median, and range apply?

these measures of variation/central tendency are common tools to report information. one must be careful when deciphering statistics as media and precise syntax can make a value seem like the mode when it is really an extreme-altered mean.

how do X/Y chromosomes apply?

these sex chromosomes determine the gender of the child; two x chromosomes produce a female, while one x and one y chromosome produce a male. they determine the sex hormones that are produced in the body of the individual, which lead to general differences in behaviors of the two. when sex hormone levels are thrown off, so are the corresponding behaviors and attitudes of the individual causing changes in societal acceptance and personal ideas of their gender.

how does projective test apply?

these tests are used to reveal inner conflicts or feelings present within the unconscious area of an individual. in a way, it's kind of like a psychological x-ray. for this reason, the x-ray must look beyond the surface of the person, so multiple choice and true-false questions are not sufficient for this type of test. instead, a stimulus is presented with no significant meaning behind it, so that any comments about the image would stem from the individual's unconscious ideas. some types of these tests include the thematic apperception test or the rorschach inkblot test.

how do individualism/collectivism apply?

these two contrasting ways of viewing oneself contribute to the corresponding social norms and values within their societies. for example, individualism honors independence, personal achievement/fulfillment, self-esteem, temporary relationships, and uniqueness; collectivism recognizes interdependence, long-lasting relationships, harmony, group goals, solidarity, social responsibilities, familial duty and social norms. these different cultural ideas reflect in a person's way of viewing himself/herself and often affect their social behaviors.

how does collective unconscious apply?

this Jung-inspired idea extended the original function of the unconscious. it challenged Freud's beliefs by stating that there was a common reservoir of images derived from inherited experiences; for example, it clarified why spiritual beliefs were deeply rooted within family traditions and why various cultures shared similar symbols, images, and myths. although this idea is not completely accepted by psychologists, they do acknowledge that evolution has allowed for certain universal dispositions to have developed.

choice blindness

this consequence of a dual-track mind occurs when our brains fail to make distinguishments between various choices placed before us. for example, in tasting different brands of a particular food, it may be difficult to determine the name brand product from the original one.

how does iris apply?

this muscle is very important. it adjusts the amount of light taken in by dilating and constricting. it does this in response to light intensity and inner feelings (some one who is in love has dilated pupils). everyone's iris is unique, allowing for scanning it to help identify someone.

how does the just-world phenomenon apply?

this phenomenon gives reason to the world events around us and often is comforting as one believes that it could not happen to them. for example, many justify their prejudice by blaming the victims. it is easy to assume that those who succeed are good people and those who suffer are bad. viewing the rich and the poor as deserving of their social status falls under this category.

how does sleep apply?

this state of mind is unable to be identified until we leave it. it allows for our mind and physical bodies to relax and re-energize for the next day's adventures. over the past half-century, this state has been broken into several 90-minute stages. the first one is weak, as it is easy for an individual to be awoken while in it. hallucinations often take place here. the second stage, often consisting of spindles (or bursts of activity) occurs for about 20 minutes. nonsensical sleep talking can take place during this stage. next, the third and fourth stage start taking shape. delta waves play a strong role in these stages, causing a deep, deep sleep for about 30 minutes. sleepwalking occurs near the end of this stage. finally, after spending a great deal of time in these stages, your body enters into REM sleep for about ten minutes when your heart rises, breathing increases abnormally, and eye movement changes distinctly. it controls the emotional, story-like, and hallucinatory dreams that we experience during the night. as the night continues, the REM sleep stage increases in length, while the fourth stage of deep sleep decreases in length. in total, about 100 minutes (20-25% of the night's sleep) is taken up by REM sleep. finally, some experiments show that we only respond to certain stimuli during our sleep cycle. for example, parents are immediately woken to the sound of their infant crying from across the hall; however, may miss entirely the loud thunderstorm taking place for an hour and a half. it goes to show that we process a lot of information outside of our conscious awareness.

how does major depressive disorder apply?

this type of mood disorder is classified by prolonged sadness. although depression itself is rather common, as it is the number one reason that people seek mental health assistance, this disorder is not quite as prevalent. because depression is a natural part of living (as family members pass away, grades can sometimes fall, and people can sometimes be mean), everyone usually experiences its symptoms to some degree. however, once symptoms of lethargy, worthless feelings, and disinterest in hobbies start holding their ground for more than two weeks, this disorder is diagnosed. unfortunately, once developed, victims can fall into a deep cycle that is difficult to escape: stressful events are interpreted though a negative explanatory style which then create a hopeless depressed state that hampers the way the person behaves. this cycle continues as experiences arise and are interpreted negatively.

how does bipolar disorder apply?

this type of mood disorder occurs when the person alternates between manic and depressed states of being. for this reason, symptoms align with those of mania and major depressive disorder. unfortunately, with moods swinging so drastically, it is hard to keep people to stay on their medications because once they start feeling normal again, it becomes very tempting to stop taking the medication. two types of this disease exist: bipolar 1 and bipolar 2. bipolar 1 is more severe, with symptoms lasting for one week or more of each mood. sometimes hospitalization is necessary to get the condition under control. bipolar 2 is less severe, with the individual going into a hypomania state.

how does extrinsic motivation apply?

this type of motivation comes from external factors, like money, awards, praise, and grades. in playing a sport, an athlete who is extrinsically motivated (for scholarship money or trophies) may not enjoy the game or the challenge of practices as much as some of their teammates who are intrinsically motivated. those who are rewarded for doing something by external factors do not put as much time into the task as their intrinsically motivated counterparts.

how does intrinsic motivation apply?

this type of motivation is rooted at the core of one's interests, desires, and goals. in playing a sport, an athlete who is intrinsically motivated wants the challenge, enjoyment, interest, and self-expression that comes from the game. they are often more motivated to work hard and maximize their potential. the amount of time spent on the task increases with this type of motivation compared to its external counterpart.

how does fixed-interval schedule apply?

this type of reinforcement schedule often produces choppy, inconsistent responses. as the reward approaches, responses increase. for example, near the time when mail is delivered, home owners increase the amount of times they go check the mailbox. after the reward is administered, responses decrease for some time.

hammer, anvil, and stirrup

tiny bones within middle ear

fraternal twins

twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs; they are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but share a fetal environment

identical twins

twins who develop from the same fertilized egg that splits in half, creating two genetically identical organisms

Stanley Schachter

two factor theory of emotions, stating that emotion is based on two factors: physiological arousal and cognitive label

bipolar cell

type of cell neighboring rods and cones that is activated by neural impulses created from a photochemical reaction that takes place in the rods/cones. it then activates ganglion cells.

how does withdrawal apply?

unfortunately, drugs and alcohol often leave behind uncomfortable results when they are discontinued, making these addictions very difficult to break. physical and psychological dependencies to these substances produce different effects when usage has ended.

discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group or its members

altruism

unselfish regard that benefits others

psychokinesis

"mind over matter" events, such as levitating a table or influencing the role of dice

endorphins

"morphine within" natural, opiatelike neurotransmitter linked to pain control and pleasure

cochlea

a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear through which sound waves trigger nerve impulses

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. it contrasts with the usually quicker and more inaccurate use of heuristics

emotion

a response of the whole organism; involves physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience

taste

also known as gustation, this sense is very important. the sensations are broken down into five subsections: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, and unami. saliva is very significant in developing these different sensations. the tongue is the main muscle involved in this sense, as it contains many important receptors. despite this, individuals without a tongue can still detect this sense through the receptors located on the roof of their mouth.

how do superordinate goals apply?

because conflict is so prevalent within the world, different cooperation tactics have been developed to reduce the tension. superordinate goals help different cultures, nations and communities come together to find a solution that would benefit both groups. this is significant because it helps groups look past the differences that separate them and instead focus on their cooperative solution.

Henry Murray

developed TAT projective test

Charles Spearman

developed general intelligence theory - he grouped natural abilities into common clusters, such as spatial ability factor and reasoning ability factor

agoraphobia

fear of situations in which escape might be difficult or help unavailable when panic strikes

Abraham Maslow

humanistic psychologist who based his theory on the idea of "self-actualization" with a hierarchy of needs pyramid

inferiority complex

idea proposed by Alfred Adler that states people feel inferior when they are young to authority, so when they grow older, they overcompensate and become "superior"

repression

in the psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing feelings, thoughts, and memories from consciousness.

self-actualization needs

need to live up to one's fullest and unique potential

obesity

occurs in people with a body mass index of 30% or more; tendency for an increased risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, sleep disorders, arthritis, and certain types of cancer to come with this

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

adaptability

our capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances

confounding variable

outside variable that causes change in the dependent variable (not the independent variable)

clairvoyance

perceiving remote events, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire

stroboscopic movement

phenomenon where the brain perceives continuous movement in a rapid series of slightly varying images

longitudinal study

research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect

menarche

the first menstrual period

inner ear

the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs

social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence and relate to one another; studies social influences that help explain why the same person acts differently in different situations

how does operant behavior apply?

this type of behavior applies to operant conditioning, as it deals with the relationship between behavior, its environment, and corresponding consequences. when operant behavior produces reinforcing responses, the behavior strengthens. however, when followed by punishment, the behavior weakens.

how does explicit memory apply?

this type of memory allows for an individual to consciously recall facts and experiences, including memories of going to the beach, of who is the current president, and of where their favorite restaurant is located. because this area deals with conscious recollection, amnesia victims lose connection with this type of memory.

semicircular canals

three loops of fluid filled tubes that are attached to the cochlea in the inner ear. they help maintain a sense of balance.

how does vestibular sense apply?

working with kinesthesis, this sense is important in maintaining internal balance while the body is positioned or moving. it works with the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs located in the inner ear. when the head rotates or tilts, fluid within the cochlea moves around stimulating the cilia and thus neural receptors that send messages to the cerebellum, allowing balance to be monitored.

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development

1. infancy (birth - 1 yr.): individuals strive to develop trust, which can form between an infant and its parents when basic needs are met 2. toddlerhood ( 1 - 2 yr.): individuals strive to form their independence, as made clear by tasks that they learn to perform on their own. if this is not developed, children doubt their abilities. 3. preschooler (3 - 5 yr.): individuals gain initiative in performing and carrying out tasks. if they do not follow through with them, they feel guilty. 4. elementary school (6 yr. - puberty): individuals strive for competence, as they learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks. if this is not accomplished, they feel inferior 5. adolescence (puberty - 20s): individuals struggle to find their identity. they test different roles and integrate them to form a single identity. if this does not take place, the teenagers become confused. 6. young adulthood (20s -early 40s): individuals struggle to form close relationships and develop intimate love. if this does not happen, they feel socially isolated. 7. middle adulthood (40s - 60s): individuals start discovering a sense of contribution to the world through their family or work life. if this does not happen, they may feel stagnated. 8. late adulthood (60s - death): individuals start reflecting on their life and either develop a sense of satisfaction or failure.

how does unconscious apply?

Freud believed that beneath the surface of a person was a large mass of profound wishes, feelings, and memories of which they are unaware. although some can be stored in a preconscious area (retrieved during dreams or through conscious thoughts), most remains deeply repressed in a place that Freud wanted to access. he believed that unfavorable experiences that induce fear would be repressed to this stage, leading to anxiety and physical abnormalities. because victims are often unaware of this repression, Freud developed various treatment options to help individuals access this area and relieve some of their troubling symptoms.

how does psychosexual stages apply?

Freud believed that in order for children to fully develop psychologically, they must past through a series of stages. he developed this idea after examining some patients who seemed to have unresolved conflicts from childhood, as he believed that without a complete development in certain areas, individuals will suffer certain consequences. these stages include the oral stage, anal stage, phallic stage, latency stage, and genital stage. he believed that the diversity regarding the development of these stages leads to differences between personalities.

general adaptation syndrome

Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three stages - alarm, resistance, exhaustion

flow

a completely involved, focused state of consciousness, with diminished awareness of self and time, resulting from optimal engagement of one's skills

instinct

a complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species and is unlearned

DNA

a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

farsightedness

a condition in which faraway objects are seen more clearly than near objects because the image of near objects is focused behind the retina

split brain

a condition in which the two hemispheres of the brain are isolated by cutting the connectory fibers (mainly those of the corpus callous) between them

mental retardation

a condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score of 70 or below and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life; varies from mild to profound

down syndrome

a condition of retardation and associated physical disorders caused by an extra chromosome in one's genetic makeup

limbic system

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus.

dysthmia

a down-in-the-dumps mood that fills most of the day, nearly every day, for two years of more. symptoms include chronic low energy and self-esteem, lack of concentration on certain tasks, failure to make decisions, and abnormal sleeping/eating habits.

neo-freudians

a group of psychologists who accepted Freud's basic psychological ideas (regarding the id, superego, ego, significance of unconscious, shaping of personality in childhood, and various defense mechanisms), but rejected his ideas on aggression and sexual impulses as motivation for everything, and rejected his lack of study on experience's role in coping with environmental factors. such psychologists include Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, and Carl Jung.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within three to four seconds.

major depressive disorder

a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or a medical condition, two or more weeks of significantly depressed moods, feelings of worthlessness, and diminished interest or pleasure in most activities

bipolar disorder

a mood disorder in which the person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. used to be called manic-depressive disorder

dopamine

a neurotransmitter that aids in movement, learning, attention, and emotion. when it is produced in excess, schizophrenia can occur; when it is lacking, parkinson's disease can occur.

acetylcholine (ACh)

a neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

norepinephrine

a neurotransmitter that helps control alertness and arousal. without enough of this molecule, mood depressions can occur.

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued

phrenology

a popular but ill-fated theory that claimed bumps on the skull could reveal our mental abilities and our character traits; developed by Franz Gall in the early 1800s

cognitive-behavior therapy

a popular integrated therapy that combines cognitive therapy (changing self-defeating thinking) with behavior therapy (changing behavior)

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with a quickening in body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, it appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

alzheimer's disease

a progressive and irreversible brain disorder characterized by gradual deterioration of memory, reasoning, language, and physical functioning

thematic apperception test

a projective test in which people express their inner feelings and interests through the stories they make up about ambiguous scenes

attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a psychological disorder marked by the appearance by age seven of one or more of three key symptoms: extreme inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

iris

a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening

tinnitus

a ringing-in-the-ear sensation that can occur to those who are deaf; similar to phantom limb sensations that amputees experience

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. the sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative random sample of them

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue; allows us to see structures within the brain

how does positive psychology apply?

a type of psychology that is scientifically focused on strength and virtue as well as its weakness and damage. this explains why fifteenth-century Florence, with its great art, was successful; why Victorian England, with its prevalent traits of honor, duty and discipline, was successful; and why Athens, with its democratic government and philosophy, was successful. Martin Seligman is devoted to bringing this type of thinking back to the world today, in order to initiate a better happiness, health, and success through its optimistic and determined ways. the three pillars of this idea are positive emotions, positive character, and positive groups, communities and cultures.

statistical analysis

ability for infants to distinctly differentiate between various phonemes of human speech. they have incredible insight to which syllables most often are paired together to form logical words. unfortunately, a lack of exposure to various types of phonemes within a language quickly leads to losing this innate gift. for this reason, adults have a difficult time distinguishing the differences between the most basic phonemes of foreign languages.

productive language

ability to produce words, begins after the child's receptive language has matured. this stage includes the babbling stage, one-word stage, two-word stage, and telegraphic speech.

how does intimacy apply?

according to Erikson's theory, a desire for this starts developing once one's identity has been formed. this occurs because once you know who you are, you are ready to form close relationships with others. some experiments have found teenagers to be the unhappiest when alone and happiest when with others showing that humans are social animals.

oedipus complex

according to Freud, a boy's sexual desires toward his mother and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

electra complex

according to Freud, a girl's sexual desires toward her father and feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival mother

fixation

according to Freud, a lingering focus of pleasure-seeking energies at an earlier psychosexual stage, in which conflicts were unresolved

how does unconditional positive regard apply?

according to Rogers, this idea is produced by acceptance, which in turn nurtures growth. this attitude exhibits grace and respect and value toward us despite our failures. often, this can be found in intimate relationships, strong marriages, or close families, where we can express our deepest concerns, opinions, or fears and still be loved and accepted (companionate love).

profound mental retardation

affecting about 1-2% of the mental retardation population, these individuals score below a 20 on their intelligence tests. they constantly require support and assistance because they cannot do nearly anything independently.

severe mental retardation

affecting about 3-4% of the mental retardation population, these individuals score between a 20-30 on their intelligence tests. they may learn to talk and perform simple tasks with assistance, but are unable to do many tasks that require training.

mild mental retardation

affecting about 85% of the mental retardation population, these individuals score between a 50-70 on their intelligence tests. they are able to develop academic skills up to about a sixth grade level and achieve social and vocational skills (with assistance) as an adult.

how does psychological disorder apply?

affecting approximately 450 million people worldwide, this type of disorder is very serious. there are many different branches of this type of disorder, ranging from anxiety to depression to schizophrenia. the latter two, depression and schizophrenia, affect all cultures. this is significant because the parameters that diagnose the mental health conditions vary from culture to culture based on social norms. time periods also affect diagnosis, which explains why systems created to help organize mental health issues are altered every few years to accommodate the changing times. three major categories behaviors must fall under are deviant, distressful, and dysfunctional. the biopsychosocial approach helps determine origins of the disorders and how to treat them.

how does hue apply?

affecting color perception, this is determined by wavelength. colors with shorter wavelengths have stronger blue hues while colors with longer wavelengths tend to have stronger red hues.

how does night terror apply?

affecting mostly children, this sleep dysfunction causes victims to experience an increased heart/breathing rate, sleepwalking, sleep-talking, and terrified outrage. unlike nightmares, these often take place during the first few hours of stage four and are not remembered the following morning. as we age, the probability of these decreases because the amount of time spent in stage four decreases.

how does partial reinforcement apply?

also known as intermittent reinforcement, this type of reinforcement is found in everyday life where responses are irregularly given. however, because the reward has taken place before, individuals persist in their behavior. once initial learning takes place (where the behavior and response are conditioned together; often takes longer with partial reinforcement vs. continuous reinforcement), evidence of the conditioning hardly diminishes. this explains why gambling can become so addictive. even though the gamblers know that rewards are unlikely, they continue to persist because of previous experiences of winning. there are four schedules of partial reinforcement: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-interval.

smell

also known as olfaction, this sense is made possible by the five million receptors located in the nasal cavity. when odorants link to the receptors, the olfactory receptor cells are activated and send electrical signals to the brain. from here, the signals are relayed via converged axons, which can then be transmitted to higher regions of the brain by the olfactory bulb. this sense is not quite as precise as other senses, like vision and hearing. for this reason, it takes many receptor cells to detect odor molecules. through many different combinations of these nasal receptor cells, over 10,000 odors can be detected. the four primary odors are acidic (sour), burnt, fragrant (sweet), and caprylic (rancid, rotten). because the region within the brain that deals with smells is close to the limbic system and taste detecting area, smell influences taste and triggers strong memories.

how does REM sleep apply?

also known as rapid eye movement sleep, this stage in the sleep cycle was discovered by Eugene Aserinsky when he was testing his newly repaired electroencephalograph on his sleeping son. he found that every ninety minutes or so, the graph would go wild, as the extreme zigzags would be traced onto the graph paper. when the son woke up, he reported having strange dreams, rationalizing Eugene's findings. now scientists know that this entails an increased heart rate, abnormal changes in breathing patterns, and distinct eye movements. in fact, these eye movements are so distinct that anyone observing a sleeping individual in this sleep stage can physically observe the strange twitches. along with these things, genital stimulation occurs during this stage despite whether or not the dream's content is sexual. dreams also take place during this stage. if one is woken during this cycle, they are more likely to recall a dream. even more interestingly, the body remains mostly paralyzed during this stage. some even refer to it as paradoxical sleep because the mind is aroused and the body is calm.

how does barbiturate apply?

also known as tranquilizers, these depressants mimic the effects of alcohol, depressing the nervous system. sometimes they are prescribed to reduce anxiety or help with sleep; however, too much can lead to impaired memory and judgment abilities. in fact, sufficient doses can result in death, especially when paired with alcohol. examples include Nembutal, Seconal, and Amytal.

how does ecstasy apply?

also referred to as MDMA, this strong stimulant also falls under the category of hallucinogens. this drug triggers the release of dopamine, like amphetamines. it is best known for its release of serotonin and blocked reabsorption, which leads to a lengthened period of euphoria. this explains why many experience emotional elevation and a feeling of connection with everyone around them when taking this drug at a club. the side effects of this drug are not so pleasant: dehydration, overheating, increased blood pressure and death (short-term); damage to serotonin producing neurons, reduced serotonin levels, potential risk of permanently depressed moods, issues with the circadian clock, suppressing the immune system, and impairing cognitive and memory functions (long-term).

relaxation procedures

alternative to biofeedback that helps alleviate stress. those who are experienced mediators are capable of decreasing blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing rate. when relaxing, the parietal lobe is less active while the frontal lobe is more active (and focused).

consequences of dual-track mind

although it allows us to multitask, our dual-track minds also have some downfalls, as they cause us to fall victim to blindsight, selective attention, and inselective attention (with examples including inattentional blindness, change blindness, and choice blindness). these consequences often entail missing obvious details; this occurs when our brain deems these things insignificant and fails to focus on them.

animal language debate

although it is clear that animals communicate with one another, scientists continue to debate whether or not they develop their own language. recent studies have shown that apes have the ability to learn sign language from researchers and communicate with them, as their basic communication within their own species stems from these spatial movements. some even believe that human capability to develop a spoken language may have stemmed from these basic movements, as spatial movement is still vital to communication mechanisms today. along with this, apes have been found able to string a list of various words together creatively to communicate their thoughts, needs and wants. however, other scientists counter that the researchers distinguished their communication mechanisms as the ability to develop language because of wishful thinking. additionally, their adaption to vocabulary differs from their ability to adapt grammatical rules... so this debate basically comes down to the accepted definition of language, whether it includes the ability to communicate through signed expressions of complex grammar or merely through a meaningful sequence of symbols.

how does attachment apply?

although many psychologists believed that children became attached to those who satisfied their need for nourishment for many years, an accidental experiment proved otherwise. when Harry and Margaret Harlow bred monkeys for their learning studies, they realized that they became extremely attached to small cloth blankets. after further experimentation with two artificial mothers (one who was covered in cloth and another who was made of wire and wood), the monkeys became attached to the softer one, showing that infants develop affection for the rocking, warmth, comfort, and feeling of their mothers. soothing touch that parents provide for their children while young helps develop a strong emotional communication between the two. parents provide their children with a safe haven when distressed and a secure base to explore. as children age, these bases/havens shift to peers and eventually spouses. familiarity also breeds attachment, which often forms during a critical period, as shown by kids' love for rereading books, rewatching old movies, and spending time with the same group of people. imprinting also plays a role in developing this connection for animals (but not for kids). sadly, a lack of attachment leads to many awful consequences. often forming from neglectful, abusive parents, those who lack attachment are more likely to suffer anxiety, low amounts of serotonin, depression, and substance abuse than others. furthermore, those who were unloved can develop into the unloving, passing on their parents' style of raising them to their own children. despite this, many victims of neglect become resilient and are able to develop into normal adults. furthermore, disrupting attachment between infants and their mothers can lead to unfortunate consequences, like abnormal eating/sleeping patterns. foster programs where the children move around between families often can be very disruptive. even those adopted after the age of 2 can suffer separation distress for prolonged periods of time.

how does teratogen apply?

although the child is able to be protected from most chemicals by the placenta, some can slip by causing the child harm during his/her prenatal development. for example, mothers who are addicted to heroin while pregnant will give birth to infants who are also addicted to this substance because he/she was exposed to the drug during prenatal development. similarly, mothers who smoke during pregnancy will prohibit her fetus from receiving some necessary nutrients, causing them to be born underweight.

how does addiction apply?

although this compulsive drug craving and usage makes withdrawal extremely uncomfortable and difficult to maintain for long periods of time, many psychologists believe that pop culture has exaggerated the side effects of this problem too far. they claim that the following myths are false: addictive drugs quickly corrupt, causing users to fall under their control almost immediately after experimentation; addictions cannot be overcome without therapy; the idea of addiction can cover the entire spectrum of pleasure-seeking behaviors. rather, they have found that only 15% of cocaine users become addicted after ten years of first using it, which shows that very few people struggle with controlling their addictions. they also add that those who use drugs for medical purposes rarely become addicted to them.

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

electroencephalogram

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that asweep across the brain's surface. these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

an anxiety disorder characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience

obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

an anxiety disorder characterized by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions) and/or actions (compulsions)

generalized anxiety disorder

an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal

phobia

an anxiety disorder marked by a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object or situation

panic disorder

an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person experiences terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations

virtual reality exposure therapy

an anxiety treatment that progressively exposes people to simulations of their greatest fears, such as airplane flying, spiders, or public speaking

eclectic approach

an approach to psychotherapy that, depending on the client's problems, uses techniques from various forms of therapy

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

phi phenomenon

an illusion of movement created when two or more adjacent lights blink on and off in quick succession

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

biopsychosocial approach

an integrated perspective that includes biological, psychological and social-cultural levels of analysis

behavioral medicine

an interdisciplinary field that integrates behavioral and medical knowledge and applies that knowledge to health and disease

token economy

an operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats

how does stranger anxiety apply?

around the age of 8 months (after the child begins to understand object permanence and starts moving around on its own), this develops in infants causing them to become distressed when a loved one leaves their side temporarily. this occurs because children develop schemas for familiar faces, so when they cannot assimilate new faces into familiar schemas they freak out. this shows that the brain, mind, and social-emotional behavior are linked and mature together.

passionate love

aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually found at the beginning of a romantic relationship

agonist

artificial opiates that excite the neuron. it is similar enough to the neurotransmitter to cause similar results; however, it rarely allows for reuptake to take place. such drugs include morphine, cocaine, and meth, which put the individual on a "high" of normal pleasures or arousals until they remove themselves from taking in the drug.

antagonist

artificial opiates that inhibit the neuron. these types of drugs are often poisons, as they do not allow for the neurotransmitters to do their job correctly, inhibiting communication between the brain and its corresponding organs. botulin, for example, causes paralysis by blocking ACh from contacting its fellow neurons.

alcohol

as a depressant, this equal-opportunity drug increases one's willingness to help out a friend in need and simultaneously decreases one's ability to make wise choices, as the reduction in brain activity worsens our ability to control judgment and inhibitions. for this reason, many of our deepest desires that we hold in while sober because our judgment warns us of the consequences are often acted upon when intoxicated. the effects of intoxication, however, are affected by the amount of alcohol ingested. low doses relax the drinker by slowing down the sympathetic nervous system; however, a significant amount of alcohol slows down this nervous system too much, causing slurred speech, slow reaction time, and decreased performance. unfortunately, the side effects do not end there. intoxication inhibits long-term memories form forming, mainly because they repress REM sleep from taking place, which plays a significant role in processing daily events into long-term storage. furthermore, unhealthy repetitive uses of this substance can lead to brain shrinking, especially in women because they become more easily addicted to these substances than their male counterparts. other bodily organs affected are the liver and lungs. additionally, this substance reduces self-awareness/self-confidence, which rationalizes why many who lose a business deal or the love of their girlfriend may turn to alcohol for "support." finally, the psychological expectations a user holds about the substance affects their behavior; for example, someone who believes that alcohol consumption increases responses to sexual stimuli may act accordingly when they are drinking.

how does hippocampus apply?

as a major contributor to the production of explicit memories, this neural region is very significant in the memory recollection process. evidence of this working is present in PET scans when this region of the brain lights up as the individual recalls particular words or experiences. because the hippocampus is lateralized, damage to each side produces different results. right side damage causes issues with spatial/visual recognition, while left side damage affects the recall of verbal information. when surgically removed, most victims lose memories of the past month while older memories remain in tact. it seems that although this region is very significant in the memory retrieval process (as it registers and identifies the details of an event), memories are stored elsewhere in the brain.

Karen Horney

as a neo-Fredian, she agreed with some of Freud's ideas (such that childhood is vital to the development of the personality) but argued others (especially that sexual desires shaped the personality, as she believed that social experiences were more dominant of a factor). she believed that childhood anxiety developed from the child's sense of helplessness, results in the child's desire for love and acceptance. she countered many of Freud's masculine-dominant theories by scrutinizing the male view of psychology for weaknesses.

how does motor cortex apply?

as a part of the frontal lobe, this region controls voluntary movement. an experiment performed on dogs showed that stimulation to certain areas of this cortex caused different bodily movements. furthermore, stimulation to the right hemispherical cortex caused movement on the opposite side and vise versa. fifty years later, two neurosurgeons used their experiment to prompt their own, where they were able to map out this cortex with the functions it controlled. interestingly, small body parts with precise control took up the most area. the prosthetic industry uses this cortex to their advantage: by implanting a minuscule chip with 100 microelectrodes to record activity within the motor cortex, a paralyzed man was able to mentally control a television and draw shapes on a computer screen.

stage three sleep

as a transition stage before the body enters its deepest sleep, this non-REM sleep stage is very important. delta waves start to form, giving it the name "slow-wave sleep." it starts relaxing the body further to a point where we are almost paralyzed. memory enhancements are similar to that of stage four.

how does functional fixedness apply?

as a type of fixedness, this idea limits our capabilities to use different materials for a use other than its normal use (prototype use). for example, it may be hard to think to use a quarter as a ledge to stick under a wobbly chair because we are only used to thinking of it as a monetary unit. this way of thinking is an important aspect of creativity, which is why so many psychologists argue for it to be acknowledged in the overall definition of intelligence. this idea of limiting the power of different materials is similar to how stereotypes affect our outlook on society. for example, someone may see a firefighter and a stay-at-home mom and immediately jump to conclusions that the mom is a better chef, even if the firefighter actually specializes in cooking breakfast for his team on early morning shifts. due to fixation and stereotypes, the human mind often finds itself cognitively limited.

how does hypnosis apply?

as amazing as the hypnotist appears in performing this mesmerizing technique, psychologists agree that the power lies in the individual's openness to suggestion. most people are suggestible; however, those who are rather imaginative tend to be the most susceptible to hypnotic activity. most people also falsely believe that hypnosis can retrieve certain memories, like the recollection of kindergarten buddies. unfortunately, this practice can lead people to perform dangerous activities without memory of it. luckily, it can also be put to good use, as shown by posthypnotic suggestion. furthermore, it has been found to relieve pain, as made clear by hypnotized patients who report little to no pain during a surgery (without being put under the influence of anesthesia). critics still argue whether or not hypnosis occurs in an altered state of consciousness. the two theories debating this are the divided-consciousness theory and the social influence theory.

how does rooting reflex apply?

as an automatic reflex, infants are born with this in order to obtain food. it comes with a coordinated sequence of tonguing, swallowing, and breathing. if the baby does not find food (when their face is touched), he/she may start to cry in order to communicate their hunger. this reflex is one of many unique traits that infants are capable of, which exhibit their advanced social responsiveness.

how does temperament apply?

as an important aspect of one's personality, this quality directly affects one's behaviors since birth. a baby who is irritable, intense and unpredictable is more likely to have a high temperament than babies who are cheerful, calm and predictable in feeding and sleeping. a study was done to test the temperament of youngsters compared to their temperament as young adults and found that it was somewhat parallel. this suggests that certain aspects of our personalities never really change.

how does fixation apply?

as an important aspect of the analysis of the psychosexual stages, this explains why every individual's personality is different. it states that conflicts within the development of one of the stages could result in pleasure-seeking energies to remain in that stage for the rest of the individual's life. for example, if one were to have been deprived orally as a youngster, they may linger in the oral psychosexual stage. this results in various consequences according to this lack of development; for example, those who fall victim to the oral stage may develop strange eating or smoking habits, or exhibit an abnormal dependency on others. this occurs because the body is trying to finish developing the stage that never fully came to completion.

how does trait apply?

as an important part of the trait perspective, this was analyzed by Gordon Allport, who contributed greatly to this area of psychology. he defined personality in terms of stable and enduring patterns, differing from other beliefs regarding personality (especially that of Freud). this perspective supports the idea that one's most dominant trait makes up the basis of their personality, and other supporting details can be developed from this. Allport and Odbert identified 18,000 words for different traits.

how does belief perseverance apply?

as another source of irrationality, this way of perceiving information is distorted by our values. for example, in preparing for a debate about the death penalty, two men with opposing views gathered information to support their stance. when they met, both men found their own studies more impressive than those of the other, and even rebuked each other's (including the facts!) this shows that once a belief is formed and justified, it takes an abundance of facts, stories, and other relevant information to change them.

how does iconic memory apply?

as demonstrated by George Sperling, this type of memory occurs when an image is flashed momentarily in front of us and we are able to recall the information instantaneously. he performed an experiment where a square image of nine letters was flashed before his participants for 1/20th of a second. when being told which row to focus on, the participants scored perfectly, even when the time was quickened to a flash faster than the speed of lightning. this shows that our eyes can create an exact representation of any scene, but only for a few tenths of a second.

how does law of effect apply?

as exemplified by Skinner, this important principle applies well to operant conditioning. it explains why children, who have been rewarded in the past for whining or throwing a temper tantrum, may cry if they do not get what they want. they have learned that their parents will give into bad behavior eventually and reward them. it also explains why many elementary school teachers use colored stick/paper methods of discipline, as they know that (generally) the students' naughty behavior will decrease if they have to be punished and change their color.

how does wavelength apply?

as one characteristic of light, sensory experiences are affected by this. it determines the hue of light we see, and thus what color we perceive. electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission; however, waves of 400nm - 700nm are the only type of wavelengths that the human eye can see. purple/blue hues have a wavelength of 400nm and red hues have a wavelength of 700nm. with regards to sound, shorter wavelengths correspond with higher-pitched noises while longer wavelengths correspond with lower-pitched noises. the greater the wavelength, the shorter the frequency.

Sigmund Freud

as one of the most prestigious psychologists, this man contributed brilliant theories that widely expanded psychology's approach to personality and sexual development. his main contribution was the psychoanalytical theory, which was the first theory regarding personality. it amalgamated ideas about unconscious region of the mind, psychosexual stages, and defense mechanisms. this idea was published in his book, "The Interpretation of Dreams," which was highly debated among scientists all over the world. after publication, he put his theory to the test through patient analysis. in order to fully understand their physical and mental conditions, he referred to the study of the unconscious, including dreams; the remembered content of the dreams (manifest content) was believed to be an expression of the individual's utmost desires (latent content). through this, Freud could search for inner conflict leading to their psychological and corresponding physical pain. he believed that personality is a conflict between our aggressive, pleasure-seeking biological impulses and the social issues that arise with them. he developed three systems of the human personality that work together to resolve conflict: the id, the superego, and the ego.

how does neuron apply?

as the basic building block of the nervous system, this cell is involved in the communication system throughout the body. there are many variations of this type of cell; however, each consists of the same basic structure -- a cell body with branching out dendrites to receive the information, an axon stem to send the message through the cell, and terminal branches to pass the message along to other cells. the messages are sent through a series of impulse signals, called action potentials. from these chemical events, the neuron develops electricity. the distribution of this electricity is made possible by ions; initially, fluid within the axon possesses negative ions, while fluid outside the axon contains excess positive ions. with a strong enough action potential, the ions will become depolarized. neurons operate best when surrounded by the myelin sheath, as this helps insulates them and increase the speed at which they travel. despite the assistance of the myelin sheath, neurons still travel 3 million times slower than electricity through a wire. this explains why it sometimes takes a quarter-second or more to react to certain situations.

how does hormones apply?

as the chemical messengers of the endocrine system, these molecules are secreted out to influence growth, metabolism, aggression, reproduction, and mood. they originate in one tissue, travel slowly through the bloodstream to reach other tissues in need of the molecule. they work to balance the individual's responses to stress, exertion and personal thoughts. one well-known hormone is adrenaline, which increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar in a stressful situation to give the individual a burst of energy to tackle the situation. once the situation passes, the excitement tends to linger. some hormones are chemically identical to neurotransmitters, making it difficult to distinguish between the endocrine and nervous system sometimes. the two work together simultaneously in order to help keep the body in order.

stage four sleep

as the deepest sleep stage, this non-REM sleep stage is very interesting. delta waves are formed, with a very low frequency. because of this, brain activity slows down dramatically, which is made clear by the low heart rate, blood pressure, and body temperature. with the person being so fast asleep, it is very difficult to wake a person from this stage. this is why sleepwalkers or those experiencing extreme nightmares or night terrors should not be woken up from their strange nighttime behaviors, as they often become frightened and confused at their state of being. the deep sleep has some positive effects too. it significantly aids in visual perception skills during the day and enhances memory through repetition of spatial memories. as the night goes on, the amount of time spent in this stage decreases significantly.

how does long-term memory apply?

as the final memory presented in Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-stage processing model, this is formed when a short-term memory is fully encoded and stored away. however, later research shows that some memories are so vivid that they skip the first few steps of their model, formulating straight into this type of memory without conscious awareness.

how does sensory memory apply?

as the first memory presented in Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-stage processing model, this moment notes the fleeting information of our daily lives, and sends it off to be processed by the short-term memory. without this transfer of information, the moment is lost and becomes irretrievable.

how does figure-ground apply?

as the first perceptual task, this organization technique is very important. it allows the brain to distinguish objects, or figures, from the surroundings, or the ground. for example, while reading, the black text, the figure, is distinguished from the white background, the ground. some illusions use this to create reversible figure-and-ground illustrations. these show that the same stimulus can produce multiple perceptions.

stage one sleep

as the introduction to the sleep cycle, this non-REM stage is in charge of slowing you down, relaxing you, and getting you ready for deep sleep that is to follow. yawning occurs when your body wants to fall into this stage but needs to stay awake, as it boosts oxygen and metabolism to awaken yourself. during this stage, brain waves changed from alpha waves to the less frequent theta waves. on average, it lasts for about 1-5 minutes and takes up 2.5% of your sleep. however, exposure to technology or other arousing stimuli can keep an individual in this stage for longer than desired.

how does fetal alcohol syndrome apply?

as the leading cause of mental retardation, this syndrome is very serious. it affects the children of heavy drinkers, as the alcohol depresses activity in the child's central nervous system during pregnancy. research has even shown that a single drinking binge can cause millions of fetal brain cells to die. this affects approximately 1 in 750 infants worldwide and 4 in 10 infants of alcoholic mothers.

how does retina apply?

as the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, this multilayered tissue plays a significant role in vision. images are brought to this tissue via light waves sent through the lens, cornea, and pupil, so that its light receptor cells can convert the light energy into neural impulses to be sent to the brain via the optic nerve. because light waves from the top of the image travel to the bottom of the retina and light waves from the bottom travel to the top, images are reversed once they reach the retina; however, the brain perceives the image as reversed, allowing for us to interpret the objects in their upright-seeming form.

how does phoneme apply?

as the most basic aspect of a language, these sounds are vital to the understanding and communication of the language. various languages differ in the number of phonemes they contain; the english language has around 40. changes within phonemes result in changes within the meaning of the word. consonant phonemes play a more significant role in depicting the meaning of the word. for example, if one were to change the phoneme "a" in the word "chance" to "e" to make "chence," it would still be easier to understand the intent of the word, rather than if the phoneme "ce" were changed to "ge" as the word would become "change." as in alignment with Chomsky's language development theory, it is easier to pick up on the different phonemes of various languages at a younger age due to the critical period of language acquisition.

how does pituitary gland apply?

as the most influential gland of the endocrine system, this releases hormones to regulate growth and help control other glands within the system. it is located in the brain right next to the hypothalamus, which helps to control it. it is about the size of a pea. under this gland, sex organs are instructed to release sex hormones, which in turn affect the brain and behavior.

how does brainstem apply?

as the oldest and most central region of the brain, this region maintains some of the most important functions of the body, including heartbeat and breathing. it is also a region where nerves to and from each side of the brain connect with the other side of the body. inside this lies the reticular formation, medulla, and pons. the thalamus lies on top of the brainstem. it can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord because it connects the brain to the spinal cord.

how does punishment apply?

as the opposite of reinforcement, this type of response weakens the behavior that precedes it. often, these types of responses are not pleasurable, such as timeouts, getting sick, or losing money. punishment can either be positive or negative. like reinforcement, positive punishment administers stimuli (such as spanking or parking tickets) while negative punishment takes away stimuli (such as revoking driver's licenses or time with friends). research shows that punishment is not always effective. many children of aggressive parents pick up on their tendencies, causing them to be more susceptible to acting aggressively/abusively and to developing unnatural fears to certain stimuli. furthermore, punishment alone can lead to discrimination, where a child learns to avoid the behavior in certain settings. psychologists have found punishment most successful in situations where it is paired with reinforcement.

how does short-term memory apply?

as the second memory presented in Atkinson and Shiffrin's three-stage processing model, this forms when sensory memories are further processed. if the processing continues, it can turn into a long-term memory. however, if this information is not revisited again, it will disappear. another aspect of this type of memory falls under the working memory, which involves conscious awareness of the memories. as supported by experiments performed by Margaret and Lloyd Peterson, the short-term memory cannot retain meaningless information for too much time (7 plus or minus 2 seconds). despite this, short-term recall is slightly better for random digits than random letters. using memory enhancement techniques, such as chunking or rehearsal increases short-term recollection.

how does adolescence apply?

as the transition period between childhood and adulthood, teenagers undergo many physical, social, and emotional changes during this time. one psychologist described it as the tension between biological maturity and social dependence that creates a period of "storm and stress." often, social approval takes precedence over many other things and overall life plans can be jumbled. mood swings are also common. despite this, this time can also be very fun as teenagers explore new identities, new adventures, and new possibilities with their friends. the brain starts to change around this time by ridding unused neural connections and further developing the frontal lobe. myelin starts to grow, speeding up neurotransmission. it can also cause the emotional limbic system to fall behind, leading to impulsive and risky behaviors. as the frontal lobes continue to mature throughout the teenage years and into early twenties, judgment, impulse control, and long-term planning improve. this development allows them to grasp formal operational thinking, as described by Piaget. this consists of reasoning hypothetically and deducing consequences.

how does latent content apply?

as the underlying meaning behind dreams, this is disguised by the manifest content of dreams in order to protect the dreamer from coming to terms with their unconscious desires. Freud used this term to try to understand our inner conflicts; however, many psychologists today argue that his ideas are not valid, claiming that symbolism can be interpreted in too many ways.

how does one-word stage apply?

as they connect meaning with phonemes, one-year-old children in this stage start to utter morphemes in order to communicate with others. for example, they may see a picture of a duck and say "duck" rather than a full sentence of "look, there is a duck!" their words may start out as merely basic phonemes, such as "ma-" "la-" or "da-" but luckily they are persistent enough to get their point across, helping their family members to pick up on their basic language rather quickly. slowly, this will develop into longer words like "bottle" and "doggy."

how does assimilate apply?

as we develop schemas, particularly children, we naturally interpret new experiences in terms of these concepts. sometimes, this can cause us to mistakenly overcategorize various things. for example, a child who develops a schema for a truck after identifying it in a picture book may start calling all motor vehicles "trucks" until they accomodate the schema to include cars and trucks.

practical intelligence

aspect of Sternberg's intelligence theory; often required for everyday tasks, which are frequently ill-defined with multiple solutions

tyranny of choice

aspect of personal control that brings an information overload and a greater likelihood that we will feel regret over some of the unchosen options

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing the preexisting differences between those assigned to different groups

insecure attachment

attachment between a mother and her infant where the child clings to his/her mother's body whenever in her presence in order to avoid separation; often develops in infants whose mothers are insensitive and unresponsive to their children

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one's stress reaction; occurs when individual feels helpless in a situation

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly - by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor; occur when individual feels sense of power in the situation

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have imagined, heard about, read about, or experienced. this is often at the heart of many false memories. aka source misattribution

how does magnetic resonance imaging apply?

because atoms within the brain spin like tops, this method of analyzing the brain puts the patient in a strong magnetic field to align with the atoms. then, a brief pulse of radioactive waves is signaled, causing the atoms to become a little disoriented. once they return to their original location, they send out signals, which the machine can calculate and then analyze for their various concentrations. unlike fMRI's, this technique anayzes brain anatomy. in musicians with perfect pitch, these images show a larger-than-normal neural area in the left brain. additionally, these scans show enlarged fluid-filled areas within the center of the brain in some patients with schizophrenia.

how does visual encoding apply?

because it is not as strong as semantic encoding, this type of encoding is referred to as shallow processing. it takes more effort to decipher whether or not the word "chair" has any capital letters in it than in deciphering whether or not it would fit in the sentence "the _______ fell over and broke." likewise, images that are flashed in a random order are harder to recall than images flashed in a logical order.

how does mood-congruent memory apply?

because mood is a retrieval cue, emotions trigger past memories of similar feeling. for example, maria's extreme joy and gratitude for all of life's wonderful blessings that she felt on her seventeenth birthday may trigger past memories of utmost happiness. in that moment, she views the world and her past in an optimistic way... more so than when she was feeling extremely stressed with the many school projects, tests, and homework assignments due soon. during that time, she would more likely see her past and the world as a mess, always busy and working hard with no free time to relax. furthermore, moods affect interpretation. in a bad mood, someone's glance in our direction may seem like a glare; however, the same glance could be interpreted as flirtatious when our outlook on life is more positive.

how do basic/applied research apply?

because psychology is a science, information is gathered from research. basic research builds psychology's knowledge base while applied research tackles practical problems using psychological concepts and methods. basic researchers are commonly found initiating studies or investigations with no intent of solving the problem. applied researchers' main goal is to solve the issue.

how does monocular cues apply?

because retinal disparity and convergence fail to provide much information when staring straight ahead, these cues are vital in determining depth. these cues are available to each eye separately. they depend on the relative size of the objects (the smaller the object, the farther away they seem), the interposition of the objects (objects that block the view of another are perceived as closer), relative clarity of the objects (hazy/blurry objects are perceived as farther away), texture gradient of the object (smaller, denser objects seem farther away), the relative height of the objects (objects located higher in our field of vision seem farther away), the relative motion of the objects (the faster immobile objects seem to move while you are moving, the closer they are to you), linear perspective of the objects (the more lines appear to converge, the farther they appear to be), and the light and shadows of the objects (the dimmer the object, the farther away it seems).

how does retroactive interference apply?

because the mind is always cluttered with random information, new information can skew old information. this occurs after learning some of the difficult rules of calculus, as it may be hard to recall those of simple algebra that were learned years earlier.

how does proactive interference apply?

because the mind is always cluttered with random information, old information can skew new information. this occurs with sibling recognition. even though it may have been ten years since you have seen ben's older brother, you may still call ben "joe" instead because of this interference.

how does psychoactive drug apply?

because these drugs alter perceptions and moods, many other substances are necessary to help users function semi-normally. caffeine is necessary to help wake up these sleep-deprived users, cigarettes help calm down the stimulated/anxious nerves, and diet pills makes the individual hungry before meals. continued use of these drugs produces tolerance, while encourages larger and larger amounts to be taken in in order to produce desired effects. this increase in tolerance increases addiction, which makes the effects of withdrawal more uncomfortable. physical pain and intense cravings indicate physical dependence to the drugs, while crazy mood swings indicate psychological dependence. these dependencies make the drug seem that much more appealing and increase their addictiveness. there are three broad categories of these addictive drugs: depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens. they work by stimulating, inhibiting, or mimicking the activity of neurotransmitters at the synaptic gaps. although they differ slightly, all of these drugs trigger negative aftereffects that outweigh their positive ones, most often negative emotions.

how does medulla apply?

because this lower region of the brainstem controls the heartbeat and breathing functions, an individual who has the top of their brainstem severed would still be able to perform these funcitons. however, if the lower region (where this network lies) is severed, the individual would not be able to live, as breathing, blood circulation, etc. are vital.

how does depressant apply?

because this type of psychoactive drug reduces neural activity and slows body functions, affected individuals may be more willing to help someone in need and more likely to participate in dangerous activity. drugs that fall under this category are alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates. each group of substances has its own distinct biological factors; however, all also respond to psychological factors that are developed by culture.

how does imagery apply?

because words associated with mental pictures are encoded both by the visual and semantic encoding areas of the brain, these words are easier to recall than other words with a low tendency for pictures to be associated with them. this explains why it is much easier to remember who we saw yesterday, what we ate for breakfast, and where we went, rather than formulas, dates, and definitions we learned.

how does egocentrism apply?

before the third stage of childhood cognitive development, this phenomenon greatly affects a child's ability to take a different perspective from their own. for example, in playing hide and seek, a child may cover their ideas and believe that they are invisible because they cannot see the person who is seeking them. furthermore, preschoolers may confuse the concepts of familial relations, as they may believe that their mother is only their mother and that their sister or brother does not have a mother. unfortunately, researchers have found that adults never fully grow out of their selfish ways of thinking, as they tend to overestimate the extent to which they share opinions and perspectives with others.

oral stage

beginning at birth and continuing until 18 months of age, this stage centers around the mouth, leading to sucking, biting, and chewing being important factors in attaining pleasure. if individuals in this stage do not fully develop, tendencies to bite their fingernails or suck their thumb may continue throughout their lifetime.

exposure therapies

behavior techniques, such as systematic desensitization, that treat anxieties by exposing people (in imagination or actuality) to the things they fear and avoid

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

B.F. Skinner

believed that language is acquired through environmental factors (nurture)

Noam Chomsky

believed that language is acquired through genetic variables (nature); thought there was a universal grammar that was instilled into our brains, explaining why children were able to pick up on the surface structure of a language so quickly

subliminal

below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness

how do normative social influence/informational social influence apply?

both normative social influence and informational social influence give reason to conformity within a society. because disagreeing with the standard opinions, ideas, actions, behaviors, etc. of society come with consequences, it is often easier to comply than stand up for differences. when one is unsure of what is right and if being right matters, they are more receptive to others' opinions. the type of society also dictates how likely one is to fall under social influence: individualist cultures will support original ideas while collectivism supports group beliefs.

how does positron emission tomography apply?

by detecting the use of a radioactive form of glucose, this machine is able to read which areas of the brain are most active in performing a certain tasks. this works because active neurons consume glucose while performing their task. around the head, gamma rays are released from the heavy glucose concentrations. after the scan is complete, the computer can create a map to correspond with the discoveries. scientists have observed that mathematical calculations, daydreaming, and musical analysis all take place in different areas of the brain.

how does a confounding variable apply?

confounding variables change the results of an experiment. for this reason, one must be aware of all potential outside sources of change in the dependent variable, so that an inaccurate analysis of the independent's effect on the dependent variable can be avoided.

how does content validity apply?

content validity is a huge part of exams as it ensures that the test will provide evidence for the behavior being analyzed. for example, a valid history test on the Revolutionary War would be one that asks about when George Washington was appointed commander in chief, who was the leader of the Sons of Liberty and what the Proclamation of 1963 stated. It would be invalid for a math test to ask such questions because it does not provide insight to the knowledge of the child in the content being taught.

how does endocrine system apply?

controlled by hormones, this communication system works similarly to the nervous system, as both secrete messengers to respond to their receptive information. however, this system moves much slower than the nervous system, taking several seconds for a message to be delivered from one organ to the next. usually, the messages outlast those sent from the nervous system. this explains why one may have a lingering feeling that something isn't quite right after receiving some stressful news (as the feeling will outlast the thought). growth, reproduction, mood and metabolism are all controlled by this system.

how does LSD apply?

created by Albert Hofmann in 1943, this hallucinogen can produce extreme results through its blocking of serotonin. emotions vary greatly while under the influence of this drug, as they can transfer from euphoria to detachment to panic immediately. however, these variations in mood do not alter perceptual distortions and hallucinations. although hallucinations can occur from oxygen deprivation, extreme sensory deprivation, or drugs, the brain tends to hallucinate in the same way. it begins with simple geometric patterns, transfers into meaningful images, then to tunnels/funnels or past emotional experiences, and finally to a feeling of separation from one's physical body. often this can result in panic or harm.

how does culture apply?

culture affects many personal/social standards, attitudes towards these standards, tendency to act formally or casually, and much more. because culture shapes people's understanding of social behavior, it is important the differences between different cultures are recognized in order to be analyzed appropriately. despite this, underlying, basic human processes are mostly the same among all different cultures.

how does intensity apply?

determined by amplitude, this measures the amount of energy in waves. in light waves, it influences the brightness of the color. in sound waves, it influences the loudness of the noise. waves with greater amplitudes have stronger intensities (bright colors, loud sounds), while waves with smaller amplitudes have weaker intensities (dull colors, soft sounds). sounds with an intensity greater than 85 decibels produce hearing loss.

how does frequency apply?

determined by the number of wavelengths that pass a certain point over a given period of time, this is an important characteristic of sound that corresponds with pitch. a piccolo has a higher frequency than a tuba, causing its pitch to also be higher. additionally, this affects vision. the higher the frequency of a light wave, the more blue the color will be perceived. on the other hand, the lower the frequency of the light wave, the more red the color will be perceived.

Isabel Myer-Briggs

developed Myer-Briggs type inventory, where personalities are accumulated from a combination of eight different characteristics.

David Weschler

developed WAIS intelligent test, which is similar to the Stanford-Binet, but has additional separate verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, and processing speed analyses sections.

Ernst Weber

developed Weber's law

Aaron Beck

developed a cognitive theory that basically stated that negative thoughts/ideas influenced behaviors/attitudes. With this, he stressed that the best way to approach any task was from a positive perspective

Lawrence Kohlberg

developed a three stage theory of developing morality (selfishness, justice, loving); can fluctuate between the three depending on the situation

B.F. Skinner

developed behaviorism theory; experiment with positive reinforcement and shaping of pigeon behavior. Very influential in operant conditioning

how does reciprocal determinism apply?

developed by Alfred Bandura in 1986, this idea explains why children's TV habits (past behavior) affect their viewing preferences (internal factor), which affect how the TV influences the child's current behaviors (external factor). three ways that environments and individuals interact include: how different people choose different environments, how our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events, and how our personalities help create situations to which we react. it is a never-ending cycle between internal cognitive factors, behavior, and environmental factors.

how does mental age apply?

developed by Alfred Binet in the early 1900's to determine which children needed more academic attention, this idea tested the mental aptitude of different individuals through problem-solving and reasoning questions. Binet never assumed why a child had a mental age lower than their chronological age, but merely used it as a tool to indicate those who would benefit from extra academic attention. his only worry with this measurement was that people would begin using it as a label rather than a device that could improve education.

how does basic trust apply?

developed by Erik Erikson, this idea claims that securely attached children approach life with a foundation that the world is reliable and predictable. he did not attribute this phenomenon to positive environmental factors but rather early parenting. this occurs because the parents help raise them in an attitude of trust. although not proven, many psychologists believe that this foundation of trust developed or not developed during childhood influences adulthood relationships.

how does opponent-processing theory apply?

developed by Ewald Hering after discovering the phenomenon of afterimages (where staring at one particular color for a long time triggers the perception of the opposite color when transferring focus to a neutral stimulus), this theory states that opposing retinal processes enable color vision. these opposing color processes include those of red-green, black-white, and blue-yellow. some receptor cells are stimulated by one color, such as red, and inhibited by the other, green, while others are stimulated by green and inhibited by red.

how does place theory apply?

developed by Hermann von Helmholtz, this theory states that pitches are affected by the location at which the cochlea's membrane was stimulated. high frequencies are found to produce vibrations at the beginning of the cochlea's membrane, while low frequencies trigger the end. unfortunately, this theory falls short of truly explaining how low-pitched sounds can be interpreted, as it has been found that they produce disorganized neural signals on the basilar membrane, which is not supported by this idea.

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory

developed by Isabel Myer-Briggs, this personality indicator works to identify the personality types of individuals based on Carl Jung's personality types and their responses to 126 questions. it's rather common, as 89/100 large companies and 2.5 million American citizens use this test to discover personal information. it accumulates the individual's responses to the questions and labels them as Thinking or Feeling, Introverted or Extroverted, Judging or Perceiving, and Sensing or Intuitive. most individuals find themselves to mirror the behaviors and traits that are assigned to them by these personality scores, indicating its validity and reliability.

how does classical conditioning apply?

developed by Ivan Pavlov, this idea is very important to understanding behaviors. after running an experiment regarding dog saliva production, Pavlov found that stimuli associated with food (a bell, people who gave out food, a dish, etc.) would initiate salivation. this natural behavior proved the existence of classical conditioning, as organisms learn to anticipate. now, most psychologists agree that this particular type of conditioning is a basic form of learning that all organisms use to adapt to their environments. they also agree that it is affected by both cognitive and biological processes. cognitively, individuals develop conditioning through the predictability or expectancy of the CR to take place. biologically, a species' genetic predispositions guide its learning of associations that improve its survival. in any scenario where this type of conditioning is present, a US and UR are paired with a neutral stimulus, soon to become the CS and trigger a CR. major processes include acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, and distinction.

how does gate-control theory apply?

developed by Robert Melzack and Patrick Wall, this model explains the biology behind pain. they claim that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that either inhibits or welcomes painful signals to pass through to the brain. because small nerve fibers conduct most painful sensations and larger nerve fibers control other sensory signals, the activation of small fibers sends pain through to the brain while the activation of larger fibers blocks it. damage to tissue triggers small fibers, allowing the neural gate to be opened and pain to be felt. because of this, chronic pain treatment involves the stimulation of larger fibers so that they block pain signals. besides this, Melzack and Wall found that the brain can send information to the body to close the pain "gate." for this reason, psychological influences greatly affect how pain is perceived.

how does Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory apply?

developed by Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz, this theory states that the retina contains three types of color receptors whose combinations create other hues. this type of combination is distinct from combining paint samples, a subtractive color mixing, as mixing lights is additive color mixing because the process adds wavelengths and increases light. the theory adds that victims of colorblindness are not actually "color blind," but rather lack functioning red and/or green sensitive cones. instead of having a trichromatic color scheme, their vision is monochromatic or dichromatic, which makes it impossible to distinguish red and green from each other. unfortunately, this theory does not explain why those who are colorblind can see yellow, a combination of red and green light, or why yellow appears to be a pure color rather than an actual combination of the light (although purple is definitely a combination of red and blue light).

how does mnemonic apply?

developed by the Greeks to remember length passages and speeches, this memory aid uses imagery to enhance retention. for example, the Greek scholars imagined themselves moving through a familiar series of locations, associating each with a visual representation of the to-be-remembered topic. this allowed for the information to be processed more efficiently and effectively, and strengthened recollection. similarly, many memory whizzes use a variety of these techniques to strengthen the retention of insignificant information, like grocery lists.

Jean Piaget

developed four stage theory of childhood development; most psychologists accept his overall sequence of development stages but do not think that his strict boundaries between ages are necessarily accurate. First psychologist to determine that children think differently than adults. Also formed schemas.

Alfred Binet

developed idea of mental age; first intelligence test was created under him to help categorize those who would need extra assistance in learning (Binet intelligence test, has been altered to Stanford-Binet test)

Albert Bandura

developed idea of reciprocal determinism, which in turn helped shape the social-cognitive theory

how does psychoanalysis apply?

developed in the early 1900s, this idea refers to Freud's theory about personality and the corresponding treatment options (such as free association or hypnosis). it involved studying one's unconscious desires and feelings as Freud believed that it revealed deep information about the person and, in particular, their anxieties.

Whorf

developed linguistic determinism - idea that language affects the way we think

Thurstone

developed primary mental abilities intelligence theory

Sigmund Freud

developed psychoanalysis, free association, defense mechanisms, ego/id/superego, and psychosexual stages - strongly stressed the role of UNCONSCIOUS in behavior, ideas, beliefs, etc. manifest/latent content of dreams was analyzed in Freud's wish fulfillment theory of dreams

Joseph Wolpe

developed systematic desensitization to help cure people of their phobias

William Stern

developed the IQ formula

Mary Ainsworth

developed the attachment theory of relationships which observes how caretakers and children interact - called it the strange situation

Gordon Allport

developed trait personality theory stating that everyone's personality is composed of three main types of traits: cardinal, central, and secondary

G. Stanley Hall

developed two distinct types of aggression: physical (males) and relational (females); also very influential in the early years of psychology, donating many laboratories and was the first man to earn a PHD in psychology

Hans and Sybil Eysenck

developed vague personality test that categorizes individuals based on their emotional stability/instability and extroversion/introversion.

how does PTSD apply?

developing after experiencing extreme trauma of some sort, this anxiety disorder produces many unpleasant symptoms, including haunting memories/nightmares, numbed social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, and insomnia. often combat victims, accident/disaster survivors, sexual assault victims, and prostitutes develop this disease. many factors also increase likelihood of suffering this disease. for one, learned helplessness makes a victim more vulnerable to the disease. also, the emotional distress felt by the victim of the traumatic situation affects their development of this disease. furthermore, those with a lower IQ and weakened access to outside resources are more likely to suffer this disease. with an expanding definition of trauma, some psychologists fear that this disease is being overdiagnosed. they also worry that treating sufferers by bringing them back to the situation and relive the emotions may worsen their condition if done right after the trauma. luckily, there is hope for these individuals. many grow from their experiences and undergo post-traumatic growth or survivor resilience.

range

difference between the lowest and highest score in a distribution; provides an estimation of the variation between extreme scores

how does feature detector apply?

discovered by David Hubel and Torsten Wiesel, these neurons receive information and respond to the specific details of the scene. for example, in reading a clock, one particular neuron may be in charge of responding to the two o'clock image. when it is this time, the cell activates; however, when it is one o'clock or three o'clock, the cell will quiet down. some feature detector cells work together to respond to faces, houses, and chairs. other combinations respond to restaurants, flowers, and schools. each type of cell has its own designated spot in the brain for detection. if damaged, a person would be unable to distinguish these types of objects. while some cells only fire when their particular stimulus is granted (clock reading two o'clock), others only work in supercell clusters, firing only when the cues collectively indicate their object.

freud's wish fulfillment theory

dream theory that states that dreams provide a "psychic safety valve" as they express otherwise unacceptable feelings. this is classified into manifest and latent content of the dream. unfortunately, this theory lacks any scientific support, allowing for the dreams to be interpreted in multiple ways.

activation-synthesis theory

dream theory that states that neural activity is random, and that dreams are the brain's attempt to make sense of it. it occurs when REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories. because the dreamer's brain is doing the weaving, we can still analyze these dreams to figure out critical information about the dreamer.

cognitive theory

dream theory that states that the dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development, including their knowledge and understanding of various events. this theory fails to address the neuroscience of dreams.

lucid dream

dream where sufficient awareness is present that we question whether or not we are dreaming; sometimes, this consciousness can be tested through extreme abilities, such as being able to fly.

stimulant

drug (such as caffeine, nicotine, and more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions

barbiturate

drug that depresses the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

amphetamine

drug that stimulates neural activity, causing a quickening in body functions and associated energy and mood changes

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

double-blind procedure

experimental procedure where the research participants and staff are unaware as to whether treatment or placebos are being taken; this allows researchers to observe the actual effect of the treatment rather than the user's enthusiasm/belief that the treatment is working

how does an experiment apply?

experiments are commonly used to determine cause-effect relationships between two variables. while this method can be accurate, results can be swayed by confounding variables. experiments can be performed both in a lab (basic research) or in the field/natural habitat (applied research).

Ivan Pavlov

famous psychologist from the twentieth century who developed the idea of classical conditioning through his dog/bell/salivation experiment. he found that when pairing an unconditional stimulus (like food) with a neutral stimulus (a bell, a buzzer, a person, etc.), the unconditional response (salivation) could eventually transform into a conditioned response, allowing for the same results to take place with merely the conditioned stimulus. this is significant because it affects how all organisms adapt to their environments.

Albert Bandura

famous psychologist from the twentieth century who focused on observational learning. he performed an experiment with a Bobo doll where an adult's abusive behavior toward the doll when frustrated influenced that of children when they were mad. he found that we are more likely to imitate those who are similar to ourselves and by the type of reinforcements/punishments we receive from them.

Mary Whiton Calkins

first woman president in the APA (American Psychology Association); contributed paired-associate technique of studying memory (would show pattern of numbers and analyze recall), which Titchener took credit for. Also developed idea of self-psychology, which states that self-consciousness is the most important aspect of psychology.

glucose

form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. when its level is low, we feel hunger.

Albert Ellis

founder of the cognitive-behavioral therapy

defensive self-esteem

fragile self-esteem that focuses on sustaining itself, making failures and criticisms feel threatening. aggressive and anti-social behaviors prevail with this type of self-esteem.

anal stage

from the age of 18 months to the age of 36 months, children in this stage focus on bowel and bladder elimination. these coping mechanisms regarding control lead to pleasure. if individuals in this stage do not fully develop, they may become "anal" about certain things.

phallic stage

from the age of 3 to the age of 6, this stage focuses on the genitals. coping with these incestuous sexual feelings lead to pleasure for the individual. during this stage, individuals develop unconscious sexual desires toward their parent of opposite sex and feelings of hatred or rivalry toward their parent of the same sex. because of these confusing feelings, children also tend to express a fear of punishment from their parent they are rivaling against. for young boys, this collection of complicated feelings is called the oedipus complex; for girls, it is called the electra complex.

latency stage

from the age of 6 until puberty, individuals experience dormant sexual feelings and learn to deal with them.

how does middle ear apply?

from the vibrations of the eardrum, which is the first place within the ear to receive sound waves, this region of the ear transmits the sounds to the cochlea. it is made up of three tiny bones: the hammer, the anvil, and the stirrup. because they lie in this order, the sounds hit the hammer first, then the anvil, and finally the stirrup before relaying the information to the cochlea.

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. the brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

Charles Sherrington

helped discover the synaptic gap when he noticed that neural impulses took a long time to travel a neural pathway, inferring there was a brief interruption between the transfer

Carl Rogers

humanistic psychologist who believed that all people are good and gifted with the ability to develop Maslow's idea of self-actualization. he believed that personal growth is dependent on genuineness, acceptance and empathy. these assets are the water, sun and nutrients that allow people to develop into vigorous oak trees (according to this psychologist). the relationships between parents and children, leaders and groups, teachers and students, and two co-workers can grow from these three things.

how does humanistic psychology apply?

humanistic psychology was historically significant as it drew attention to the significance of environmental factors on the human mind and body, personal growth and the needs for love and acceptance.

arousal theory

idea that motivation comes from the desire to experience feelings of arousal, such as climbing a mountain or exploring a big city

how does identity apply?

in attempt to find this, adolescents often try out different selves in various situations causing scenarios where factors are present from both situations to be slightly uncomfortable. usually, the adolescent ends up combining aspects from each "self" to create their identity. sometimes though, adolescents don't take enough time to develop their own values and end up identifying as a mirror image of their parents. other times, children take up negative identities in rebellion against their parents by aligning themselves with the values of a group of jocks, preppies, geeks, or goths. part of finding one's identity often involves discovering one's purpose in life. although self-image may drop during years of discovering (early teens), it rises again once confidence in purpose and identity returns (late teens/twenties).

how does monism apply?

in believing that the mind and body are different aspects of the same thing, these individuals do not view near-death experiences as anything more extravagant than drug hallucinations. they believe that the mind is what the body does. because of this, they stress that without bodies we are truly nobodies. they view death as an actual death of the person, unlike their spiritual counterparts (the dualists).

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

how does associative learning apply?

in linking two events together, many different types of organisms adapt to their environment through this type of learning. both classical and operant conditioning apply, as conditioning is defined as the process of learning associations. in classical conditioning, individuals associate two stimuli and anticipate their results. this type of conditioning involves respondent behavior. operant conditioning involves associating a response and its consequences, causing acts followed by good results to be repeated and acts followed by bad results to be avoided. observational learning also applies to this type of learning. it allows for us to learn from others' experiences and examples.

how does reinforcer apply?

in operant conditioning, this type of response always increases a desired behavior. it can be either positive or negative. in positive reinforcement, something is given in order to strengthen a desired response. for example, if a child acts brave during their doctor's appointment and does not cry while getting a shot, a parent may reward them with ice cream afterwards in order to encourage the behavior. in negative reinforcement, something is taken away in order to strengthen a desired behavior. for example, if a teacher's students work hard during one particular unit, she may reward them by taking away their quiz on the subject. more than likely, students would work extremely hard during the following unit in hopes that she would remove the next quiz as well. it is important to remember that reinforcers vary with the situation, as something that serves as a positive reinforcer to one person may not affect their brother or sister at all. furthermore, reinforcers are not always pleasurable rewards. if parental yelling increases a child's offensive behavior, it may be viewed as a reinforcer.

how does morpheme apply?

in order for a language to carry meaning, phonemes must be combined into small groupings to create morphemes. while some phonemes are also morphemes (such as "I" and "a"), many morphemes are made up of two or more phonemes. they can be words, prefixes, or suffixes. for example, the word "undesirables" contains four morphemes -- "un-" "desir" "able" "-s" -- which contribute to the overall meaning of the word. there are around 100,000 morphemes in the english language that can be derived from the 40 phonemes.

how does reliability apply?

in order for a test to be reliable, researchers test people multiple times using the same test, a similar form of it or the other half of it (odds/evens); if the scores correlate or are similar to one another, then the test is deemed reliable. if little error is accounted for, fatigue, stress or luck can be associated. the Stanford-Binet, WISC, and WAIS have very high reliabilities at approximately +0.9, which states that when retested, the participant would most likely match their first score very closely.

how does accommodation apply?

in order to keep our schemas updated, we must refine the categories after assimilating the information. for example, if a child identifies a four-legged animal in a picture book as a "dog" they may initially assimilate all four-legged animals into this schema of "dogs." eventually, the child will refine their schema to include cats, moose, cheetahs, and elephants.

how does priming apply?

in order to retrieve memories from the web of associations, this process needs to take place so that the strand leading to the web can be activated. often, associations undergo this process without our conscious awareness. for this reason, it is sometimes referred to as the "memory-less" memory because no explicit memories are formed. this concept can be explained in the following situation: ask a friend two rapid-fire questions: how do you pronounce the word spelled by the letters s-h-o-p? and, what do you do when you come to a green light? if your friend answers stop to the second question, you have demonstrated this mental activation, as the friend associated rules of driving in an intersection and the word "shop" (in particular the length and sound of the word) with stopping.

interpretation

in psychoanalysis, the analyst's noting supposed dream meanings, resistances, and other significant behaviors and events in order to promote insight

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

how does developmental psychology apply?

in studying the physical, cognitive and social change that takes place across an individual's lifetime, this branch of psychology focuses on the commonalities found in human development from birth to death. throughout the branch, three major issues apply: nature/nurture (how do genetic inheritance and experience influence development?) continuity/stages (is development gradual, continuous process, or does it proceed through a sequence of separate stages?) stability/change (do early personality traits persist throughout life or do we become different people as we age?)

how does fluid intelligence apply?

in testing this type of nonverbal, challenging intelligence across populations of various ages, individuals tend to decrease with age. this shows that as we age, our intelligence for memory and processing speed decreases. it also explains why many prestigious scientists develop their important works during their late twenties/early thirties.

how does crystallized intelligence apply?

in testing this type of verbal intelligence across populations of various ages, individuals tend to improve with age. this shows that as we age, our intelligence for vocabulary and knowledge increases. it also explains why many important authors produce their best work in their later forties, fifties, and beyond.

how does corpus callosum apply?

in the early 1960s, this connection between the two brain hemispheres was severed to reduce seizures that were occurring in epileptic patients (as the seizures resulted from abnormal brain activity that communicated through the two cerebral hemispheres). this individuals were referred to as split brain patients, who acted and felt normal with their seizure reduction. this band was rather significant in other ways, however, as discovered by a few neuroscientists a couple decades later. made up of more than 200 million nerve fibers, the connection aids in communicating the various observations or sounds heard by either side of the individual. both sides are necessary for the patient to obtain and be able to express all information possible.

regression

in the psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism in which an individual faced with anxiety retreats to a more infantile psychosexual stage, where some psychic energy remains fixed.

displacement

in the psychoanalytic theory, the defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses toward a more acceptable or less threatening object or person, as when redirecting anger toward a safer outlet.

preconventional morality

in this first stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, obedience/punishment (where a child obeys to avoid punishment) and individualism/exchange (where a child acts to get a certain reward) take precedence; often occurs in children 9 and under

postconventional morality

in this last stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, social contract/individual rights and the universal principle of love dominate morality. individuals start affirming general rights and follow what people believe are basic ethical principles. this develops in the later years of adolescence in those who grasp formal operational thinking.

conventional morality

in this second stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development, impersonal relationships and maintaining social order start becoming important. individuals look for the approval of others and respect authority and laws because they believe that society cannot function without them. often occurs in the early teenage years

how does preoperational stage apply?

in this second stage of childhood cognitive development (that lasts from 2 years of age to 6/7 years of age), children start to develop their language skills well through thorough communication of words and images. they tend to use intuitive rather than logical reasoning, leading to symbolism and magical thought playing a strong role in developing thoughts on everyday occurrences. they lack conservation, which leads children to believing that 1 cup of milk is in greater volume in a tall thin glass than a short wide glass. they also lack the ability to understand ideas from other points of view. this egocentric mindset causes them to focus on their own needs, ideas, and wants at all times. they also start to develop a theory of mind, which includes their ideas about their own and others mental states.

how does concrete operational stage apply?

in this third stage of childhood cognitive development (that lasts from 6/7 years of age to 11 years of age), children start thinking logically about concrete events (especially those involving experience), grasping concrete analogies, and performing arithmetical operations. they understand conservation (change in shape does not mean change in quantity) and mathematical transformations (2+8=10 and 10-2=8).

perceptual adaptation

in vision, the ability to adjust to an artificially displaced or even inverted visual field

how does behaviorism apply?

influenced by Watson, Pavlov, and Skinner, this idea was central to psychology during the twentieth century. back in the day, psychologists focused on developing ideas about behavior solely through observation, disregarding "mentalistic concepts" like consciousness. today, most psychologists agree with the first point (about behaviorism being an objective science) but not the second (about reference to mental processes).

how does an intelligence test apply?

intelligence tests have been used since the early 1900s and continue to be used to measure one's intelligence based on cultural ideas of what knowledge is deemed important. the most famous intelligent test, the IQ, compares one's chronological age with their mental age. recently, intelligence tests have changed slightly from the IQ but continue to be referred to by this name. while these tests accurately depict the intelligence of children relative to their classmates, they fail to analyze the intelligence of adults correctly because adults specialize in so many fields of study causing the range in knowledge to be too vast to cover and fail to continue learning information at a progressive pace (as made possible in elementary education). instead, adult intelligent tests compare the result of the participant to those of their same age without giving them an exact score. unfortunately, these tests have been used negatively, such as when they were used to reduce the number of immigrants entering European countries in the mid-1920s.

structured interviews

interview process that asks the same job-relevant questions of all applicants, each of whom is rated on established scales; tend to be strength pinpointers

how does validity apply?

it is important to remember that high reliability doesn't ensure high validity. for example, if you are testing the weight of different people with a broken scale, the results will be reliable but not valid. validity takes into account the random sample standardized, the equipment used, and the behavior being measured. it can be analyzed in two different areas: content validity and predictive validity. normal distribution allows for validity to be analyzed. valid tests ensure that the two groups at the extremes of this normal curve are extremely different from the average participant.

thinking in images

just as thoughts can be processed through words, images can also be used to portray ideas. for example, when asked how to turn on a water faucet, one will imagine themselves turning the right/left knob toward him/herself at approximately a 45° angle before water spews out. for this reason, many professional athletes have turned to mental practice in order to improve their game. basketball players picture themselves making free throws under high pressure situations, baseball players picture themselves smacking a home run on a 3-2 count in the bottom of the ninth inning, and figure skaters picture themselves landing their triple axle spin perfectly to the beat of the music. by thinking in images, the procedural memory is used (unconscious memory system for motor and cognitive skills and conditioned associations).

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

how does opiate apply?

like other depressants, this psychoactive drug depresses neural functioning, with evidence lying in the constricted pupils, slowed breathing, and lethargic movements. it is made up of opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroine. for a little while, the user experiences pleasurable effects; however, this short-term pleasure pays a price because these users are often extremely addicted to these drugs with their tolerance increasing, doses increasing, and withdrawal periods decreasing. because of this overload of artificial opiate, the brain stops producing it naturally, which makes it very hard to withdraw from the drug without experiencing very uncomfortable symptoms (as the natural opiates produce pain-killing neurotransmitters).

how does limbic system apply?

located at the border of the brainstem, thalamus, cerebellum, and cerebral hemispheres, this system is significant in the maintenance of emotions, sexual drives, and aggressive tendencies. it is composed of three main networks: the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the hypothalamus. just below this region is the pituitary gland, which is controlled by networks within this system and is a significant gland in the endocrine system.

how does sensory cortex apply?

located at within the parietal lobes just behind the frontal lobes, this cortex receives and processes incoming information. just as the motor cortex has designated regions for specific bodily functions, this cortex too has specific locations across the tissue associated with various bodily movements and sensations. larger regions are destined for more sensitive areas; for example, the lips has a larger region designated in this cortex that the toes. while this area of the cortex mainly focuses on touch, other regions focus on other senses such as sight and sound (located within the occipital and temperal lobes).

how does cochlea apply?

located in the inner ear, this coiled tube is very significant in triggering neural impulses from the sound waves transferred to it from the stirrup. when the sound waves first reach it, the membrane (oval window) starts vibrating, which moves around the fluid within the tube. this movement disrupts the basilar membrane, lined with cilia (hair cells), causing the cilia to bend around. the cilia's movement causes neural impulses to form, which are eventually sent to the brain via the auditory nerve.

nature-nurture issue

longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors

how does hypothalamus apply?

lying just below the thalamus, this region within the limbic system is rather important. neuroscientists have confirmed through experimentation that this network controls specific bodily maintenance duties, influencing hunger, thirst, body temperature, sexual drives, etc. it takes orders from the brain and translates them to the pituitary gland, which then directs other areas of the endocrine system to secrete specific hormones to balance out the situation. additionally, this network has been proven to control pleasure. in one experiment, a rat's hypothalamus could be stimulated through a pedal. the rat would do anything to reach this pedal; he would even cross an electrified grid. scientists think that humans may have a region within their limbic system that controls pleasure. in fact, some addictive disorders are believed to stem from a reward deficiency syndrome.

how do cerebral cortex lobes apply?

made up of the frontal lobes, parietal lobes, occipital lobes, and temporal lobes, this region carries out many different functions. these lobes define the main divisions of the cerebral cortex; they are divided by prominent fissures, or folds. many functions require the cooperation of multiple lobes.

how does culture apply?

many differences present in the world today are a result of the various cultures that exist, which dictate social norms and values within the society. when one encounters a new culture, they may become frustrated if their rules of expected behaviors/attitudes do not coincide with their individual goals (individualism vs. collectivism). despite these differences, humans are very much the same at the core because of their similar genetic makeup, life cycle, communication mechanisms, and biological/emotional needs. communication within a culture allows us to pass on innovations to the next generation, thus enabling survival for the members. because change is so prevalent within a culture, the human gene pool cannot be attributed to these changes as it evolves much slower than the corresponding cultures.

how do the levels of analysis and biopsychosocial approach apply?

many psychologists use the biopsychosocial approach to study human behaviors and mental processes. when the information is blended, a more complete understanding of behaviors and mental processes is created.

how does autism apply?

marked by an impaired theory of mind, those diagnosed with this disease often lack social communication and interaction skills. symptoms include speech difficulty, clumsiness, and difficulty reading/inferring others' feelings. this often occurs because brain areas that enable attending to others malfunction with this disease. one theory proposed by Simon Baron-Cohen states that this disease represents a male-dominated brain, as they fail to empathize and read facial expressions (feminine traits) and instead focus their understanding of things according to rules or laws (masculine traits). he believes that when two people who are strongly rule-oriented have a child, the baby is more likely to develop this disease. other psychologists disprove this believing that males and females hold the same natural tendency to focus on rules and laws. asperger syndrome is one form of this disease, where individuals suffer similar symptoms but function better overall.

how does puberty apply?

marking the beginning of adolescence, this period of sexual maturation follows and intense surge of hormones. it lasts for around two years, starting around 11 yrs for girls and 13 yrs for boys. mood swings are common during this time. primary and secondary sex characteristics develop, triggering a series of physical changes in height, facial hair, hips, etc. a year or two before this period starts, children start experiencing feelings of sexual attraction. the sequence of physical changes that take place during this time is much easier to predict than the exact timing, which varies from person to person. although the timing does not cause too many physical differences between the teenagers once all have matured, it can cause psychological differences. for girls who mature early, they may be more subjected to harassment or teasing from those who have not yet reached puberty. for boys who mature early, they may become stronger and more athletic than their peers, leading to a greater self-confidence, popularity, and independence during their teen years; however, they are also more at risk for alcohol use and premature sexual activity.

how does schizophrenia apply?

meaning "split mind," this disorder is paired with disorganized thinking (resulting from a lack of selective attention), disturbed perceptions (hallucinations, often auditory), and inappropriate emotions and actions (flat affect, catatonia). often, delusions clog the mind with false beliefs, confusing both the victim and surrounding family members and friends. there are many subtypes of this disorder, including paranoid, disorganized, catatonic, undifferentiated, and residual. those with positive symptoms experience the symptoms initially listed. those with negative symptoms have toneless voices, expressionless faces, and mute/rigid bodies. sometimes this disease can develop gradually (having a history of social inadequacy); other times it develops rather suddenly (induced by stress). when development is slow, recovery is not probable; however, when development is sudden, there is much more hope for therapeutic and medicative recovery solutions. biologically, many psychologists have found answers to the symptoms these individuals experience. for one thing, excessive amounts of dopamine in the brain intensify positive symptoms of this disorder. abnormal levels of glutamate are still being investigated. additionally, unusually low brain activity has been found in the frontal lobes and increased activity in the thalamus and temporal lobes during hallucinations has taken place. furthermore, shrinking brain sizes have been linked to the disorder. potential causes correspond with viral infections during fetal brain maturation along with genetic influences.

deep structure

meanings behind the surface structure of a language, that is developed over time; idea developed by Chomsky. often these structures are similar between languages, even if the surface structure varies. for this reason, Chomsky believes that the ability to acquire language is rooted deeply in our DNA.

standard deviation

measurement of how much scores vary around the mean score

peg word system

memory aid that involves linking words with numbers. it is utilized by creating mental associations between items to be remembered and items that are already associated with numbers. for example, memorizing a schedule with manipulation of the numeric order the events occur in utilizes this technique.

how does prototype apply?

mental images help us recognize examples of the concepts; the more similar an example of a concept is to the prototype, the easier it is for an individual to recognize it as an affiliation with the concept. for example, bluebirds and ostriches are both classified as birds due to their wings, eggs, feathers, and two feet; however, bluebirds are more easily recognized as a bird due to their similar resemblance to our prototype. when examples of concepts do not fit well under a prototype, the boundaries of different categories become fuzzy and difficult to distinguish. for this reason, discrimination that does not fit under prototype of prejudice makes it harder to recognize.

how does personality inventory apply?

method of analyzing a person's behavior patterns by assessing multiple traits simultaneously. these tests rely on their questions to make them reliable and valid. the most famous example of this is the MMPI. unlike tests for the psychoanalytic perspective of psychology, personality inventories are computer administered, allowing for a reliable scale of responses and scores to be accounted for.

trial and error

method of solving problems by guessing and checking. for example, thomas edison used this method when searching for a functional light bulb filament. he tried thousands of filaments before finding one that actually worked. from this example one can tell that this method is not necessarily the most ideal way of solving a problem. however, when the solution is stumbled upon quickly, it is the easiest method of problem solving.

method of loci

mnemonic device or technique in which a person visualizes the items they're trying to learn in different spatial locations. to do this, the person associates the items with landmarks in some familiar place, which helps them later recall the information. for example, using the desk locations of a classroom in deciding which children are present uses this technique.

three-stage processing model

model of the memory, proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, that states that memories are formed in three stages: sensory memories, short-term memories, and long-term memories. unfortunately, this historical system is flawed because some information skips the first two stages when it is processed as a long-term memory automatically. additionally, the myriad of information presented to us throughout our daily lives as sensory information does not all get processed as long-term memories. rather, incoming stimuli becomes the main focus, with many details from our outside world being left behind.

pheromones

natural-releasing chemical messengers that are picked up through our sense of smell. it is still being debated whether or not these exist. it's possible that two people might not get along with each other for no reason other than their pheromones don't mix well. these molecules vary from person to person.

belonging and love needs

need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and alienation

feature detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

how does normal curve apply?

no matter what is being scored, this way of visualizing the information is often used. this bell-shaped distribution tends to cluster around the average; in this case, the average would be 100. fewer and fewer people are represented outside of this average (outliers are extreme intelligent and mentally disabled). about 68% score within 15 points above or below the average; 95% fall within 30 points above or below the average; and the numbers continue to decrease as they score farther away from the mean.

how does menopause apply?

occurring a few years after reaching the age of 50, the hormone estrogen starts to decrease in production, causing various physical symptoms and reproduction to decline. sometimes women experience hot flashes. despite popular belief, there are no psychological effects of this period. however, a woman's expectations and attitudes toward this will affect her emotional experience. if she sees herself as losing her femininity or youthfulness, her journey may be more saddening than for someone who views it as liberation from fears of pregnancy or menstrual periods. after research on this topic, it has been found that most women are relieved after their menstrual periods have ceased.

how does hallucination apply?

occurring during the first stage of the sleep cycle, these false sensory experiences occur without a sensory stimulus. this may occur when you have a false sensation of floating before jerking back into consciousness. these strange hypnagogic moments are sometimes made into memories.

spillover effect

occurs when arousal from a specific event leads to the development of strong emotions, which can fuel behavior that aligns with the emotions. for example, after losing a soccer game, one may become aroused and thus angry. from there, players may turn to later violent confrontations with opposing players.

360 degree feedback

occurs when everyone surrounding you at a workplace rates how you perform to give you an accurate review

subtractive color mixing

occurs when mixing colors results in less wavelengths from the reflected light than when the colors were separated. takes place with mixing paint samples.

phantom limb sensation

occurs when the brain perceives information coming from a nonexistent limb. this provides evidence that the brain can misinterpret random central nervous system activity that occurs in the absence of normal sensory input. often, it can occur with pain.

lightness constancy

occurs when we perceive an object as having a constant lightness even while its illumination varies. this depends on the relative luminance, or the amount of light an object reflects relative to its surroundings, of the object; because of this, this phenomenon depends on the environment.

size constancy

occurs when we perceive objects as having a constant size, even while the distance from them varies. for example, when viewing a car three blocks away, this phenomenon allows us to decide whether or not it has the capacity to hold ten people even at an extremely small size.

shape constancy

occurs when we perceive the form of familiar objects as constant even while retinal images of them change. for example, when opening a door, the shape appears to change; however, our brains know the door maintains a constant shape.

how does groupthink apply?

often groupthink is fed by overconfidence, conformity, self-justification and group polarization. aspects of groupthink include examining few alternatives, selective gathering of information, pressure to conform within a group or withhold criticism, and collective rationalization. often, this can steer away rational decisions as various potential options are ignored.

how does dissociative disorder apply?

often highlighted in stressful situations, this disease is characterized by prolonged patterns of sudden losses of memory or changes in identity. with this, conscious awareness is distinct from traumatic memories, thoughts, and feelings. in order to escape these negative things, individuals dissociate themselves from their body often without any recollection of the event. dissociative identity disorder falls under this category of disorders. in this case people have two or more identities that share control over the person's behavior and amnesia of the dissociative events. psychoanalysts see these disorders as defense mechanisms (a form of repression) against anxiety. learning theorists view these disorders as behaviors reinforced by anxiety reduction. others argue that these disorders are merely an effect of traumatic experiences.

how does telegraphic speech apply?

often paired with the two-word stage, this type of speech follows basic syntax rules (depicting that adjectives precede nouns), and often is made up of noun-verb combinations. common examples include "me juice" or "want dog" or "eat cookie" or "big duck." even after the child grows out of the two-word phrase, they continue to speak in this robot-like style until they acquire a larger vocabulary.

Wilhelm Wundt

often referred to as the "Father of Psychology" because he was the first to open an experimental psychological lab (which made psychology become a distinct scientific field of study); developed introspection and contributed to structuralism with Titchener

how does learned helplessness apply?

often those who suffer from this depressing state of mind depend on an external locus of control. one particular experiment showed that a dog who was continuously shocked once a bell was rang failed to jump over a fence to the safe side of a caged-in environment when they were shocked again in a different setting. conversely, dogs who were not previously shocked would hop the fence to the safe side of the fence once they were shocked. this shows that the dogs who were predisposed to the shocking believed that they could do nothing to stop their suffering. in general, this develops when uncontrollable bad events occur, the individual perceives a lack of control, and then becomes hopeless for their future.

how does illusory correlation apply?

often, illusory correlation arises when we become sensitive to certain events and recall instances when the inaccurate relationship is confirmed. one must be aware of all information, so that false correlations can be avoided.

how does natural selection and gender apply?

often, males and females are genetically predisposed to choose their mate over certain qualities they are not even aware of that will increase their chance of survival and reproduction in the future. for example, males tend to gravitate toward women who are healthy, have a smooth shape, and have a waist size a third of theirs as this all promises future success regarding reproduction. similarly, females are drawn to men who are healthy, mature, dominant, bold and affluent as they want a man who is committed to raising their offspring and protecting their spouse.

how do ingroup/outgroup apply?

often, prejudice can arise from personal distinctions made to separate friends from enemies. we create these separations to make sense of our friendships and justify why we associate ourselves with these people. ingroups are vital to our social identities as our ancestral need-to-belong influences many of our decisions.

how does the false consensus effect apply?

often, the false consensus effect clogs our outlook on society. for this reason, random sampling is vital to understanding the range of attitudes and behaviors within a community.

how does the placebo effect apply?

often, this effect can cause victims to believe they are well because spirits can be lifted by merely believing treatment has been given; well-documented in reducing pain, depression and anxiety

gender identity

one's sense of being female or male

how does mental retardation apply?

only about 1% of the population suffers from this condition (where they score below a 70 on an intelligence test and struggle to adapt to the normal demands of independent living). within this 1%, males outnumber females by over 50%. physically, this can be a result of the nature of genetics, where males are more likely to develop genetic diseases than females. recently, the way of raising this portion of the population has changed; during the first half of the twentieth century, these individuals were placed in a special institution that was supervised by professionals and never again contacted by family, but now they are encouraged to live as normal a life as possible surrounded by their family and friends. due to the restandardization that the IQ frequently undergoes, the score requirements for those diagnosed with mental retardation is constantly changing. sometimes, those who got the same score but were tested ten years apart may be diagnosed differently changing their lives forever.

how does theory of mind apply?

originally developed to describe chimpanzees' ability to read intentions by David Premack and Guy Woodruff, this term now applies to children by describing their ability to determine their own and others' mental states. young children develop this during the preoperational stage. it occurs when they try to understand why their friend became mad while playing a game, when their brother/sister will share with them, and what may influence their parents to buy them a toy. it also allows for the child to tease, empathize with, and persuade others. during this time, they come to realize that things are not always as they seem; for example, when a parent asks a child to open up a shoe box, the child may be surprised if there is candy inside rather than shoes. the next time that the parent asks him/her to open a different shoe box, he/she will already anticipate something other than shoes to be inside. this idea also allows for children to start understanding why we feel the way we do. for example, if a sad event or thought passes through someone's mind, a child will understand that this may link to a sad feeling. those who are diagnosed with autism have an impaired theory of mind.

how does an attitude apply?

our attitudes do not predict our actions nearly as much as our actions predict our attitudes; however, when external influences are reduced, attitudes are specific to the behavior and one is consciously aware of their attitudes, attitudes can predict actions. on the other hand, attitudes can be predicted from our actions because attitudes often follow behaviors. often, people will not only stand up for what they believe, but also come to believe what they have stood up for.

how does overconfidence apply?

overconfidence contaminates our everyday judgments because it can cause us to spread/believe false information.

spotlight effect

overestimating others' noticing and evaluating our appearance, performance, and blunders (as if we presume a spotlight shines on us)

authoritative parenting style

parenting style where high discipline is paired with high warmth. while they set rules that they expect to be obeyed, they explain the reasoning behind them to help their children understand why compliance is necessary. children are often very successful, respectful, obedient, and motivated. this has been thought of as the ideal parenting style.

permissive parenting style

parenting style where little discipline is paired with high warmth. they believe that their children should be supported in everything they do and trust their children's decisions a little too much. because of this, children rarely push themselves to try new things or work towards achievements, which causes them to only perform well when they are doing something they enjoy. children are often referred to as aggressive and immature.

central executive

part of the working memory that directs information from the long-term memory and the episodic buffer to auditory rehearsal or visual-spatial sketchpad. when focusing on complex information, frontal lobes become active.

visual-spatial sketchpad

part of the working memory that receives direction from the central executive. an example of this working in action would be when a student pictures the page in a text book that includes the answer to an exam.

auditory rehearsal

part of the working memory that receives direction from the central executive. an example of this working in action would be when a student repeats historical dates to him/herself to remember them.

how does passionate love/companionate love apply?

passionate love and companionate love are the two main types of romantic love one experiences within a relationship. first, the lover experiences passionate love, where one interprets physical arousal from any source as attraction from the partner. slowly, this develops into companionate love. within companionate love, equity and self-disclosure are necessary in order to guarantee that both partners are putting effort toward the relationship and to grow the intimate bond between the two. companionate love can also form amongst friends and family members that one feels deeply close with.

perceptual constancy

perceiving objects as unchanging (having consistent lightness, color, shape, and size) even as illumination and retinal images change

sleep

periodic, natural reversible loss of consciousness; as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation

avoidant personality disorder

personality disorder that is classified by a fearful sensitivity to rejection

narcissistic personality disorder

personality disorder that is classified by an exaggeration of self-importance, that are aided by success fantasies

borderline personality disorder

personality disorder that is classified by an unstable identity, unstable relationships, and unstable/impulsive emotions

evolutionary perspective

perspective that describes how natural selection affects behavior tendencies and the survival of certain genes

social-cultural perspective

perspective that describes the similarities and differences between the behaviors and ideas of different situations/cultures/environments

flynn effect

phenomenon that describes the steady trend over the past sixty years of increasing intelligence scores (by approximately 27 points)

synaesthesia

phenomenon that occurs in some people where one sort of sensation produces another. for example, hearing a specific sound may trigger a color-sensitive region of the brain and thus a sensation of color.

McGurk effect

phenomenon that states that seeing a speaker say one syllable while hearing another will cause the brain to produce a mixture of the two. for example, seeing a friend say "ba" but hearing "ga" may lead to an interpretation of "da."

surface structure

phonemes, morphemes, words, sentences, and the grammar rules behind them all that vary from language to language; idea developed by Chomsky

how do prejudice, stereotypes, discrimination apply?

prejudgments affect our ideas, attitudes and behaviors. they influence how we notice or interpret events. for example, in the 1970's, a study was done to take note of how white men interpret different racial interactions. most of the participants called white men pushing black men "horsing around" and black men pushing white men "violent activity." when prejudice is prevalent within a society, it can become automatic and unconscious. prejudice arises from inequalities, social divisions and emotional scapegoating.

Jean Piaget

psychologist interested in child development. he began his studies in 1920 when he was administering questions for children's intelligence tests and analyzing why their answers were incorrect. he noticed that the wrong answers were given in patterns, with age determining how the children would respond to them. this led him to discovering that children think differently from adults, which prompted his creation of the four stage theory of cognitive development. he also developed the idea of schemas to help others understand that all people, especially children, are always trying to make sense of their experiences through this organizational pattern. in 1999, time magazine rated him as one of the century's 20 most influential scientists, as his sequence of development is pretty much identical to the sequence that children undergo today. despite this, many researchers today see development as more continuous than Piaget and put less of an emphasis on logical reasoning than he did.

Erik Erikson

psychologist who developed eight stages of psychosocial development, starting with infancy and continuing until death. he believed that each stage contains its own psychosocial task that needs resolving.

Abraham Maslow

psychologist who proposed that we are motivated by a hierarchy of needs; when the most basic physiological needs are met, personal safety becomes the main concern, then love and acceptance, then self-esteem, and finally, we reach self-actualization, the top of the pyramid. he developed this theory by analyzing healthy and creative people, which differs from the experiments of Freud and other prestigious psychologists. he based his definition of self-actualization on humble leaders in the world, like Abraham Lincoln, Thomas Jefferson, and Eleanor Roosevelt.

how do counseling/clinical psychology and psychiatry apply?

psychology provides many different career pathways for those interested in the field. counseling psychologists help others cope with life challenges; clinical psychologists asses and treat mental, emotional and behavior disorders. psychiatrists, on the other hand, are physicians who prescribe medication and other treatment options for those suffering from a psychological disease.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. aka paradoxical sleep because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other bodily systems are active

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

experiment

research method where one or more factors are manipulated to observe the effect on behavior/mental processes.

Margaret Floy Washburn

researched animal behavior and motor development; first woman to receive PHD in psychology

similarity

rule of grouping that states that we group together figures that are similar to each other

continuity

rule of grouping that states that we perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

paranoid schizophrenia

schizophrenia that includes preoccupation with delusions or hallucinations, often with themes of persecution or grandiosity

animal cognition/communication debate

scientists have continued to debate whether animals have the ability to think about themselves and others through their communication with one another. some evidence shows that this is possible: great apes have the ability to form concepts; in fact, frontal lobe neurons in their brain send messages when they see objects that fall under these specific categories. additionally, research shows that chimpanzees are able to display insight when they devise creative methods of obtaining unreachable foods. these means of gathering food are then passed on from generation to generation, as many similarly-genetic chimps obtain foods in various ways (indicating that genetics and innate traits are not factors, but that environmental factors and learned traits are). however, scientists are still hesitant to classifying these traits as strong mental accomplishments, as animals are not the same as humans (for a long time, this was one of the main factors that distinguished them from humans). they question whether animals really think or if they are just responding and adapting to their environment.

critical period

scientists have discovered that there seems to be a certain period within childhood when language acquisition seems to be the best. after this stage, the development of a foreign language diminishes, giving reason why individuals who learn a second language in their later years of life often maintain the accent of their first language. this was exemplified by an experiment where chinese/korean immigrants to the united states were tested on their english grammar skills. although both groups had lived in the united states for ten years, one group had moved to the country at a younger age. this group scored better on the test as they were closer to their critical period when they learned the language making it easier to acquire its grammatical rules. this idea of a critical period explains why Genie failed to develop the english language well because she had been isolated from exposure to any language during that time of development. just as verbal linguistic development depends on this critical period, so does hand-communicative linguistic development (for deaf children). those who were exposed to a verbal/signing language during their critical period will develop sign language quicker and more thoroughly than those who are isolated from any linguistic exposure. when a young brain does not learn any language, its language-learning capacity never fully develops.

resistance

second step in GAS that takes place after the body has been prepared by the alarm reaction. in this, temperature, blood pressure, and breathing rates remain high. hormone secretion increases.

subjective well-being

self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life. used along with measures of objective well-being (physical and economic indicators) to evaluate people's quality of life

somesthetic sense

senses, such as touch, affecting the body and mind; vestibular sense and kenesthetic sense apply as well

primary mental abilities

seven clusters, including word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory, that are believed to classify intelligence

superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation

lateral hypothalamus

sides of the hypothalamus that initiate feelings of hunger

schema

similar to concepts, these are mental groups of similar objects, events, ideas or people. psychologist, Jean Piaget believed that individuals generalize objects into schemas.

melatonin

sleep-inducing hormone that is controlled by the pineal gland; secreted amounts increase in the evening and decrease in the morning

how does role (gender role) apply?

society often determines how a person should behave based on general characteristics of the population. for example, society tends to associate aggression with males and sensitivity with females. when a female begins acting aggressively, society begins to view them as part of the male population rather than the female.

how does criterion apply?

some tests rely on this aspect of measuring validity, as they use it as a comparison for their scores. in some aptitude tests, the criterion is future performance because it analyzes how likely one is to perform a certain way in the future, which must be compared to how they actually do perform.

electromagnetic spectrum

spectrum of light waves that varies from short waves to gamma rays, to the narrow band that we see as visible light, to the long waves of radio transmission. organisms vary in which sections of this spectrum they can see.

correlation coefficient

statistical measure of strength and duration of the relationship between two factors; measures between 1.0-0.0 and -1.0-0.0, weaker relationships are closer to zero.

how does statistical significance apply?

statistical significance helps psychologists determine whether differences between distributional values are meaningful. normally, psychologists presume the meaning behind the difference is merely chance unless the odds are slim. it is important to be aware of this when analyzing data with great variation. statistical significance does not indicate the importance of the result but rather the likelihood that a result will happen by chance.

statistical significance

statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance -- occurs when the sample averages are reliable and the difference between them is relatively large

secure self-esteem

strong self-esteem that enables us to focus beyond our physical selves (that includes looks, income, popularity).

social facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Robert Rescorla

studied animal behavior, particularly that affected by classical conditioning

how does biological psychology apply?

studied by biological psychologists (also referred to as behavioral neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behavior geneticists, physiological psychologists, or biopsychologists), this branch of psychology is the core of all behaviors, as everything psychological is simultaneously biological. sleep, dreams, depression, schizophrenia, hunger, sex, stress, and disease are some areas of interest for those studying this topic.

age regression

supposed ability to relive childhood experiences

how does cerebral cortex apply?

surrounding the internal networks within the brain, this region can be thought of as the bark for a tree. it is the ultimate control and information processing center, meaning that much of the complexity of the human brain lies within this network. as the size of this region increases, the individual's adaptability increases. for example, frogs, with an extremely small cerebral cortex, rely on preprogrammed genetic instructions to function. most mammals, on the other hand, have larger cerebral cortexes and thus are able to adapt, learn and think more extensively than other creatures. within this surface layer lie 20 to 23 billion nerve cells, with an additional 180 to 207 billion glial cells that guide neural connections, provide nutrients, and insulate myelin. wrinkles present within this region are significant; they allow for a much greater surface area of this network to compress into a small space. when flattened out, the cerebral cortex is about the size of a small pizza. it is divided into four main lobes

how does panic disorder apply?

symptoms of this psychological disorder hits sufferers very suddenly. approximately affecting 1 in 75 people, these victims experience panic attacks, or minutes-long episodes of intense fear that something horrible is about to happen. the attacks, not lasting too long, arise from general anxiety. some symptoms include heart palpitations, shortness of breath, choking sensations, trembling, and dizziness. smokers have an increased risk of this disorder.

biofeedback

system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension. few researchers continue to support this method of reducing pain because it is so expensive and requires extensive equipment.

state-dependent memory

tendency for certain states of being (happy, sad, sober, drunk) to trigger memories from the past when the individual was also in that state. this explains why memories of being drunk may not surface until one becomes drunk again.

infantile amnesia

tendency to be unable to remember events dating before our third or fourth birthdays. this occurs because memories are documented differently during the infantile years (as our sense of self and long-term storage has not fully developed). sometimes, the nervous system still has a way of remembering minute details from our youth while the conscious memory cannot.

false consensus effect

tendency to overestimate the extent to which others share our beliefs and behaviors

primacy effect

tendency to remember terms at the beginning of a list

Type A

term to describe those who are competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone. when subjected to challenging situations, their heart rates, blood pressures, and hormonal secretions increase significantly. because of this, plaque buildups on the artery walls causing an increased risk in heart attacks and strokes.

emerging adulthood

term used to describe adults who are not yet independent nor have taken on adult-like responsibilities; this phase is increasing due to prolonged schooling after high school, which pushes back marriages and raising children. in western cultures, adulthood emerges gradually; in some more communal cultures, adulthood emerges rather abruptly through various ceremonies or rites of passage.

Elizabeth Loftus

tested the manipulation of memories - very controversial

cerebellum

the "little brain" attached to the rear of the brainstem; its functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

DSM-IV

the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth edition), a widely used system for classifying psychological disorders. presently distributed in an updated "text revision"

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

pupil

the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters

intensity

the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude

industrial-organizational psychology

the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces

repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)

the application of repeated pulses of magnetic energy to the brain; used to stimulate or suppress brain activity

sensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

how do the attribution theory/fundamental attribution error apply?

the attribution theory (proposed by Fritz Heider) can help explain why a given person acts the way they do in a particular situation. however, one must be careful when deciphering the reason behind another's behavior as the fundamental attribution error can lead to false assumptions of their personality.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

medulla

the base of the brainstem that controls the heartbeat and breathing

endocrine system

the body's slow chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

plasticity

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

dendrite

the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

psychosexual stages

the childhood stages of development (oral, anal, phalic, latency, genital) during which, according to Freud, the id's pleasure-seeking energies focus on distinct erogenous zones.

genome

the complete set of instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

medical model

the concept that diseases have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured. when applied to psychological disorders, this model assumes that these mental illnesses can be diagnosed on the basis of their symptoms and cured through therapy, which may include treatment in a psychiatric hospital

control condition

the condition of an experiment that contrasts with the experimental condition and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of treatment

experimental condition

the condition of an experiment that exposes participants to the treatment (one version of the independent variable)

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

interaction

the effect of one factor (such as environment) on another (such as heredity)

semantic encoding

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words

acoustic encoding

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

pituitary gland

the endocrine system's most influential gland. under the influence of the hypothalamus, this gland regulates growth and controls other glands.

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes and traditions shared by a large group of people who pass them on to the next generation

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

group polarization

the enhancement of a group's prevailing inclinations through group discussion

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age

how do the foot-in-the-door phenomenon, role-playing and cognitive dissonance theory apply?

the foot-in-the-door phenomenon, role-playing and cognitive dissonance influence the effect of actions on attitudes. within the foot-in-the-door phenomenon, performed actions that comply with a certain idea lead to belief of that idea. likewise, one's actions that affiliate with their role in society lead to the adoption of similar attitudes in order to continue pursuing these roles. finally, the cognitive dissonance theory influences our attitudes and behaviors to align in order to eliminate discomfort associated with imbalance.

how does molecular genetics apply?

the goal is to discover single genes that directly affect a normal human trait, such as obesity or introversion. already, molecular geneticists and psychologists are working together to find genes that directly influence the development of genetic disorders by observing links between certain genes and chromosomes of selected victims of these diseases. soon, it may be possible for physicians to be able to tell parents how different their unborn baby is from a "normal" fetus... and how would this affect the world?

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need. as the desire for other need increases, so does the psychological drive (aroused, motivated state). focused around homeostasis and incentives.

acquisition

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

reciprocal determinism

the interacting influences between personality and environmental factors.

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information processing center

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. the tiny gap at this junction can be referred to as the synaptic gap or the cleft.

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep

ego

the largely conscious, "executive" part of personality that, according to Freud, mediates among the demands of the id, superego, and reality. it operates on the reality principle, satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain.

retina

the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information

amnesia

the loss of memory

deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

difference threshold

the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time. aka just noticeable difference (jnd)

absolute threshold

the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time

testosterone

the most important of male sex hormones as the increased amount present in males contributes to the growth of their sex organs and characteristics during puberty and fetal development.

testosterone

the most important of the male sex hormones. although males and females have it, additional testosterone is found in males, contributing to the growth of male sex organs in the fetus and the development of the male sex characteristics during puberty

the need for sleep

the need for sleep has been instilled into our very beings for many reasons. the first involves our ancestors. they slept during the night in order to avoid harmful predators and dangerous travel conditions. second, sleep recuperates. it repairs and restores brain tissue. third, sleep helps us remember because it rebuilds memories that we experienced during that day. this explains why information taken in about an hour before an individual falls asleep is often remembered the most. lastly, sleep allows for physical growth, as the pituitary gland releases growth hormones during deep sleep.

optic nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beinning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skill; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions.

figure-ground

the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)

superego

the part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations

automatic nervous system

the part of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms.

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond one's personal control determines one's fate

internal locus of control

the perception that one controls one's own fate

relative deprivation

the perception that one is worse off relative to those with whom one compares oneself

set point

the point at which an individual's weight thermostat is supposedly set. when the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight

blind spot

the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there

occipital lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes visual areas, which receive visual information from the opposite visual field

parietal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

frontal lobes

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments

minority influence

the power of one or two individuals to sway majorities within a social situation

personal control

the power of the individual within a social situation

monism

the presumption that mind and body are different aspects of the same thing

dualism

the presumption that mind and body are two distinct entities that interact

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) states that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects

sensory interaction

the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste

natural selection

the principle that states inheritable traits that contribute to the survival and reproduction of an organism will be passed on to succeeding generations

natural selection

the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations

sensation

the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system; for example, by extracting meaning

parallel processing

the processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

evolutionary psychology

the study of evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection

parapsychology

the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis

psychophysics

the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them

psychopharmacology

the study of the effects of drugs on the mind and behavior

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior

normal curve

the symmetrical bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. most scores fall near the average, and fewer and fewer scores lie near the extremes.

kinesthesis

the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when the individual is alone

self-reference effect

the tendency for us to remember information linked to ourselves. asked to remember adjectives about another person, we fail. asked to remember adjectives about ourselves, we succeed rather well.

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct -- to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments

hindsight bias

the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

functional fixedness

the tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions; an impediment to problem solving

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

gender schema theory

the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly

scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame

gate-control theory

the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. the "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain

lens

the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina; curvature and thickness vary with near and far images

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments

how do gender role, gender identity, and gender-typing apply?

the way one perceives himself/herself (male/female) greatly influences how they act in society as they begin to develop the assigned sex traits, such as aggression for males or sensitivity for females.

two-track stress response syndrome

the way our body responds to stress: first the sympathetic nervous system prompts the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine from nerve endings inside the adrenal glands. then, the cerebral cortex instructs glucocorticoid stress hormones to be released from the outer part of the adrenal glands. these trigger flight-or-fight physiological responses.

Carol Gilligan

theory of moral development that involves differences in gender

Cannon-Bard theory

theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion. occurs when feelings of fear and beating of heart is triggered at the same time as a bear is thrown in front of you.

terror-management theory

theory that faith in one's worldview and the pursuit of self-esteem provide protection against a deeply rooted fear of death

James-Lange theory

theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli. occurs when we declare fear after feeling heart beating. most emotional theories align with the ideas of this one.

Gardner's multiple intelligence theory

theory that states our abilities are classified into eight independent intelligences, which include a vast range of skills beyond the classic school smarts: intrapersonal, interpersonal, naturalistic, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, (potential ninth factor, purpose beyond life). because it stretches beyond traditional school smarts, it challenges society's view on intelligence and gives credit to those factors that are just as important as school smarts in human development. unfortunately, it is difficult to test as the multitude of intelligence factors basically gives the entire population a chance to be deemed intelligent rather than just talented.

Sternberg's triarchic theory

theory that states our intelligence is best classified into three areas that predict our real-world success: analytical, creative, and practical. it is easy to understand because it applies to life today. however, the lack of specificity makes it difficult to classify individuals -- in fact, some critics believe there may be an underlying g factor that is shared between these three "independent" factors.

Spearman's general intelligence theory

theory that states that a basic intelligence predicts our abilities in various academic areas. he supports the idea that intelligence comes in common clusters. for example, if you are good at reading, chances are you excel in writing and vocabulary as well. however, his theory falls short of explaining situations where proficient diverse abilities are found within an individual.

divided consciousness theory

theory that states that hypnosis causes a split in awareness

Thurstone's primary mental abilities theory

theory that states that our intelligence may be broken down into seven factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning, and memory. his theory implies that you are only going to be skilled in one or two areas. these multiple forms of intelligence are very specific making it rather testable. yet his theory does not explain how individuals who are proficient in one specific area compete with individuals who are proficient in multiple abilities.

social influence theory

theory that states that victims of hypnosis become so caught up in the hypnotist and their role as the subject that they ignore sensory information.

two-factor theory

theory, proposed by Schachter and Singer, that to experience emotion one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal. in order to feel afraid of a bear thrown in front of you, one must label the feeling as fear and experience physiological responses (such as heart racing).

how does neural networks apply?

these clustered groups of neurons are significant in the efficiency of any given computation, behavior, or movement. similar to how people work with others to complete a certain job quicker and more effectively, neurons work with nearby neurons to finish their job more efficiently as well. networks can be strengthened with practice; for example, repetitively practicing "How Great Thou Art" on the piano builds these networks, making it easier and easier to play the song. often one network is connected with other networks that complete different tasks, making it difficult to depict where one ends and another begins.

how does oedipus complex/electra complex apply?

these complexes develop during the phallic psychosexual stage of development by Freud. it reasons why a child may act defensively toward their parent of similar sex or extremely boastful toward their parent of opposite sex. eventually, these feelings lead children toward identification, where they begin behaving in a parallel way toward their parent of competition in order to gain love and acceptance by their desirable parent. the oedipus complex was named after the Greek legend of oedipus, who killed his father and married his mother unconsciously.

how does adrenal glands apply?

these glands are extremely important in stressful, alarming situations. in response to the sympathetic nervous system, these glands secrete epinephrine (adrenaline) and norephinephrine (noradrenaline) to help arouse the body. they increase the heartbeat, blood pressure, and blood sugar, allowing for the individual to feel a burst of energy to tackle the situation. because hormones tend to have a lasting effect, the excitement often lingers for a decent amount of time after the situation ends.

memory failure

these memory flaws include forgetting tendencies, distortions, and intrusions. the following terms apply: - absent mindedness (inattention to details produces encoding failure) - transience (storage decay over time) - blocking (inaccessibility of stored information) - misattribution (confusing the source of information) - suggestibility (the lingering effects of misinformation) - bias (belief-colored recollections) - persistence (unwanted memories)

how does mirror neurons apply?

these neurons are significant in observational learning, as they allow for the brain to pick up on imitation. when children are learning how to speak, they pick up on lip/tongue movements in word formations, allowing for them to develop language easily. it also helps children to develop empathy and theory of mind. furthermore, these neurons affect our natural ability to mimic others' emotions, actions, or hand gestures.

how does split brain apply?

these patients had their corpus callosum severed in order to reduce seizures caused by epilepsy. while their personality, interests, and intelligence remained in tact, the individuals could no longer communicate information obtained by the left side of the body, as the right hemisphere was disconnected from the left hemisphere, which is in charge of verbalizing information. for this reason, the left side of the body may seem completely independent, with a mind of its own, because the left hemisphere has no idea what information the right hemisphere is taking in.

how does rod/cone apply?

these retinal receptors are vital to the generation of neural signals. they are located in the retina. when light waves enter the retina, a photochemical reaction occurs in these receptor cells, allowing for bipolar cells to be activated, which in turn trigger ganglion cells to relay the message to the brain. despite their similarity in general functions, they differ in specific tasks and geography in the brain. cones gather around the fovea, as their attention to detail demands a straight pathway to the brain. rods share bipolar cells with each other, allowing for their messages to get combined. this causes images to become blurred, specifically those only controlled by rods (like peripheral or nighttime images). furthermore, cones allow you to see color while rods tackle black and white images. in dim lighting, cones stop responding, allowing for only black and white colors to be perceived via the hard-working rods. some animals whose retinas are mostly dominated by rods do not perceive color well, and thus hunt and gather at night.

how does empirically derived test apply?

these types of tests, specifically Alfred Binet's intelligence test and the MMPI, are created from analyzing the differences present within a given situation. for example, the MMPI was developed when psychologist Starke Hathaway and his co-workers developed ten different categories for their test based on the ten different diagnoses assigned to their random population of participants. similarly, Alfred Binet developed the basis of his intelligence test from the various areas of struggle for students with cognitive development issues.

how does concept apply?

they help organize different objects into general groupings so that little cognitive effort is needed to describe them. without concepts, every single little object would need a different name. for example, without the word chair, high chairs, reclining chairs, and dentist examination chairs would need to be described in great detail in order for others to understand what it is we are trying to explain. concepts can be categorized into hierarchies or definitions. they are based on prototypes.

how does framing apply?

this affects the presentation of success rates, risk factors, and prices. for example, if someone says that a certain medication is 90% accurate, they will think of it more positively than someone who claims is has a 10% failure rate. similarly, a person will be more frightened by a recent disease outbreak if they hear that it kills 10 in 10 million people rather than being informed of the low death percentage at 0.00001%. this shows that rates can be interpreted differently than percentages, even if they represent the same type of information. because of this, smart businesses will use this idea to alter their prices, in order to make them seem more reasonable. for example, a coat on sale for $100 does not seem as great of a deal as a coat that was originally $150 but is now $100. for this reason, individuals are more likely to buy the discounted coat because they believe they are saving money, even though they would have paid the same price for the clothing item. it is important to be aware of the effects framing can have on our judgment so that we can avoid its power to influence our decisions.

how does fMRI apply?

this application of the standard MRI technique, reveals brain function and structure. by using the knowledge that blood flow is stronger in concentrated/active areas, comparisons between MRIs can be made to examine the highlighted regions of the brain with a strong blood flow. for example, while examining another face, MRI scans show highlighted regions being in the back of the brain, where visual information is produced. this scan also can be used to identify liars, as increased blood flow occurs in the anterior cingulate cortex.

how does broca's area apply?

this area is rather significant in the production of speech, as damage to this area disrupts speaking. because the frontal lobe deals with speech, voluntary movements, etc., it makes sense that this area is located within this lobe. this area controls the motor cortex as the pronounced word is created (when reading a book, reciting a speech, etc.).

how does syntax apply?

this aspect of grammar distinguishes the order of words in sentences. for example, in the english language, adjectives come before nouns; while in spanish, adjectives follow nouns.

how does semantics apply?

this aspect of grammar helps distinguish meanings from common morphemes or phrases, which is vital to our comprehension of the language and reciprocated communication of it. for example, english speakers understand that adding "-ed" to the end of a verb refers to that action in the past. similarly, adding "-ía" to the end of a spanish infinitive signifies the conditional verb tense, or the verb tense that refers to wonder and "what if" situations. just like grammar, phonemes and morphemes, semantics varies from language to language.

how does superego apply?

this aspect of one's personality tends to start developing around the age of 4 or 5 when a child's ego begins responding to its demands. it forces the ego to consider the "ideal" scenario rather than just the realistic one, leading to feelings of guilt when one does not meet its expectations. its strive for perfection leads those with a strong superego to be virtuous and extremely motivated. however, those with a weak superego tend to be self-indulgent and remorseless.

how does ego apply?

this aspect of one's personality works with the id to satisfy one's desires in realistic ways. these types of solutions tend to bring long-term pleasure to a situation rather than pain or destruction. without this, the id would take over, causing one to act impulsively in order to satisfy our needs for sex and aggression. sometimes, it struggles to determine how one should respond to a given situation because of the id's and superego's opposing viewpoints. it also controls conscious ideas, attitudes and behaviors.

how does id apply?

this aspect of our personality functions on the pleasure principle, where if not constrained by reality, a demand for instant gratification is made. people with extremely powerful id tend to think of the present rather than the future; for this reason, they often fall victim to drugs, alcohol, excess partying, and other risky behaviors.

how does ingroup bias apply?

this bias influences one's actions greatly as favoritism is often showed toward those within one's ingroup. because our ingroups are vital to who we are as people, we will do anything to protect and preserve our standing within the group.

how does convergence apply?

this binocular cue depends on inward strains that develop when focusing on an object. the stronger the strain, the closer the object. for example, in staring at your finger when it is five inches from your face, you will experience more strain than when your finger is five feet away from your face. the brain is able to perceive this and determine depth appropriately.

how does circadian rhythm apply?

this biological clock helps keep our bodies in check through a daily sequence of events. for example, right as morning arrives, body temperatures start to increase until the peak of the day, when it starts to decrease once more. this rationalizes why many experience afternoon "crashes," as the lowered body temperature makes a quick nap seem appealing. many in european countries take a "ciesta" during this time to refresh their bodies before finishing out the day. these fluctuations in body temperature also affect our cognition. at 4:00 AM, our mind frets the most about trivial things because of the depressed temperature; however, at peak temperature, our mind is often the most relaxed. this peak cognition varies for youngsters and older folks. most youth continually improve their minds throughout the day while older fellows mentally decline. this explains why activities start winding down around mid-afternoon/early evening in nursing homes even though universities across the city are just starting to wind up. furthermore, these bodily routines are affected by long flights where everything becomes disoriented and "jet lag" results. it is recommended to spend the first day outdoors in your new location to help reset your biological clocks. bright light directly alters these routines because it triggers light-sensitive retinal proteins, which affect the brain area that controls the circadian clock.

how does human factors psychology apply?

this branch of psychology focuses on making technologies, businesses, and services easier and more beneficial to humans based on culture, frustration rates, and lifestyles. in understanding source of human error, for example, one psychologist was able to determine that projecting city lights over a runway would decrease the rate of airplane crashes during the night, as the pilots would perceive the runway was closer than it actually is, allowing for them to slow down sooner and land safely.

how does mood disorder apply?

this classification of psychological disorders can be divided into two main subsections: major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder. both of these disorders include the prolonged state of unusual emotions, whether it be deep sadness or extreme excitement. one psychologist who studied mood disorders found that many behavioral/cognitive changes can be paired with depression, depression is common, women are twice as vulnerable to depression than men, most depressive episodes can end without professional help, stressful events precede depression, and depression rates and affected age groups increase with each generation. these disorders have found to be genetically transmitted, to be caused by unstable levels of norepinephrine and serotonin, to be affected by ideas of learned helplessness, to be influenced by negative explanatory styles, and to be determined by cultural expectations.

how does nearsightedness apply?

this condition affects those with a misshaped lens or elongated eyeball, as faraway images are unable to be detected by the retina due to the focal point in front of this tissue. once the light waves from these distant images reach the retina, the rays are too spread out to be interpreted, causing the image to blur. glasses, contacts, and LASIK surgery can correct this issue by reshaping the cornea.

how does farsightedness apply?

this condition takes place with a misshaped lens that causes near objects to be focused behind the retina, making it impossible for images to be clearly interpreted. because they reach the retina before the focal point, images are seen to be blurry. often, mildly farsighted people are diagnosed later in life once their lens becomes less flexible, and thus less able to accommodate to close up images. glasses, contacts, and LASIK surgery can correct the shape of the lens, curing this issue.

selective attention

this consequence of a dual-track mind entails the ability to choose a focus point and note what details are important. this allows us to focus on other multiple conversations simultaneously. it is extremely helpful in situations where a child is whining to their parent engaged in deep conversation with someone else, as the parent can comprehend what the child and friend are telling them at the same time. this can sometimes be referred to as the cocktail party effect.

change blindness

this consequence of a dual-track mind occurs often, and is quite comical when our brains catch up with what is going on. it occurs when our brains are so focused on a particular task that they fail to notice obvious changes taking place around them. for example, in asking a crowd to count the number of field goals made by a football team in thirty seconds, the participants may fail to notice if the cheerleaders below change their pom poms from red to blue.

inattentional blindness

this consequence of a dual-track mind occurs when we focus so hard on a particular image or task that we fail to see other obvious details taking place simultaneously. this explains why magic tricks work so well, as the magician takes advantage of the crowd's dedicated focus to the task at hand.

blindsight

this consequence of a dual-track mind often affects those with brain damage. for example, a lady with brain damage (but no eye damage) was able to unconsciously file mail into its appropriate slots; however, she failed to report what was directly in front of her (as this involved conscious awareness). this highlights the difference between conscious visual perception tracks and unconscious visual active tracks.

person-situation controversy

this controversy states that a person's traits may differ depending on the situation at hand. for example, an extraverted person may not be feel like going to a party and being social after they just got their test results back from their AP Calculus teacher (specifically if they just failed their test). research shows that these traits become more and more consistent over time. additionally, our traits are socially significant: music preferences, bedroom organization, and personal web sites indicate personal traits. for example, classical, jazz, blues and folk music lovers show traits of verbal intelligence and open-mindedness.

how does sublimation apply?

this defense mechanism applies when an individual who has anger-management issues joins a boxing team to focus on releasing their emotions in the ring, when a homosexual man joins a football team to release his sexual desires through tackling other players, and when an individual who is obsessed with the chemical makeup of various weapons joins a security company that specializes in recognizing the threat the chemical reactions impose on society and acting on them.

how does repression apply?

this defense mechanism is the basis for all other mechanisms of reducing anxiety. according to Freud, this explains why traumatic childhood experiences are often forgotten by the individuals later in life, as they bury the horrid memories deeply within themselves to avoid coming in contact with the awfulness of the situation. additionally, it gives reason to why we often do not remember lusting after our parents during the phallic stage of psychosexual development. Freud also believed that slips of the tongue result from this repression. this mechanism is not completely accepted by psychologists today because they believe that it is impossible to completely bury something so tragic, as it is likely for the individual to eventually come clean and talk about their feelings.

how does displacement apply?

this defense mechanism occurs when an insecure child bullies a vulnerable child in order to build up their own authority and confidence, when a man who just lost his job takes out his irritation on his family members rather than the company itself, and when a child who is mad at their sibling takes out their anger on the dog by kicking it.

how does rationalization apply?

this defense mechanism occurs when one tries to hide the true motivation behind a behavior by developing a self-justifying explanation. for example, a student who lends their homework to a friend to copy may justify their actions by remembering that the friend had a late night at work and had no time to finish the assignment.

how does regression apply?

this defense mechanism rationalizes situations where individuals throw temper tantrums when they are proved incorrect, where adults retreat back to their old drinking habits when they experience a midlife crisis, and where individuals may suck their thumb out of their anticipation of the first day of school.

how does projection apply?

this defense mechanism rationalizes why a man who has recently become tempted by lustful feelings may suddenly accuse his wife of being disloyal, why an individual who does not trust their friend may accuse their friend of not trusting them, and why a businessman who does not like their partner may start rumors that their partner is out to get them.

how does reaction formation apply?

this defense mechanism shines when an individual expresses an idea in order to bury thoughts of the opposing idea, often of which are providing anxiety. for example, an individual who is rather nervous about studying abroad may express a faux-excitement in attempt to change their feelings of anxiety.

how does alzheimer's disease apply?

this devastating disorder strikes about 3% of the world's population by age 75. symptoms of this disease vary from the usual symptoms of aging, as they involve forgetting how to perform simple tasks or rely basic information. it starts by destroying the memory and then reasoning. after 5 or so years of diagnosis, victims of this disease become emotionally flat, then disoriented, then incontinent, and finally mentally vacant where their bodies are stripped of its humanity. this occurs because of the loss of brain cells and deterioration of neurons that produce acetylcholine. without this neurotransmitter, memory and thinking cannot function. this can take the form of shriveled protein filaments in the cell body or globs of degenerating tissue at the ends of neuron branches. scientists are hoping to find a drug that can block proteins from forming into these plaques of degenerative tissues to help cure the disease. those who are physically active, nonobese, and mentally active are at less risk for developing this disease.

how does cochlear implant apply?

this device is implanted in the cochlea to translate sounds into electrical signals and then relay that information to the brain. it is most helpful in children, but can also assist adults who have learned to process sound during youth. this implant is rather controversial, as some strongly advocate for its use to help the deaf experience sound while others believe its use should be delayed until ASL is learned.

how does sensory adaptation apply?

this diminished sensitivity applies to everyday life. for example, after wearing a certain perfume for a few days in a row, a person will no longer notice it; however, the world around them will continue to perceive their smell as soon as they walk into the room. similarly, someone who smells bad all the time will rarely notice it. this occurs because after constant exposure to certain stimuli, nerve cells begin to fire less frequently. it is important to note that this adaptation rarely takes place with visual stimuli because our eyes are always moving without our conscious awareness, so stimulation on eyes' receptors are always changing. without this type of adaptation taking place, we would be unable to pick up on important informative changes in the environment because we would be focused on trivial stimuli.

how does savant syndrome apply?

this distinct syndrome allows for a very specific type of intelligence to be present in the individual. psychologists have debated whether or not these individuals who can (for example) excel in computing extreme mathematical equations but cannot tie their own shoes should be deemed intelligent or not; however, Gardner's intelligence theory supports this type of intelligence as he notes that intelligence comes in different packages and that brain damage may affect one ability but not others.

how does misinformation effect apply?

this effect causes people to alter their memories of what really took place to align with the misinformation. for example, when leading a witness in a case, a police officer may ask a suspect if they were wearing a blue shirt the night before. with the high stress of the situation, the individual might reform their memories to be wearing a blue shirt the day before during the event. for this reason, imagination greatly affects eyewitness recall making it an unreliable source of evidence.

how does tolerance apply?

this effect corresponds well with addiction to alcohol/drugs, for as usage increases, both this effect and addiction increase. this phenomenon can also be referred to as neuroadaption, where the brain adapts its chemistry to offset the alcohol/drug effect, making it necessary for more of the substance to be ingested in order to experience the desired effects. for example, a man who rarely drinks alcohol may become crazy after one drink while a heavy drinker wouldn't experience the same results until after his sixth. however, despite the name of this effect, internal organs do not tolerate this increase in alcohol/drugs.

how does serial position effect apply?

this effect explains how we learn information in a list. often, after all of the material has been introduced, individuals find it easiest to recite the latest terms because they are fresh in their minds; however, after taking a break from the information, they are later only able to recall the first information presented to them. this occurs because of automatic rehearsal of terms, which would repeat the first few pieces of information in the greatest frequency in trying to retain all of the information. this effect applies when trying to learn the names of everyone at your new school, when studying the presidents of the United States in consecutive order of their leadership, and when listing the favorite ice cream flavors of your best friends in the order they told you.

how does the mere exposure effect apply?

this effect has a direct effect on interpersonal attraction. for example, a couple who each lived in different countries wrote to each other constantly to maintain their relationship. however, after some time the lady broke it off with her boyfriend as she had started falling in love with the mailman instead. proximity is just one of three factors that greatly affect attraction.

how does spotlight effect apply?

this effect influences our everyday lives. because we are dispositioned to think about ourselves, we presume the world around us is focused on our behaviors, clothing styles, hair dues, and attitudes.... but in reality, few notice differences in our everyday lives. when public speakers become aware that the audience members are rarely aware of their nervousness, they, too, become more confident in themselves and deliver a better speech.

how does acuity apply?

this greatly depends on the shape of the eye. someone who has distorted lens may suffer nearsightedness or farsightedness, causing light waves to not focus correctly on the retina.

how does audition apply?

this highly adaptive sense is very important in interpreting sound. humans are capable of hearing a wide range of frequencies; however, those closest to that of a human voice are interpreted the best. furthermore, thanks to our ancestors, we are very sensitive to faint sounds, such as the hiss of a snake or a whimper of a child, that threaten survival. from an abundance of sounds, humans successfully distinguish minute differences, especially those of various voices. through acoustical transduction, the brain is able to detect sound with regards to its frequency, intensity, and quality.

how does the bystander effect apply?

this idea explains why many victims of suffering are found helplessly lying around the streets of New York, Chicago, Los Angeles and other large cities where homelessness is common. one is most likely to help another if they are similar to them in culture, stature, profession or nationality. in a study done by Darley and Latane, 85% of the participants helped someone in pain if they were the only participant present in the area; however, a mere 31% of the participants helped when other bystanders were present in the area. this supports the idea that if no one has stopped to help, no one will stop to help. often, this strange behavior is a result of diffusion to responsibility, which reasons that others will take care of issues for us.

how does general intelligence apply?

this idea is a major factor in many different theories about intelligence. the first theory, developed by Spearman, accepts common groups of talents, as there is a tendency for different abilities to come in the same package. for example, someone who is exceptional at running may also be exceptional at throwing a ball at a target. on the other hand, Thurstone's intelligence theory states that there are seven different clusters of primal mental abilities that can determine intelligence. similar to Spearman's theory, there is a general correlation between multiple mental abilities. finally, Kanazawa found a correlation between general intelligence scores and ability to solve novel problems, but this correlation does not continue with individuals' skills in usual social situations (such as marrying, parenting, developing friendships).

how does belief bias apply?

this idea often affects how we interpret syllogism. when the statements correspond with our beliefs, we often fall victim to validating them ourselves; likewise, when the statements counter our beliefs, we have an easy time rejecting them. a strong example of this is shown in the following statements: God is love, love is blind, Ray Charles is blind, Ray Charles is God. obviously, the conclusion is incorrect, as Ray Charles is not God; nevertheless if the conclusion corresponded with personal beliefs, it would be easy to accept it as valid.

how does action potential apply?

this impulse is extremely important in communication between cells, as it initiates the movement of the message. it fires off when it receives signals from sensory receptors (which can be caused by heat, pressure, or light) or when neighboring neurons send out chemical messages. the chemical messages are sent through electrically charged ions. when a neuron is stimulated, positively charged ions flood the usually-negatively charged ions within the axon, allowing for depolarization to occur and an action potential to be produced. the depolarization continues along the axon, producing more action potentials, sending the message along. as the message is sent along, the positively charged ions (sodium) are pumped out of the cell, keeping the process going. this process can occur 100-1000 times/second, and sometimes even faster when the neuron is surrounded by the myelin sheath.

how does REM rebound apply?

this increase in this particular stage of sleep occurs when an individual is extremely sleep deprived. the more deprived we are of REM sleep, the quicker we fall back into the stage once we are asleep. by taking away REM-suppressing sleep medications, REM sleep is increased; however, they bring nightmares with them. most mammals experience this rebound as well, which suggests that the causes and effects of REM sleep are deeply biological.

how does heritability apply?

this indicates the attribution to genes that can be made across diverse members of a population, not how much genetics can be attributed to a certain quality within a person. however, heritability accounts are not guaranteed to be accurate due to the variation found among every study. this can result from a change in environments as heredity becomes less and less of a source of differences when this occurs. on the other hand, heritability is a more significant factor of differences when environments are similar. additionally, it is important to remember that heritable differences among individuals do not account for heritable differences among groups.

how does maturation apply?

this influential biological growth process is rather structured. it orders that infants learn to stand before they walk and use nouns before adjectives. they help develop important neural networks during the first three years of life significantly. it can be enhanced through positive adult influence on child development, such as talking to the child or reading with him/her. on the other hand, neglecting a child completely will delay these networks from forming. experience does not influence this process from taking place.

how does fixation apply?

this issue occurs when we fail to initially analyze the problem, which leads to various methods of solving the problem being thrown out from consideration. for this reason, it is hard to restructure the plan when the distinct method is found incorrect. two types of fixation are mental set and functional fitness.

how does aphasia apply?

this language impairment can be caused by damage to any of the cortical areas. this can cause some people to be able to read but not write or to be able to write but not read or sing but not speak or read numbers but not letters. this is caused by the various duties of the different cortical lobes. for example, damage to the left frontal lobe (Broca's area) would inhibit speech, but would still allow for familiar songs to be song and speech to be comprehended, as this is controlled in a different region of the lobe. Norman Geschwind took this example and a few others to create an explanation for language use: when words are read aloud, they are registered in the visual area, relayed to the angular gyrus, which transforms the words into an auditory code that is depicted by the Wernicke's area and sent to Broca's area, which controls the motor cortex as it creates the pronounced word. with as complex as this journey is to create the prounced word, it is no wonder that damage to one of these areas creates a different form of aphasia. complex abilites are made possible by the cooperation of many brain areas.

how does amnesia apply?

this loss of memory affects many around the world today. in one such case, a man had no memories past a traumatic injury that occurred in 1945. because of this, he believed that Truman was president of the United States during the 1970s, that he was 19 years old (when he really should have been in his mid-50s), and that images of outer space were incredible (as he did not know of the satellite camera invention). despite this brain damage, most amnesia-victims are able to find hidden pictures within a puzzle quickly, are able to read mirror-image writing, and are able to complete a jigsaw puzzle efficiently. although they cannot remember that they have these cognitive skills, they unconsciously perform the tasks perfectly. this proves that their unconscious memory still functions even though their conscious memory is flawed.

how does discrimination apply?

this major classical conditioning process takes place when similar stimuli are distinguished from one another, allowing for different responses to be made. this is significant in survival as slight differences in stimuli can elicit distinct consequences, some of which can be fatal. for example, in searching through a forest for food, animals must be able to distinguish between poisonous berries and regular berries. similarly, in everyday life, many individuals elicit different responses when approached by a pit bull (heart races) and a golden retriever (calm down, no heart rate increase).

how does acquisition apply?

this major process in classical conditioning affects the development of a CS/CR combination. it describes the initial stage when, as in Pavlov's experiment, the bell initiates salivation (CS causes CR). although other processes can hide away the CR for some time, this process has a lasting effect. because conditioning can never truly be undone, certain events can trigger the combination to reappear in the future. it can also apply to operant conditioning when a reinforced response is strengthened.

how does extinction apply?

this major process in classical conditioning applies when the CS stops producing the CR for some times. although the CR may not seem to be present, it is not truly gone, but rather diminished for some time until a trigger brings the CS/CR combination back to life. for example, after the death of a loved one, many smells, objects, and places may evoke feelings of despair, grief, and pain; however, with time, these feelings may subside a little, allowing for the griever to experience some of these triggers without immediately bursting into tears. this can also occur in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

how does spontaneous recovery apply?

this major process in classical conditioning takes place when, after some time, the CS becomes capable of creating a CR that was developed a while ago. for example, if a particular perfume was originally paired with feelings of helplessness and foolishness after a teacher consistently returned bad grades to her students, and disappeared after a period of good grades, it may reappear when a student starts flunking his/her tests once more. this shows that while a CS/CR duo may disappear for some time, they are never truly gone, as conditioning always creates a lasting impact.

how does recognition apply?

this measure of memory is significant in relationships, as it allows us to recognize faces even if we have not seen the person in many years. the stronger our ability to recognize information, the stronger our memory.

how does relearning apply?

this measure of memory is significant in studying for exams. although some information will naturally be forgotten, it will take less time to relearn the information while studying than it did to initially learn it. the more time spent relearning, the better the recall of information on the test. the more time spent rehearsing information, the less time spent relearning it when studying for the test.

how does echoic memory apply?

this memory saves us when we drift off from a conversation to focus on the big game being streamed on the TV, as it allows for us to still pick up on some of the words being said by our friend. this echo chamber within the mind only retains information for a few seconds; however, it is much stronger than its corresponding iconic memory system.

how does cognitive map apply?

this mental representation provides evidence of cognitive influence on operant conditioning. for example, after exploring a maze, rats acts as if they have learned a cognitive map of it. when tested against rats who have been positively reinforced with food for running through the maze, these rats performed just as well in finding the hidden reward.

how does GRIT apply?

this method of reducing tensions and increasing trust and cooperation among nations is the most successful tactic used within the world today. it begins when one group states that they want to develop mutual interests and cooperation. slowly, the groups open up to one another and develop strong relationships. this is significant as a simple smile, apology or kind gesture may work wonders and allow for groups to begin working together, sharing their knowledge and making the world a better place.

how does medical model apply?

this model has been around since the 1800s. it was first initiated when reformers of the brutal treatment of the mentally ill such as Philippe Pinel urged others to view madness as a sickness of the mind caused by severe stresses and inhumane conditions rather than demon possession. these reformers believed that gently talking with patients, therapeutic activities, and fresh environments could help provide treatment for the ill. once the model was created, mental asylums were replaced by psychiatric hospitals. this model has provided the foundation for other etiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis models to develop, like the DSM V.

how does acetylcholine apply?

this molecule is one of the best understood neurotransmitters, probably because it is located at every synapse between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle. when this is released to our muscle cells, the muscles are able to contract; likewise, when the molecule is prevented from reaching the muscles, they cannot contract. when this molecule malfunctions, alzeimer's disease can occur.

how does endorphins apply?

this neurotransmitter is similar to morphine, allowing for this drug to bind to receptors areas linked with mood and pain sensations (where this molecule usually links). as a natural morphine, the neurotransmitter controls pain and induces pleasure into the individual, sometimes allowing for extreme situations, like a lion-attack, to be painless. additionally, this molecule induces runner's high sensations and the painkilling effects of an acupuncture. however, because this balance of natural mood-altering chemicals is so important to an individual, it is important to steer clear of artificial opiates, as an excess can lead to the termination of endorphin production. once the drugs are withdrawn from the individual, the body suffers from a lack of any opiates at all, causing extreme discomfort.

how does modeling apply?

this observation/imitation process is very influential in observational learning. it allows for one to learn from experience. for example, if hearing about an accident where a person was put into a coma after getting hit on a bike without wearing a helmet, the viewer may be influenced to wear protective gear, like a helmet, the next time they go biking. this process applies to many different organisms, not just humans. they all take advantage of mirror neurons, which fire when performing certain actions or observing others doing so.

how does depth perception apply?

this partially innate ability allows us to judge distance. in looking at two houses far away, we are able to distinguish which is further due to this ability. many psychologists have used visual cliffs to test this ability in children, trying to determine whether or not this is affected by nature or nurture. they found it is mostly innate because children starting around the age of eight months are able to show signs of hesitation in moving toward their mothers over the glass-cover of the visual cliff. despite this, psychologists also found that experience amplifies a child's wariness about crawling toward a drop off, and thus their understanding of death perception.

how does psychological dependence apply?

this particular dependency to a substance (such as alcohol or drugs) is highlighted when withdrawal occurs, as the mind is encumbered with stress, anxiety, or other negative emotions that it believes can only be resolved by the substance. these ideas make the drugs/alcohol become a very important part of the user's life, which only make it more difficult to end the addiction. because it deals with the psychological aspect of addiction, this dependency does not result in any physical pain.

how does selective attention apply?

this particular phenomenon states that our attention can only be focused on one particular stimulus at any given time. of the 11,000,000 pieces of information that trigger our senses at any given moment, we only consciously process about 40. the cocktail part effect is one example of this phenomenon. sadly, because our attention is divided, many consequences lie before us. for example, while driving, a texter is only able to pay attention to one task at a time, putting her passengers, herself, and other drivers on the road at risk when she chooses to focus on her phone instead of her surroundings.

cocaine

this particular stimulant is extremely addictive and well-known across the world. because of the way it enters the body, this stimulant leaves the user in a euphoria that lasts about 15-30 minutes. so many essential neurotransmitters (like dopamine, serotonin, and norepinephrine) are blocked from the reuptake while euphoria is in play. while the increase in molecules at the synaptic gap produces mood altering effects and euphoria for awhile, it unfortunately also causes a serious crash once the drug is used up. crack, a form of this drug, produces more extreme results and leads to stronger addiction. in general, most users do become addicted and experience emotional disturbance, suspiciousness, convulsions, cardiac arrest, aggressive tendencies, or respiratory failure. similar to all other psychoactive drugs, users also are affected by psychological factors, like one's expectation of the results of the drug. in fact, some individuals who were given a placebo acted in a similar way to those who received this particular drug because they expected to act in that way.

how does social-cognitive perspective apply?

this perspective emphasizes the interaction between people, their cognition and their environment. many psychologists believe that behaviors are learned from observation, similar to that stated in the social learning theory. also, they believe that behaviors are pondered, bringing in the cognitive aspect to this perspective. behaviorism also applies as it supports direct and indirect consequences for one's actions. psychologist Albert Bandura developed this theory; he called this interaction between one's environment and their themselves reciprocal determinism. three main concepts apply to this perspective: different people choose different environments, personalities shape our reactions to different situations, personalities help to create situations to which we react.

how does perceptual constancy apply?

this phenomenon allows us to recognize different objects despite differences in angles, shapes, distances, or colors. for example, in approaching a classmate, top-down processing allows us to perceive them as unchanging despite the decreasing distance between you and him/her.

how does stereotype threat apply?

this phenomenon appears in black students' verbal aptitude scores, which were lower when they took the tests in the same environment as white students or in situations where they were made to feel threatened. this also applies to situations when students are told that they are not going to be successful, as the students eventually comply with this idea and fail to put maximum effort into their studies because they don't believe they can be successful either. they may "deidentify" themselves with school achievement.

how does sensory interaction apply?

this phenomenon applies to the linked senses of taste and smell. in fact, 80% of tasting is actually smelling, rationalizing why someone with a stuffy nose may suffer to taste the richness of a slice of chocolate cake. for this reason, most people who have lost their sense of smell also claim to have lost their sense of taste. furthermore, vision and touch are linked closely together. in one experiment where a participant's hand was hidden beneath a box with a faux one placed on top of it, the individual was able to perceive touches on the fake hand as if it were her own after some time of staring at it being poked by the researcher. this phenomenon proves that the senses are always working together to help the brain understand the world around us.

how does perceptual adaptation apply?

this phenomenon demonstrates human ability to adapt to changes made to field of vision. if given a pair of glasses that altered vision to the left, the individual would adjust to the alteration after a few minutes. although throwing a ball may initially sail too far to the left, the individual would hit the target after a few minutes of adjusting. experimentation has shown that humans are so flexible that they are even capable of adapting to an inverted field of vision.

how does perceptual set apply?

this phenomenon states that mental predispositions affect perceptions. for example, being told that Mary is Kate's mother, an observer may be able to see similarities in facial structure and body shape; however, without this information, they may fail to notice any similarities. not only can these influence vision, but also audition, smell, and taste. schemas play a strong role in this influence.

how does visual capture apply?

this phenomenon takes place when vision competes with other senses. as a dominant sense, vision always wins. for example, when watching a movie in a theater, individuals will choose to perceive the sounds as coming from the screen (where they see the characters) even if they can clearly hear the noises coming from behind their seats.

how does habituation apply?

this phenomenon was developed after researching infant development. it found that a novel stimulus is very intriguing for infants when first presented, but becomes less and less interesting as time goes on. this increase in boredom leads researchers to believe that the infants remember frequent images and prefer new information. this is significant because many people thought that infants were unable to develop distinct memories before a certain age. researchers have also found that children can differentiate colors, shapes, and sounds and that they can understand basic numbers and physics.

how does the frustration-aggression principle apply?

this principle gives reason to many events where frustration leads to aggressive and abnormal behavior. for example, terrorism can spring from revenge after the murder of a friend or family member.

how does shaping apply?

this procedure is very significant in operant conditioning, as it guides organisms toward desired behaviors through a gradual reward system. for example, when training an animal how to do something complex, such as recognize specific human faces, the trainer may start by rewarding the animal when it recognizes all brown-haired people, then all brown-haired, blue-eyed people, and so on, until the desired recognition is reached. this example exemplifies the use of successive approximations. no matter how complex the behavior, if we are able to shape the organism to respond to one stimulus and not the other, they will be able to perceive the difference.

how does transduction apply?

this process helps convert one form of energy into another, which is vital for interpretation by the brain. for example, eyes receive light energy and transduce the energy into neural messages that the brain can process into what we see. this is referred to as phototransduction. overall, it applies to all senses.

how does top-down processing apply?

this process is extremely important in perception. it affects how incoming stimuli are interpreted and organized. expectations, motivation, fatigue, and experiences determine the organization. this can be influenced by priming. for example, if a teacher asked her students if they liked cats and then showed an optical allusion, many students would be primed to see a rat over a man because their brain was already affiliating information with cats.

how does accommodation apply?

this process is extremely important to focusing on objects, near or far. in doing so, the lens changes its curvature and thickness, which allows for the retina to focus on the varying distant images. sometimes, this is capable of bending the lens enough to avoid glasses or contacts, especially in children who suffer nearsightedness or farsightedness; however, the strain put on their eye muscles may result in headaches and other discomfort.

how does identification apply?

this process is significant in a child's coping mechanisms with their internal conflicting sexual feelings. in order to gain acceptance by their parent of opposite sex, the individual will try to repress their feelings of rivalry against the competing parent and instead try to act like them. during this time, children adapt to the values of their parents, leading to the development of one's gender identity and the strengthening of one's superego. it proves that early childhood relationships and experiences shape their personalities, identities, and frailties (object relation theory).

how does perception apply?

this process is vital to organizing and interpreting information taken in via sensation. it is paired with top-down processing, where experience, motivation, and expectations guide how information brought in by sensory receptors is analyzed. victims of prosopagnosia undergo incomplete perception, causing them to sense visual information but fail to recognize/interpret it. for example, someone with this condition may accurately state various feature of a face but would be incapable of recognizing it as their dog, a friend, or a family member. it is important to remember that perception varies from person to person, as their schemas are constructed differently and experiences, expectations, fatigue, and motivation vary.

how does rorschach inkblot test apply?

this projective test was developed by Hermann Rorschach in the early 1920s. by assuming that what was seen in the image reflects inner feelings and conflicts, the test could be used to analyze the unconscious area of one's personality. even after many analyses of this test, psychologists have continued to debate its reliability and validity. because no system for scoring was originally created, it was hard to classify the test as reliable or valid; however, recent improvements in technology have led to new computer-generated coding and interpretation tools to be developed. this would allow for a valid and reliable system to be created for the test. yet, it will never be 100% accurate because of the natural complexities of the human mind that will never fully be mastered or understood.

how does phobia apply?

this psychological disorder disrupts behavior from the irrational fears that develop. although many victims choose to live with their fears, some can be debilitating. for example, one lady who suffers astraphobia, or fear of storms, must stay with a relative if storms are forecasted later in the week and buries her head in pillows when lightning strikes.

how does OCD apply?

this psychological disorder is characterized by persistent and unwanted obsessions and compulsions. although they can seem normal, these habits interfere with the individual's day-to-day routines because of the distress they invoke and the time they consume. for example, someone who suffers this disorder may wash their hands so much that they become raw. about 2-3% of adults in their twenties suffer this disorder. their actions are distinct from normal activities, as the obsessive thoughts become so haunting and compulsions become so time-consuming that normal function becomes unattainable. while obsessions/compulsions tend to lessen with age, they rarely go away completely. biologically, heightened area in the anterior cingulate cortex is found to be hyperactive in the brain, which makes sense since this area monitors our actions and examines them for errors.

how does cerebellum apply?

this region of the brain controls nonverbal learning and memory, time judgment, emotion maintenance, and sound/texture discrimination. in addition to processing this sensory information, it controls voluntary movement. for this reason, an injured cerebellum would cause instability and a lack of balance when walking, shaking hands, kicking the ball... overall movement would be uncoordinated and jerky. this important network processes information unconsciously.

how does thalamus apply?

this region of the brain, which sits atop the brainstem, is vital to sensory observations. it receives information from all of the senses (except for smell) and directs it to the appropriate region of the brain. additionally, it also receives information from the higher brain's replies, which it then directs to the medulla and cerebellum.

Skinner's language development theory

this scientist believed that children acquire their language mostly through nurture: familiar learning principles, such as association of images with sounds, imitation of the vocabulary and syntax of others, and positive/negative reinforcement from others. these types of interactions between the developing child and the proficient adult help them distinguish the rules of a language, the meanings of words, and the way to pronounce them. his theory is well-exemplified when a mother reads to her child: the mother points to a picture, labels the animal, and has the child repeat it whenever the picture reappears.

Chomsky's language development theory

this scientist believed that it is impossible for children to develop the language solely through environmental influence, as they pick up on different aspects of their language too quickly to be only accounted for externally. he believes that there are some innate language development abilities passed through genetics. he compares developing languages to raising a flower; it can grow on its own, but giving it water and plant food will aid in its development (similar to how parental influence will assist the linguistic development of their child). after studying the various languages present throughout the world, he has concluded that there is a universal grammar that underlies all human languages, as nouns, verbs, adjectives, subjects, objects, and questions are all necessary factors in communicating with one another. therefore, the 6000 different languages are merely dialects for this universal grammar that our brains are accustomed to developing. additionally, he noticed that all infants start with acquiring the nouns of their language to communicate meaning. from this, one can conclude that isolated children fail to learn language, exposed children develop their surrounding language, and groups of isolated children develop their own language..

how does parasympathetic nervous system apply?

this section of the automatic nervous system pacifies, producing the opposite effects as its corresponding section. it conserves energy for more stressful situations to come by decreasing heartbeat, lowering blood sugar, and increasing digestion. this explains why coach potatoes are always hungry, as their digestive system is always working.

how does kinesthesis apply?

this sense is very important in monitoring bodily function, position, and movement. it aids in allowing us to put food in our mouths, stand up, sit down, reach out and touch a dog, and jump into a large body of water. in order to experience other senses, it is important for this "sixth sense" to be functioning. this is distinct from the vestibular sense, as it deals with individual limbs rather than the body and brain as a whole.

how does narcolepsy apply?

this sleep disorder causes victims to experience random periods of overwhelming sleepiness. some cases are so severe that the individual falls straight into REM sleep. this can be extremely annoying when you are at a softball practice after school, when you are giving a speech to advertise a new product, or when you are driving. some studies show that march babies are 45% more likely to develop this disorder, while september babies are 37% less likely to develop it. this is linked to fetal development during the cold and flu season for march infants, which can cause additional health risks. once scientists discovered that this disorder is linked with a decrease in hypocretin (an alerting neurotransmitter) in the brain, researchers immediately started looking to develop a drug that increases these levels in hopes that it would cure the condition. in the mean time, other drugs are assigned to these individuals to relieve their sleepiness.

how does sleep apnea apply?

this sleep disorder increases drowsiness and irritability, often targeting overweight men. it takes place when the victim stops breathing momentarily during sleep, causing a decrease in blood oxygen levels and often loud, obnoxious snoring. it reduces the slow-wave sleep that the individual experiences during the night. it can cause sufferers to be at extreme risk for traffic accidents. physicians often prescribe air pumps for those diagnosed with this disorder, which help open up the airway to keep breathing regular during the night.

how does babbling stage apply?

this stage begins around the age of four months when the infant starts forming noises of various phonemes, often applying to multiple languages. it is important to remember that the babbling is not an imitation of adult language in the home, until a few months later (10 months old) when the child's babbling starts adapting to the phonemes that surround the child every day. for this reason, the babbling of international infants does not differ much; a child from ethopia, india, england, or indonesia would initially sound similar until they adapt to their surroundings. children raised by deaf parents, too, adapt to their surroundings by learning to babble with their hands. once children lose the ability to pick up on external language phonemes, they lose the ability to comprehend and develop the languages easily.

how does long-term potentiation apply?

this strengthening of potential neural firing is very significant in learning and improving neural network connections. in an experiment where mice were given a drug to inhibit this strengthening, they failed to find their way out of a maze. this potential is so important in creating/enhancing long-term memories of playing piano, solving algebraic equations, and recognizing a language. it occurs when synapses become more efficient at transmitting signals, often a result of an increase in serotonin in that area. this synaptic efficiency allows for neural circuits to become more efficient as well, causing the sending neuron to need less stimulation to spread its message to the receiving neurons. eventually, the increased in neuron firing rate causes synapse-strengthening proteins to be produced, which enable the formation of long-term memories. in trying to find a cure for alzheimer's disease, researchers have begun experimenting with drugs that increase levels of glutamate, a neurotransmitter that enhances synaptic communication, and with drugs that increase the production of protein CREB, which controls the formation of other proteins and in particular, the synapse-strengthening proteins.

how does psychophysics apply?

this study applies to all different creatures and varies from species to species. for example, it has found that although humans are hit with x-rays, radio waves, ultraviolet rays, and infrared waves simultaneously, we remain oblivious. other animals are capable of using some of these ignored details to their advantage. dolphins and bats use sonar, bouncing echoes off of objects, to find prey. additionally, bees use polarized light (that we cannot see) to navigate the world around them on a cloudy day. many physical characteristics of stimuli, like intensity, wavelength, hue, and frequency, play a role in this scientific study.

how does parapsychology apply?

this study of paranormal phenomena is highly debated. some scientists, intrigued by new evidence that points to claims that we are capable of ESP and psychokinesis, have been investigating this; although others believe that this idea completely contradicts science altogether -- that humans are creatures whose minds are connected to their physical brains and whose perceptual experiences are based on sensations. research continues to be conducted across the world.

how does nervous system apply?

this system of the body controls every movement, every thought, and every action performed through its two main divisions: the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. neurons clump together to form nerves, which travel to and from the spinal cord and brain within the body. three types of neurons that work in this system include sensory neurons, motor neurons, and interneurons. most of the complexity of this system lies in the interneurons as they are most prevalent throughout the body.

how does critical period apply?

this takes place shortly after birth when many important development periods take place. for example, during this short window a child will pick up on language quickly and learn to walk quickly. if a child is not exposed to factors that will allow for these tasks to develop, they are less likely to fully obtain these things later on. this explains why it is harder to develop a second language later in life because our brains are not as easily adaptable to the semantics of the language as it is during this period. familiarity during this time (often formed between mothers and their infants) breeds attachment.

how does chunking apply?

this technique, often occurring automatically, allows for information to be organized in a way that makes it easy to be remembered. those who are very familiar with certain topics, like a language, sport, or game, are masters at this technique, making it easy for them to stare at a sentence or a game play for a few seconds before remaking it on a separate sheet of paper. similarly, this technique can be used to recall insignificant information. acronyms (such as HOMES for the Great Lakes) and four-digit numbers (especially those with significance, like 1812, 1776, or 1492), aid in remembrance of specific information.

how does longitudinal study apply?

this test compares the intelligence of the same people over a long period of time. although they expected to find a decrease in intelligence, they found a more stable pattern; in fact, intelligence does not start decreasing until around age 60. because it compares the same person over time, external factors are accounted for (that would affect a person's capacity for intelligence), and it has been deemed more reliable than cross-sectional studies; however, some psychologists still struggle to see eye-to-eye with this type of study because it still varies from person to person. this encourages the idea that you are never to old to learn!

how does Stanford-Binet apply?

this test is used today throughout the nation to test general intelligence of an individual based on the knowledge deemed attainable at a given age level. however, because these tests only are valid throughout childhood, recent IQ tests for adults tend to compare the participant's result with those of their same age.

how does the social exchange theory apply?

this theory affects our daily lives as we make decisions by pondering the negatives (time, costs, discomfort, anxiety) and the positives (reduced guilt, social approval, good feelings). for example, when deciding whether or not to donate blood one will weigh the advantages and disadvantages regarding social approval and personal well-being within society.

how does signal detection theory apply?

this theory aims to predict and explain differences in responses to the same stimuli. for example, parents often awake to the slightest whimper of their newborn child but are found dead asleep throughout a loud thunderstorm. this shows the importance of the parents' level of fatigue and experiences. this theory also applies to high-stress situations, like those of soldiers in wartorn countries where failure to detect a stimulus may result in death. with their responsiveness being extremely sensitive, they are more likely to mistake a good guy for a bad guy. when placed in a more peaceful situation, soldiers require a stronger stimulus to respond.

how does frequency theory apply?

this theory explains how pitch can be detected, claiming that the entire basilar membrane vibrates with incoming sound waves, triggering neural impulses at the same rate as the sound wave. from this, the brain can interpret pitch from the frequency of neural impulses. for example, waves that fire at a frequency of 100 waves per second would fire 100 times. unfortunately, this theory is faulty, as neurons cannot fire faster than 1000 times per second, yet sounds can be perceived with a frequency faster than 1000 waves per second. however, with the volley principle, scientists have learned to accept this theory as a general explanation for some sounds.

how does the scapegoat theory apply?

this theory greatly affects our everyday attitudes and behaviors. for example, insecure students who fail to be accepted by the popular group may begin bullying other students to boost their own self-esteem. seeing a rival fail invokes pleasure because their denigration boosts one's self-status. on the other hand, those who are accepted into a friend group may become more welcoming to another when they want to join the friendship.

how does the gender schema theory apply?

this theory is a combination of the social learning theory with cognition, as you develop personal, logical ideas of the world with the way you are awarded or punished for certain behaviors. your behaviors and experiences become scrutinized through a specific lens of idealized gender roles. for example, language, dress, toys and songs help shape gender schemas for young children, so that they can compare themselves and adjust accordingly.

how does terror-management theory apply?

this theory, when tested, shows that thinking about one's mortality leads to prejudices that are induced by anxieties related to death. it motivates contempt for others and esteem for oneself. because our world is so dangerous, people work to improve their self-esteem, attempt to answer profound life questions, and develop intimate relationships with others.

how does consciousness apply?

this topic has been very important to psychology throughout all of history; in fact, psychology was defined as the study of consciousness for many years. now, although psychological studies do not revolve solely around this idea, it is still deemed very important as it allows us to exert voluntary control and to communicate with others. it responds to unconscious information processing. for example, when a bird flies by, we may respond by saying, "look there is a cardinal," without even realizing that we had already noted the color, size, distance traveled, and identity unconsciously. furthermore, unconscious activity allows for our consciousness to focus on other unexplored details. for example, when driving, our unconscious motor skills behind the wheel allow our minds to wander and notice the beautiful sunset taking place in front of us. some theories link consciousness with neural activity, stating that when activity within interconnected brain areas crosses a threshold of intensity limited consciousness occurs. although it can be rather slow with a limited capacity, consciousness is extremely skilled at solving novel problems.

how does respondent behavior apply?

this type of behavior is present in classical conditioning, as responses to stimuli occur automatically. in Pavlov's experiment, the respondent behavior would be salivating, as this was the automatic response to the meat powder and eventually the sound of the tone.

how does prosocial behavior apply?

this type of behavior, opposite of antisocial behavior, is very influential. people like Mahatma Gandhi and Martin Luther King Jr. have demonstrated this well, by making nonviolent action effective in prompting national change. in creating this modeling, many more leaders have sprung forth in attempt to mimic their prosocial behavior. this can also take place on a smaller scale with children and their parents. research shows that toddlers who imitate their parents tend to become preschoolers with strong internalized consciences. hypocrisy can alter the effects of this behavior, so it is important that leaders stay true to their word in order to create a lasting effect.

how does alpha wave apply?

this type of brain wave occurs right before we slip from our conscious state of mind into sleep. they are waves of relaxation, as shown by the little brain activity recorded. the moment that these waves end and the sleep cycle starts is very hard to distinguish. in fact, one experiment showed that an individual missed a particular stimuli because they slipped into sleep for about two seconds... long enough to miss the obvious flash presented before them and the abrupt moment of entering into sleep.

how does operant conditioning apply?

this type of conditioning occurs when associations are made between a behavior and its consequences. when reinforcement is given, the behavior strengthens. for example, if a little girl says please and thank you when talking to her teacher, her mother may reward her by bringing her to a park to play for a fifteen minutes after school is over. this would strengthen the behavior of using polite manners. on the other hand, when punishment is administrated, behaviors weaken. for example, if the same little girl was sassy to her mother during dinner, she may receive a timeout. the punishment (the timeout) would ensure that the sassy attitude would diminish. because this type of conditioning relies on relationships between behavior and the environment, operant behavior is present. like classical conditioning, cognitive and biological factors are significant. expectations affect how often a person performs a behavior, showing cognitive influence. likewise, biological predispositions affect how an organism develops complex behaviors. sometimes, these can prohibit them from grasping the concept fully; other times, they can advance the organism even further.

how does DID apply?

this type of dissociative disorder is classified by the display of two or more distinct and alternating personalities. although there are some cases were one personality is "bad" and the other is "good," most individuals are not violent/aggressive in any way. although the altered personality knows of the original one, the original personality has no recollection of the altered state of mind. some question whether or not this disorder is real because it is easy for a person, particularly convicted felons, to act as two different people. additionally, some find it weird that this disease seemed to pop out of no where, as myriad cases of DID started appearing right after psychologists started looking for it... making it seem like they fell victim to confirmation bias. however, supporters of the diagnosis rely on evidence, such that handedness can switch with personalities, body and brain are rather distinct, and memories vary between personalities. it is still being debated whether abuse affects the development of this disorder, as some studies show positive correlations but others, like those regarding the many victims of the Holocaust, do not.

how does semantic encoding apply?

this type of encoding trumps acoustic and visual encoding because of its like with meaning/logic. when information is put in a logical order of remembrance or is linked with meaningful ideas, it may be easier to recall than if using other encoding techniques. this shows that it is beneficial to rephrase information we learn (from reading and hearing) into meaningful terms. in fact, the self-reference effect adds that meaningful terms made in terms of us are even easier to remember because of our love for ourselves.

how does mental set apply?

this type of fixation predisposes how we think by referring to our tendency to approach a problem with the mindset of what has worked for us previously. for example when one figures out that RFOU can be rearranged to the word "four," they may be quicker to distinguishing that VEFI can be rearranged to the word "five." additionally, this mindset applies to experience; for example, if one has experienced a car break down before, they are predisposed to know how to handle the situation and are more likely to stay calm and focused when doing so than someone who has never undergone this type of scenario before. this idea also explains why specific types of math problems become easier and easier after repetitively performing the problems.

how does availability heuristic apply?

this type of heuristic operates when we base our judgments on how mentally available information is. the more quickly a situation is called to mind, the more often the individual will expect it to recur. for example, many think that words that start with the letter k outnumber words that have k as their third letter (because they fail to think of words that have k as their third letter in comparison to the myriad number of words that start with the letter k that come to mind). factors that increase high presence in the memory include when it was acquired, its distinctiveness and its concreteness. it is important to remember that an event's availability to our memory does not indicate its likeliness to occur. commercials and other business corporations use this to their advantage in making their positive messages bright, loud, unique and catchy.

how does representative heuristic apply?

this type of heuristics can be rather costly as it causes us to ignore other relevant information provided in order to make a quick, snap judgment. for example, if someone were to describe a tall, muscular, speedy individual with a size 18 in shoes and a 7 in vertical and then questioned whether it was more likely for them to be a NBA basketball star or an employee at a local McDonald's restaurant, most participants would choose the basketball player. even though there are probably only around 300 NBA basketball stars and over 1.5 million McDonald's employees, many would jump to conclusions without deeply analyzing the situation due to their prototypes of NBA stars and McDonald's employees. when the likelihood of something matches our prototype of it, we automatically comply with the idea without using logical reasoning to further analyze the situation.

how does implicit memory apply?

this type of memory allows for an individual to tie their shoes, write notes in class, and drive to school without thinking about every single step that it requires along the way because the skill has been processed so well. with this type of memory being independent from conscious recollection, amnesia victims can still access them.

how does working memory apply?

this type of memory falls under the category of short-term memories. it develops from incoming stimuli and retrieved long-term memory information. in this area, information can be manipulated and rehearsed. it includes auditory rehearsal, visual-spatial sketchpad, a central executive processor (that controls these two previously listed areas), and the episode buffer. because there are two main divisions of this area (auditory and visual-spatial), we are able to process images and words simultaneously.

how does neurotransmitter apply?

this type of molecule is significant, as without it, messages would not be sent from neuron to neuron across the synaptic gap. it is released from the neuron when the action potential reaches the axon terminals. they cross the synapse in 1/10,000 second. then they bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, allowing for electrically charged ions to enter the receiving neuron and produce a new action potential (as they unlock tiny channels at the site allowing for the ions to slip through). leftover molecules from the process get reabsorbed in a process called reuptake. the pathways that various neurotransmitters take depends on the type; one particular pathway may only have one or two neurotransmitters take it to deliver their messages. for this reason, each neurotransmitter has a different effect on corresponding emotions and behaviors.

how does interneuron apply?

this type of neuron connects the observations made by the sensory neurons with the messages sent through the motor neurons. it helps the brain identify and process the information, guiding it to a response. for example, reflexes use these to communicate with the spinal cord and brain. with billions of these present in the CNS, most of the complexity associated with the nervous system stems from this.

how does motor neuron apply?

this type of neuron directs the brain's messages to the body. it is the final piece of the puzzle in any given moment, as it connects the brain's commands (made from the observations presented by the sensory neurons) to the corresponding organ. there are approximately a few million of these neurons present within the nervous system.

how does sensory neuron apply?

this type of neuron is important, as it allows for observations, such as sights, tastes, smells, and sounds, to be interpreted and identified by the brain. without them, our body would not function, as the brain would have nothing to command from the lack of information presented by the body. it enables communication between the outside world, bodily needs, and the brain. there are approximately a few million of these neurons present within the nervous system.

how does external locus of control apply?

this type of personal control explains why some attribute their achievements, failures and other happenings to their environment only as they believe that they cannot be in control of themselves at all. often, this leads to a lack of self-confidence and thus they are less successful in school, more dependent on others, and are more depressed than those who possess an internal locus of control.

how does antisocial personality disorder apply?

this type of personality disorder is classified by a lack of empathy and conscience for wrongdoings. before the age of 15, these psychopaths/sociopaths (who are typically male) already display their lack of conscience. they may steal, fight, lie, or engage in unhealthy sexual activities without seeming to care at all. because of this, they suffer to maintain stable jobs and relationships. despite common belief, most criminals do not fit this description because they act out of fear, while these individuals have no capability of feeling scared or responsible or empathetic. genetically, studies show that they react to situations with low levels of stress hormones, their autonomic nervous system is rarely being aroused, and reduced activity in the frontal lobes. although there is no direct gene controlling this disorder, some believe that genetic predispositions may be present and interact with environmental factors to produce the disorder.

how does insight apply?

this type of problem solving occurs when the answer appears to just "come to us magically." although this does not happen often, it gives reason to why mental math solutions or solutions to a logical problem seem to arise out of the blue. in reality, the solution stemmed from activity in the right temporal lobe, just above the ear. insight provides satisfactory sensations, which explains why jokes provide laughter (as the comprehension of a joke lies in our ability for insight).

how does parallel processing apply?

this type of processing allows for many different aspects of an image to be dealt with simultaneously. for example, in looking at a bird, the small form and depth, quick speed, and dark green and red color helps you recognize the bird as a hummingbird. similarly, in recognizing a face,the brain integrates the abundance of information sent by the retina to visual cortex areas, compares it with stored information, and allows you to perceive the person as your best friend. unfortunately, those who suffer brain damage may falter in this type of processing. for example, one lady who suffered a stroke on both hemispheres of her brain was no longer able to perceive movement, making it difficult to pour liquids into containers because the substance seemed to be frozen in place. others who experience brain damage fall victim to blindsight, where they are unable to identify specific objects but are able to detect their color, orientation, and size perfectly.

how does automatic processing apply?

this type of processing occurs without awareness. this occurs with space, as made clear when you study a textbook and are later able to recall the placement of certain pictures/information on the page. this also occurs with time when you unconsciously note the sequence of daily events. finally, it occurs with frequency. this is made clear when you encounter a person multiple times in a row, as you may say, "this is the third time I have run into you today!" some things become automatic after much practice. for example, reading is very difficult when a child begins; however, with enough practice, it soon becomes effortless. without this processing, people would be much different, as every thought would need conscious effort into being created.

how does positive reinforcement apply?

this type of reinforcement is typically presented in a pleasurable manner. many parents use it to help discipline their children, such as when rewarding their children with a hug when they accomplish something incredible. in order for reinforcement to be positive, a stimulus must be presented or given to the individual in order to strengthen the reward.

how does continuous reinforcement apply?

this type of reinforcement occurs everytime a particular behavior takes place. this allows for learning to take place quickly, as the organism immediately learns to associate the reinforcer with the behavior. unfortunately, this type of reinforcement is not too common in everyday life, as medicine does not always make someone feel better, a salesperson does not make a sale with every pitch, and students do not always understand tricky concepts with good study habits. this type of reinforcement is more common in experiment settings, where researchers attempt to shape complex behaviors into attainable goals for various organisms.

how does primary reinforcer apply?

this type of reinforcement produces innately satisfactory results. many examples include pleasing biological needs, such as eating to relieve hunger and drinking to quench thirst. these rewards are rather basic, and influence the development of more complex ones, like those of secondary reinforcers.

how does variable-ratio schedule apply?

this type of reinforcement schedule occurs randomly. there is no set number of responses that will evoke a desired reward. this applies to gambling. although no certain number of responses guarantees the reward, gamblers persist because the reward is so highly regarded. because the predictability is low, responses are often more consistent as the participant has no idea when the reward will be administered (and thus wants to keep his/her chances of receiving it high).

how does conditioned response apply?

this type of response occurs when a CS is paired with a US. for example, assuming that a child develops discomfort when passing by a nearby farm, a neutral stimuli, like the logo for the particular farm business, may eventually evoke similar feelings of discomfort. This would cause billboards with the farm's image, name, and logo to create similar feelings of discomfort even if the farm itself is 50 miles away. major classical conditioning processes can dictate how/when the CS/CR combination is formed, extinction periods, and sudden recoveries of the previously formed CS/CR duo. generalization, in particular, is very influential, as it causes any stimuli similar to the CS to create the CR.

how does unconditioned stimulus apply?

this type of stimulus can be found all around us, influencing out automatic response system. for example, a particular song may become an US if it consistently evokes relaxation, anger, or sadness. similarly, the smell of your favorite food could be an US if it leads to stomach growling or other symptoms of hunger. when paired with neutral stimuli, classical conditioning takes place and a CS/CR combination is formed.

how does conditioned stimulus apply?

this type of stimulus is formed when a neutral stimulus is paired with the US. for example, if a mother's hugs provide comfort and warmth, a neutral stimulus like the smell of her perfume may eventually lead to similar feelings of comfort and relaxation. major processes in classical conditioning affect the timing of this, the effects of this, the reappearance/disappearance of this, and over-generalization of this.

how does difference threshold apply?

this type of threshold dictates the minimum distance required for differences between two stimuli to be detected. it depends on magnitude of the stimulus. for example, if adding 10g to a 100g weight, one will be able to tell the difference; however, adding the same 10g to a 100000g weight will be indistinguishable because of the large magnitude. Weber noticed this relationship and discovered the Weber's Law principle, which states that two stimuli must differ by a specific percentage to be perceived as different.

how does overconfidence apply?

this use of intuitive heuristics can lead to bad decisions, wasted time, and incorrect problem-solving skills. it is a rather popular issue present within society today; statistics show that individuals who are answering a problem and feel 100% correct on their response still err about 15%. many politicians fall victim to this and often experience tragic results (Hitler invading Russia, GW Bush invading Iraq). also, many business owners and stockbrokers often overestimate the market average and their ability to profit in the future months. finally, students find themselves using overconfidence when estimating how long homework assignments and projects will take them, often causing them to make future plans and discovering they do not have time to fulfill them. despite all the drawbacks, overconfidence has its benefits. people who find themselves confidently leading their lives are often more happy, more credible, more decisive and more adaptable.

how does free association apply?

this was a method created by Freud to relieve extreme anxiety experienced by his patients. Freud believed that someone who was deaf or blind may have experienced something traumatic to make them fear using those particular senses. this type of treatment allowed for the patient to openly express their repressed feelings or experiences in hopes of relieving some of the anxiety and corresponding physical conditions. though this process, the troubled present could be retraced to the distant past though the unconscious state of mind.

how does emotional intelligence apply?

those who are emotionally intelligent are self-aware and are found to be more successful in making high-quality friendships; to be less likely to suffer depression, anxiety or anger issues; to perceive emotions successfully allowing them to handle conflict well; to be able to delay gratification. emotional intelligent tests developed by Mayer, Salovey, and David Caruso assess the ability to perceive emotions, to understand emotions, to manage emotions, and to use emotions to enable adaptive or creative thinking. unfortunately, extreme tragedies where the brain is damaged sometimes diminish emotional intelligence (luckily, there is usually no effect on general intelligence).

how does generalized anxiety disorder apply?

those who suffer this psychological disorder are constantly tense and jittery, worried about traumatic circumstances, and affected by muscular tension, agitation, and insomnia. this may be relayed through furrowed brows, twitching eyes, trembling, sweating, and fidgeting. because victims are unable to identify the cause of their anxiety, they often suffer depression and other physical problems, such as ulcers and high blood pressure.

how does association areas apply?

three-fourths of the cerebral cortex falls under this category. neurons integrate information here, which in turn affect thinking and memory. because electric stimulation has no effect on this area, it is difficult to depict the exact functions of this area. all four lobes of the cerebral cortex obtain a section of the association areas. within the frontal lobes, these areas help memories to be judged, planned, and processed. damage to this area may cause difficulty beginning the process of baking a cake; however, the ability to make the cake and memories of baking the cake would remain intact. damage may also affect an individual's personality. within the parietal lobe, these areas enable math and spatial reasoning. within the temporal lobe, faces are able to be recognized. these areas work together with other regions of the brain to make complex human abilities possible.

how does reciprocity norm/social-responsibility norm apply?

throughout our lives, we learn different expectations of us within our society. for example, within relationships we learn to give small favors as much as we receive them. additionally, we learn to help young children and others who cannot give as much as they receive even if the costs outweigh the benefits because we are responsible for their well being.

eardrum

tight membrane that vibrates with sound waves; first place sound waves are directed to by the outer ear. also called the tympanic membrane

lesion

tissue destruction. of the brain, it is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.

how does dream apply?

unlike daydreams, which often include information from our daily lives, these REM sleep stories are often vivid, emotional, and bizarre. sometimes, they are so strange or we are so emotionally aware that they can get confused with reality. studies show that blind people can dream too, but with their dominant sensations being nonvisual (hearing, touching, smelling, and tasting). in total, the average person spends about six years of our life in dreams, most of which are influenced by negative emotions. common dreams include failing to do something, being attacked, being rejected, or being unlucky. many reasons as to why we dream have been proposed, including to satisfy our own wishes, to file away memories, to develop and preserve neural pathways, to make sense of neural static, and to reflect cognitive development. the limbic system (in particular the amygdala) and the visual centers of the brain are vital during dreams.

how does stimulant apply?

unlike depressants, these psychoactive drugs temporarily excite neural activity and arouse body functions. they are often used to help an individual lose weight, stay awake, and improve mood or athletic performance. common examples are caffeine, nicotine, amphetamine, cocaine, ecstasy, and methamphetamine. these drugs increase heart and breathing rates, dilate pupils, decrease appetite (as blood sugar increases), increase energy, and improve self-confidence. some, methamphetamine in particular, even include stronger effects like experiencing eight hours of heightened energy and euphoria. unfortunately, the advantages of these drugs only last for so long before other effects settle in. for example, at the end of a caffeine crash, one is likely to experience headaches, fatigue, irritability, and depression. for stronger drugs, like methamphetamine, effects can include irritability, insomnia, hypertension, seizures, periods of disorientation, and occasional violent behavior. it can also cause baseline dopamine levels to decrease overtime, which leaves the user with permanent depressed functioning.

Carl Jung

unlike most neo-freudians, this psychologist agreed with Freud that that the unconscious is a very powerful tool in the development of the personality. however, he argued that the unconscious was more significant than originally thought by Freud because it entailed more than just repressed thoughts and feelings; a collective unconscious was also present, which reasons why many cultures view mothers as symbols of nurture and love.

complementary and alternative medicine

unproven health care treatments not taught widely in medical schools, nor used in hospitals or reimbursed by insurance companies. examples include acupuncture, massage therapy, homeopathy, spiritual healing, herbal remedies, chiropractic, and aromatherapy. the placebo effect and spontaneous remission contribute to the apparent effectiveness of this treatment.

how does latent learning apply?

until reinforcement occurs, this type of learning remains hidden. it applies to children who learn from mimicking their parents but do not demonstrate what they have learned until much later in their lives (for example, their style of parenting). this shows that there is more to learning than associating a response with a consequence, as obviously it takes place without us even realizing it. it emphasizes the importance of cognition in associative learning.

how does conservation apply?

until the third stage of childhood development, this principle does not seem to exist. this causes children under the age of seven often to be unaware that mass, volume, and number remain the same despite the way they are presented. for example, a child who does not want to drink their milk for dinner might believe that the shorter, wider glass contains less milk than its corresponding tall, thin glass even if 1 cup of milk was poured into each.

how does source amnesia apply?

upon receiving information, those suffering from this type of amnesia are often left confused as they are unable to tie the information with the context in which they acquired it. for example, after reading an interesting magazine editorial, an author may unconsciously copy their idea and create an article very similar. when they do not know where the idea came from, many just assume they creatively developed it on their own without realizing they were plagiarizing someone else's work.

the big five factors

way of evaluating one's personality by means of analyzing five traits (CANOE/OCEAN): conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion. the dimensions of each of these traits are analyzed, and vary from person to person, thus developing their personality. some critics argue that other traits should be added into this analysis, such as femininity-masculinity, religiosity, and positivity-negativity, but for now, the main five remain dominant. these traits are rather stable (especially during adulthood), mildly heritable (50%), applicable to various cultures, and predictable.

how does plasticity apply?

when a brain is damaged, new connections are able to be made between the surrounding lobes, enabling the individual to get back on their feet and adapt to their new situation. for example, a deaf person will develop a stronger peripheral vision than the average human being because their temporal lobe begins taking up duties that the occipital lobe normally handles in order to maintain some function within the brain. additionally, an individual who loses a finger develops stronger and more precise sensations in the other fingers that surround it, almost as if to make up for the lost limb. some children have even had hemispherectomies to eliminate prominent seizures; their doctors were amazed that their personalities, interests, humor, and memory remained in tact after the surgery, as new neural connections were made, allowing for the child to go on with their life as usual. although this works for many types of brain damage, certain injuries will never heal, such as an injury to the spinal cord. however, some scientists even believe that someday, stem cells will be able to be injected into a damaged brain and form new neural connections, where the other ones were lost, allowing for a full recovery of lost movement, thought, and sensation.

next-in-line effect

when unfamiliar people go around a circle saying words or their names, and attempting to remember what the others said, the poorest memories will occur for what was said right before the person. this occurs because we focus on our own performance when we are next in line, making it difficult to retain the information being presented at that time.

how does insomnia apply?

while about 10-15% of people believe they suffer this disorder, few actually possess it. with life being full of activity 24/7, it is hard for our minds to relax. those who claim they suffer insomnia often overestimate the amount of time it took for them to fall asleep and underestimate the amount of time they were actually sleeping. this occurs because we do not remember the moments we are asleep, but rather the moments we are awake, making it seem like we hardly slept on nights when we continually wake up. unfortunately, quick fixes to this problem (such as sleeping pills and alcohol) prove dysfunctional the following day when users feel drowsy and when they remove themselves from usage (as the disorder often worsens). this occurs because these alternatives decrease REM sleep. rather, scientists offer these alternatives: relaxing around bedtime, avoiding caffeine or other stimulants late in the day, developing regular sleep schedule, and exercising regularly.

how do chromosomes, DNA, genes and genome apply?

while genetic material is extremely influential in determining personal traits, they are only effective if they are "turned on." many complex genes interact with one another affecting their outcome; for example, how tall you are changes the height of your face, vertebrae, femurs, etc. as unbelievable as it may seem, humans are more alike than different. in fact, 99.9% of our DNA is shared by the entire human population. But the 0.1% determines some of the most vital aspects of our personalities and character traits that set us apart from our neighbors. genetic predispositions help explain both our shared human nature and our human diversity.

brain development in children

while still a fetus, the brain produces almost 250 million nerve cells per minute. until birth, this rapid production takes place because the brain wants to overproduce neurons. once the infant is born, the production calms down. in fact, as we age, we continuously lose nerve cells. however, neural networks continue to grow. at birth, the brain is very immature with very few neural networks made. with learning to walk, talk, and remember information, networks grow at an exponential rate (first three years of life). from ages 3-6, the brain's neural networks grow the most in the frontal lobes which aid in rational planning. association areas are the last area of the brain to develop, which makes sense because they are linked with things that take time to grasp (thinking, memory, and language).

how do aptitude/achievement tests apply?

while these tests vary, they both predict ability and development. aptitude predicts future performance, whereas achievement tests current performance. achieved vocabulary influences scores on aptitude test; aptitudes for learning influence grades on achievement tests. achievement tests include driver license examinations, math quizzes and cross-country meets; aptitude tests include college entrance tests and pre-course exams.

how does primary/secondary sex characteristics apply?

with puberty comes the development of these characteristics. once the pituitary gland releases hormones that stimulate the adrenal glands and sex organs, the primary sex characteristics start developing. eventually, this leads to the development of the secondary sex characteristics when the triggered organs release hormones to stimulate other areas of growth and development in the body. usually, girls start developing before boys.

how does memory apply?

with this important reservoir, any individual is able to recognize their friends, their language, their talents, their pasts, and themselves. by studying the extreme cases of memory abilities (whether it be extremely dysfunctional or extremely advanced), psychologists have been able to learn how it works. vivid experiences tend to stick well in our memories; for example, many are able to give the exact details of their whereabouts when they received news of the 9/11 attack. memories are arranged into long-term and short-term divisions; each filed away in their section for a particular reason. encoding, storage, and retrieval are all significant in this process of creating and remembering memories.

how does the nature-nurture issue apply?

within psychology lies one of the biggest debates in history: nature (genes) vs. nurture (all other influences from birth to death). although historical figures have provided different arguments on this issue, no conclusions have been made. fraternal and identical twins provide good evidence on how nature and nurture affect personality and intelligence traits.

how does amygdala apply?

within the limbic system lies this network which looks like two lima bean clusters of neurons. it helps control emotions, especially those of fear and rage. in one experiment, an aggressive monkey's amygdala was lesioned, resulting in a complete change in emotional pattern. poking him, pinching him, shoving him, pulling him... you name the annoyance, he would remain unfazed. however, this surgery is not to be performed in overaggressive humans because it can alter their everyday lifestyle in other ways. it is also important to note that this region is not the only area within the brain that contributes to extreme emotions like rage and fear.

how does central nervous system apply?

within this division of the nervous system lies the spinal cord, which can be referred to as the information highway that connects the peripheral nervous system to the brain. neural fibers that are ascending to the brain send sensory information, while descending neural fibers send motor-control information. within this system, reflexes are controlled. each reflex includes one sensory neuron and one motor-control neuron. because such communication flows through the spinal cord, severed spines can cause paralysis, as the communication terminates. voluntary movements and sensations are lost for the body parts that are controlled by that section of the spinal cord and below. additionally, the brain lies within this division of the nervous system. this organ receives information, interprets it, and responds to it. such complexities are made possible by neural networks, which speed up the communication process, as neurons (like people) work more efficiently and effectively in groups.