AP Psychology Chapter 1-14 Final Review

Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved

Baumrind-parenting styles

Construct Validity

Best type of validity

Biological Perspective

Biological processes influence behavior and mental processes

Sensory Adaptation

decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation eg. socks on feet

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

regression

defense mechanism that allows us to retreat to an earlier more infintile stage of development, first day of school kids will start sucking their thumbs again even if they havent done that in years

repression

defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts that are thought to be unacceptable in society. (unconscious forgetting) ex. forgetting about a test even if you have known about it for months

displacement

defense mechanism that puts a sexual or aggressive impulse onto another object or person. example would be slamming the door when mad at your mom, kicking your dog when your friend and you got into a fight

projection

defense mechanism where impulses are disguised by putting the thought onto another thought. someone who critizes people for gossiping is actually a huge gossip themself

reaction formation

defense mechanism where the ego unconsciously makes unacceptable impulses seem like their opposites. a boy will react to their strong sexual attraction to women by becoming a woman hater.

rationalization

defense mechanism where we unconsciously give a self-justifying explanation for actions to hide the real reason. so tell yourself there is a more acceptable reason for something so you don't realize how bad the thought is. a parent who sees there child stab animals will tell themself the kid is going to be a doctor so it is ok they are stabbing animals

sublimation

defense mechanism where you channel your aggressive feelings onto a different activity. example someone who fights in school will excel at soccer in high school

Smell/Olfaction

depends on chemicals emitted by substance

Monocular Cues

depth cues that do not depend on having two eyes

Light Wavelength

determines the particular hue, longer than visible light infrared, microwaves, radio waves, shorter, UV and X

William Sheldon

developed endo/ecto/meso morphic idea

misinformation effect

distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformaiton

Relative Size Cue

draw things closer to the viewer as bigger

depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

stimulants

drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

Oedipus complex

during phallic stage, freud's idea that boys develop unconscious sexual desire for mother and hatred/jealousy for their father

Bulimia Nervosa

eating disorder; recurrent episodes of binging and purging (massive eating in private, hiding out then throwing up or laxative usage), looks normal in weight (often) and is obsessed with maintaining weight not necessarily losing weight ; symptoms include: bruising on hand, suspicious behavior, binging/purging, smell from skin and mouth, lank hair, rotting teeth (eventually), puffy skin; Onset: late adolescence, more white middle-class females, but rising in white males

Anorexia Nervosa

eating disorder; severe weight loss accompanied by obsessive worrying about weight gain despite the fact the person is 10-15% below normal body weight; symptoms include: absence of 3 menstrual periods (females), distorted body image, intense fear of weight gain, dull eyes, baggy skin, dull hair, sallow skin, listlessness, overexercises, obsession about amount of food eaten; Onset: early adolescence, more white middle-class females; often comorbid with OCD

eidetic imagery

especially clear form of memory; "photographic memory"

Yerkes-Dodson Law

evidences arousal theory; the more complex a task, the lower level of arousal that can be tolerated without interference before the performance deteriorates; ex. used in class-driving to school, driving angry, finding a new location, boiling an egg

Emotion

experience of feelings that underlies behavior; activates and effects behaviors but difficult to predict behavior; ex. Fear, joy, surprise

placebo effect

experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.

Sexual Response Cycle

explains sexual drive; Masters & Johnson (1966); EXPLORRE: EXcite, PLateau, ORgasm, REsolution (4 phases); describes the sexual response of males and females

Extrinsic Motivation

external motivation; completion of activity because of the consequence: reward or to avoid punishment; ex. Job, chores, school assignment, etc.

Pheromones

external stimuli; like primary drive, affects sex drive in animals; indirect evidence suggests that humans secrete pheromones to promote sexual pheromones to promote sexual readiness in potential partners; in sweat glands of armpits and genitals

Incentive

external stimulus that motivates behavior; do not need to be aware of it to happen; does not have to be primary or an active, cognitive secondary drive; ex. Bakery, impulse buys, advertisements, Krispy Kreme

Affect (as in facial)

facial expression

confounding variables

factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable

hallucinations

false sensory experiences

representativeness bias

faulty heuristic based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category

availability bias

faulty heuristic that estimates probabilities on information that can be recalled

Attitude

feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.

absent-mindedness

forgetting caused by lapses in attention

blocking

forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved

individualism

give priority to one's own goals over others

debriefing

giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed

collectivism

giving priority to goals of the group over goals of self

forgetting curve

graph plotting amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material

Harlow

highlighted importance of physical contact in the formation of attachment with parents

Light Intensity

how much energy a light contains, how bright the object is

Hierarchy of Needs

humanism; Marlow; graduation of primitive motives to more sophisticated, complex (human needs); higher motives only emerge after basic are fulfilled; Stages-physiological, safety, belonging/love (sometimes a separate stage), esteem, and self-actualization

unconditional positive regard

idea created by Carl Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person. seeing the good in everyone, if you do bad on a test, its still very good that you put forth effort. very humanistic

Set Point

idea that your body returns to a preprogrammed weight; this occurs naturally (after dieting and other events)

prototype

ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category

reliability

if the personality test logically says what its supposed to

validity

if the test assesses what it says its going to assess

Afterimages

if you stare at one color for a while then look at a blank space, you will see color, stare at green, it will be red, yellow blue

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impaired understanding)

transience

impermanence of long-term memory

Left Hemisphere

impulses from the left side of the retina go here

Right Hemisphere

impulses from the right side of the retina go here

intimacy

in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.

unconditioned stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response

conditioned stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

discrimination

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus

unconditioned response (UR)

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

variable-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

variable-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

fixed-ratio schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

reinforcer

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

free association

in psychoanalysis, a method of looking at the unconscious where a person relaxes and speaks their mind, no matter how embarrassing

defense mechanisms

in psychoanalytic theory, a way the ego protects itself against anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality

postconventional

in this Kohlberg level right and wrong determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute or by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice

anterograde amnesia

inability to for memories for new information

functional fixedness

inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose

retrograde amnesia

inability to remember information previously stored in memory

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors presented by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

Normative Social Influence

influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational Social Influence

influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other' opinions about reality.

elaborative rehearsal

information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM

maintenance rehearsal

information is repeated or reviewed to keep from fading in working memory

levels-of-processing theory

information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better

aptitudes

innate potentialities

Motive

inner directing force; specific need or desire; arouses individual and directs behavior; ex. Hunger, thirst, achievement; can be environmental cues

neural networks

interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedbacks strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. COmputer simulations of neural networks who analogous learning

Intrinsic Motivation

internal motivation; completing the activity because it please you; ex. Singing, reading, crosswords, etc.; some people turn these things into extrinsic motivations like jobs but this is rare

assimilation

interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas.

Difference Threshold

is the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a change

schema

knowledge luster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, etc.

long-term memory (LTM)

largest memory capacity and duration; stores material organized by meaning

Power Motive

learned; need to be praised by those in authority or power

Social Motive

learned; need to fulfill intimacy and achievement through relationships; not to be confused with affiliation (need to be around people)

observational learning

learning by observing others

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

concept hierarchies

levels of concepts in which a more general level includes more specific concepts

Unconscious

levels of processing that occur without awareness from brain systems on automatic pilot to those that have a subtle influence on conscious thoughts and behaviors.

Accommodation

light that centers the pupil is focused by the lens

Pupil

light travels through it, the shutter of a camera

personality inventories

long questionare where people respond to items that ask about a wide range of feelings and behaviors, designed to assess several traits at once

nature-nurture issue

long-standing debate over the relative importance of heredity and environment and their influence on behavior and mental processes.

Color Spectum

longest to shortest wavelength: red orange yellow green blue indigo violet

person-situation controversy

look for genuine personality traits that occur over time and across different scenarios.

morphemes

meaningful units of language that make up words

Achievement Motive

measured by Work & Family Orientation (WOFO) Scales; need to excel or overcome obstacles; often in areas of work, mastery, and competiveness; ex. GPA, award winners, standardized test scores (high), etc.

Oval Window

membrane similar to the eardrum, attached to the cochlea

Preconscious memories

memories of events and facts that can return to consciousness with relative ease when something cues their recall

suggestibility

memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion

encoding specifity principle

memory is encoded and stored with specifid cues related to the context in which it was formed

persistence

memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind

mood-congruent memory

memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood

explicit memory

memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled

implicit memory

memory that was not deliberately learned

creativity

mental process that provides novel responses for problems

concepts

mental representations of categories of items or ideas based on experience

method of loci

mnemonic device that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

conventional

morality at this level of Kohlber'gs theory is determined by approval seeking and law and order. Right and wrong is determined by society's rules. There is respect for authority and majority rule.

preconventional

morality at this level of Kohlberg's theory is determined by the will of outside authority (adults such as parents and teachers) and centers around gaining reward or avoiding punishment.

Rorschach Test

most used projective test, where a person is shown a set of 10 inkblots, identifys peoples inner feelings by analyzing what they say about the inkblots.

MMPI (minnesota multiphasic personality inventory )

most widely researched and clinically used personality test. originally developed to identify emotional disorders, assess abnormal personality tendencies, rather than normal traits

the "Big Five" factors

CANOE, (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion)

Reflection of feeling

Carl Rogers's technique of paraphrasing the clients' words attempting to capture the emotional tone expressed.

Excitement

Catatonic state of hyperactive, incoherent behavior

Stupor

Catatonic state of immobility

Natural Selection

Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations.

Piaget

Cognitive Development Theory

Reliability

Consistency

B. F. Skinner

Created reinforcement theory; behaviorist approach

Freud

Creator of the psychoanalytic model

Grandeur

Delusions in which a person believes life is much better than it really is.

Persecution

Delusions in which a person believes that they are being "hunted down"

Baumrind

Developed the Four Parenting Styles

Personality Disorders

Disorders characterized by inflexible, maladaptive ways of thinking that cause distress and conflicts.

Schizophrenic Disorders

Disorders marked by disordered thought and communication.

Affective Disorders

Disorders that cause a disturbance in the emotional state (e.g. clinical depression)

Anxiety Disorders

Disorders that cause persistent feelings of threat (e.g. panic attacks, phobias)

Dissociative Disorders

Disorders that involve losing contact with portions of consciousness or memory (e.g. psychogenic amnesia)

Content Validity

Does the test reflect the material?

Stimulants

Drugs that normally increase activity level by encouraging communication among neurons in the brain; however, they have also been found to suppress activity level in persons with ADHD.

Visible Light

Electromagnetic radiation that can be seen with the unaided eye

Cognitive thinking

Emphasizes rational thinking (as opposed to subjective emotion, motivation, or repressed conflicts) as the key to treating mental disorders.

Psychoanalysis

Emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and internal conflicts

identity vs. role confusion

Erikson crisis in adolescence

Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. self-doubt, initiative vs. guilt, competence vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation generativity vs. stagnation ego-integrity vs. despair

Erikson-psychosocial development

data

Facts, figures, and other evidence gathered through observations.

Delusions

False beliefs about reality.

Stanford-Binet

First Intelligence

John B. Watson

Founder of the Behavioral approach to psychology

psychoanalysis

Freud's theory of personality, attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (Basic idea is that what we think and how we act is based on our unconscious mind and our childhood experiences)

Contact Studies

Harlow; Rhesus monkeys; created surrogate mothers (bare wire and terry cloth); baby monkeys choose cloth 'mothers' over nourishment

Affiliation Motive

need to be with others; anxious if isolated; affiliation increases if danger appears (spirit de corps-being with a sympathetic group); cant be alone; interplay of biological & environmental factors

Feature Detectors

nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement

Nerves

neural 'cables' containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs

Organ of Corti

neurons activated by movement of hair cells, fires, impulses then transmitted to the brain via auditory nerve

sensory neurons

neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system

motor neurons

neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands

Explicit Acts

nonverbal cues to emotion; gestures; but can be misconstrued, ex. crying over onions, laugh at wrong time

Brightness Constancy

objects as being a constant color even as the light reflected off of them changes

Size Constancy

objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas, but we take distance into account

Similarity

objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group

Interposition Cue

objects that block the view to other objects must be closer

Proximity

objects that close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group

Continuity

objects that form a continuous form are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group

Closure

objects that make a recognizable image are more likely to be perceived as belonging in te same group even if it contains caps

Shape Constancy

objects viewed from dfferent angles will produce different shapes, but we know the shape of an object remains constant

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Somnambulism

occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep (sleep walking)

Central Route to Persuasion

occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.

Peripheral Route to Persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker's attractiveness.

Conduction Deafness

occurs when some goes wrong with the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea

Trichromatic Theory

oldest and most simple theory, we have three cones that detect blue red and green

self actualization

on maslows hierarchy of needs, it is the top that a person tries to reach throughout their life, when every one of your physical and physiological needs are met, complete fulfillment of ones potential

retrieval

one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves location and recovery of information

encoding

one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves modification of information

storage

one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves retention of encoded material over time

fluid intelligence

one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood

Terman

IQ

Flynn Effect

IQ seems to increase

Personality Psychologists

Identify characteristics or traits

School Psychologists

Identify students with problems and help with placement of students

Cognitive Development Theory

Jean Piaget Theory

Wilhelm Wundt

Known as father of psychology. Created the first scientific laboratory. Used structural approach

Preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality

Kohlberg-moral reasoning (cross-cultural)

denial, anger, bargaining depression, acceptance

Kubler-Ross' stages of death

Clinical Psychologists

Largest group, help people with psychological problems but can't provide drugs

Insanity

Legally, a person is incapable of recognizing right or wrong.

Bipolar Disorder

Manic Depression was renamed to

Normal Curve

Mean = Median = Mode

Criterion Validity

Measures accuracy of test both presently and in the future

Antidepressant drugs

Medicines that affect depression, usually by their effect on the serotonin and/or norepinephrine pathways in the brain.

Antipsychotic drugs

Medicines that diminish psychotic symptoms, usually by their effect on the dopamine pathways in the brian.

Kohlberg

Moral Development Theory

Agoraphobia`

Most commonly treated phobia

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Multiple Personality Disorder was renamed to

crystallized intelligence

one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

identity

one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles

self esteem

ones feelings of high or low self worth

ego

operates on reality principle, seeks to gratify id's impulses in realistic ways. mostly conscious awareness and judgement and memory

opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

oral, anal, phallic, latenty, genital

order of psychosexual stages

chunking

organizing pieces of information into smaller, more meaningful units

Constancy

our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despites changes in light, angle, etc.

consciousness

our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Sensory Habituation

our perception of sensations is partially due to how focused we are on them

self-serving bias

our readiness to perceive ourself favorably, so be able to tell ourself we are good

gender identity

our sense of being male or female. our parents can affect this by the way they raise us

personal control

our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless

self concept

our thoughts and feelings about ourself, answers "who am i"

unconscious

part of mind unaware of, made up of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, wishes, and memories.

Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)

part of the hypothalamus; feeding center; stimulates hunger; if destroyed, may cause starvation because organism doesn't receive cue to eat; L comes before V, therefore you have to start eating before you can stop

Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)

part of the hypothalamus; satiety center; ceases hunger; in rats, works as a "on-off' switch (studies caused obese rats); has been challenged as the on-off switch; L comes before V, therefore you have to start eating before you can stop

Top-down Processing

perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense, less accurate but quicker than bottom-up

Cognitive Theory

perception of situations that is essential to emotional experiences; Cannon-Bard is an example; experience depends on one's perception of how to interpret arousal

biological rhythms

periodic physiological fluctuations

imprinting

phenomenon in some animals in which newborns follow the first moving object human or animal that catches their attention

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions

engram

physical changes in brain associated with mmory

erogenous zones

pleasure sensitive areas of the body

sensory memory

preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli

working memory

preserves recently perceived events for less than a minute

algorithms

problem-solving procedures or formulas

factor analysis

procedure that identifies groups of related items on a test

reuptake

process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles

consolidation

process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories

identification

process in which children incorporate their parents values to create their superego

hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

significant difference

psychologists accept a difference between the groups as "real" or significant, when the probability that it might be due to an atypical sample drawn by chance less than 5 in 100 (indicated by the notation p<.05

basic research

pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.

REM sleep

rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

Meditation

refers to a family of practices that train attention th heighten awareness and bring mental processes under greater voluntary control

Frequency

refers to the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances

ex post facto

research in which we choose subjects based on a pre-existing condition

Rods

respond to black and white, outnumber 20:1

Cones

respond to color

recognition

retrieval method in one must identify present stimuli as being previously presented

recall

retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information

Self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

preconscious

right below the conscious, there isn't complete control but still accessible. outside awareness

endomorph

round, soft body type

grammar

rules of a language, specifying how to use stuff to make other stuff make sense

Socrates

said "know thyself" - the beginnings of introspection

applied research

scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.

Touch

sense is activated when the skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature

Superordinate goals

shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.

ectomorph

slender fragile

Chemical Senses

smell and taste

Vygotsky

social-cognitive development theory where social interaction plays a basic and key roll in the development of cognition.

Outer Ear/Pinna

sound waves collected here

Instinct

specific, inborn behavior patterns characteristic of an entire species; thought to account for human behavior until 1920s when it was learned that 1) behavior is learned, 2) behavior is rarely rigid and inflexible, 3) behavior to instinct means nothing; ex. Salmon swim upstream to spawn, spiders spin webs

anal stage, 18-36 months

stage focuses on bowel and bladder elimination. coping with demands for control (potty training)

latency stage, 6-puberty

stage focuses on dormant sexual feelings

genital stage, puberty-on

stage focuses on maturation of sexual interests

oral stage, 0-18 months

stage focuses on pleasure on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing

phallic stage, 3-6 years

stage focuses on pleasure zone in the genitals, coping with incestuous sexual feelings

overlearning

startegy when the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been brought to mastery

Drive

state of arousal/tension that motivates behaviors; ex. Hunger, thirst

Opponent-Process Theory

state that sensory receptorsare arranged in retina are in pairs of red/green, yellow/blue, black/white

Activation synthesis theory

states that dreams result when the sleeping brain tries to make sense of its own spontaneous bursts of activity

Weber's Law

states that the change needed is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus

descriptive statistics

statistical procedures used to describe characteristics and responses of groups of subjects

inferential statistics

statistical techniques used to assess whether the results of a study are reliable or whether they might be simply the result of chance

Testosterone

steroid hormone from the androgen group; in both men and women, testosterone plays a key role in health and well-being as well as in sexual functioning; Examples include enhanced libido, increased energy, increased production of red blood cells and protection against osteoporosis.

Subliminal Messages

stimuli below our absolute threshold

retrieval cues

stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness

declarative memory

stores facts

semantic memory

stores general knowledge, including meanings of words

procedural memory

stores memories for how things are done

episodic memory

stores memory for personal events

mesomorph

strong, muscular

Social Facilitation

stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.

Ainsworth

studied types of attachment by use of the strange situation test

gerontology

study of the aging process

experimental group

subjects in an experiment to whom the experimental treatment (independent variable) is administered

teratogens agents

such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

Attribution Theory

suggests how we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.

priming

technique for curing implicit memories tha provides cues to stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection

mnemonics

techniques for improving memory by making connections between new material and information already in LTM

confirmation bias

tendency to attend to evident that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations while ignoring evidence that does not.

mental set

tendency to respond to a new problem in the strategy used for a previous problem

hindsight bias

tendency, after learning about an event, to "second guess" that one could have predicted the events

hemispheric specialization

term used to describe the fact the two hemisheres of the brain are designed to handle specific tasks (Left - logic, language; Right - creativity, spatial reasoning, art, emotion)

cerebellum

the ''little brain'' attached to the rear of the brainstem' its functions include processing sensory input and coordination movement output and balance

sensory cortex

the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

medulla

the base of the brainstem; control heartbeat and breathing

circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm

the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.

Nervous System

the body's speedy , electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

central nervous system (CNS)

the brain and spinal cord

plasticity

the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development

thalamus

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

dendrite

the busy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

Companionate Love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom with whom our lives are intertwined.

fetus

the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth in which the first bone cells appear.

embryo

the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month in which major body systems develop.

tolerance

the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. (

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.

sympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

parasympathetic nervous system

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

somatic nervous system

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system

Vision

the dominent sense in human beings, gather information using their surroundings more than any other sense

reciprocal determinism

the effect environment has on behavior and cognition(thoughts) created by Bandura

Group Polarization

the enchantment of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

independent variable

the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied

axon

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

stranger anxiety

the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.

zygote

the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.

control group

the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied

Amplitude

the height of the wave and determines the loudness, measured in decibels

learned helplessness

the hopelessness someone learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. example dog with electric shock floor, one without the button gives up and thinks cant jump over...or word scramble give up when first 2 dont make sense

acquisition

the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

cerebral cortex

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

synapse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.

corpus callosum

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

delta waves

the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.

threshold

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

Occipital Lobe

the lobe in which the visual cortex is, the point that sensation ends and perception begins

nature-nurture issue

the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Iris

the muscles that control the pupil, dilate it to let more light in, make it smaller to let less light in

reticular formation

the nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

Optic Nerve

the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain

brainstem

the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the gland and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship between 2 or more variables where none actually exists

Mere Exposure Effect

the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.

occipital lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; included the visual ares. which recieve visual information from the opposite visual field

parietal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

frontal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgement

temporal lobe

the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear

resting potential

the potential difference between the two sides of the membrane of a nerve cell when the cell is not conducting an impulse

Frustration-aggression Principle

the principle that frustration--the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal--creates anger, which can generate aggression.

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Perception

the process of understanding sensations

Cornea

the protective covering that light first enters through, helps focus light

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

alpha waves

the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Expectancy Bias

the researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study; or in memory, a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations

personal bias

the researcher allowing personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

Social Psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Kinesthetic Sense

the sense that gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts

Vestibular Sense

the sense that tells how our body is oriented in space

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Absolute Threshold

the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect

Cochlea

the snail-shaped tube (in the inner ear coiled around the modiolus) where sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses by the Organ of Corti

Optic Chiasm

the spot where the nerves cross each other

Blind Spot

the spot where the optic nerve leaves the retina and has no cones or rods

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation

Bystander Effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Fundamental Attribution Error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Social Loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request.

Just-world Phenomenon

the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Ingroup Bias

the tendency to favor one's own ingroup.

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

Social Exchange Theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Scapegoat Theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

empiricism

the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment.

behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; most research psychologists agree with the former but not the latter

Lorenz

theorist associated with the idea of imprinting as an method of attachment in some animals

Kubler-Ross

theorist who proposed that terminally Ill patients go through a series of stages as they approach death.

collective unconscious

theory developed by Carl Jung, idea that people from the same culture or group will have the same unconscious thoughts, and these thoughts and values can be passed down.

Arousal Theory

theory of motivation; each individual has an optimal level of arousal (alertness, paying attention) that varies from one situation to the next; maintained by desire at that moment; may affect your performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law); Advantages-sensation or thrillseekers

Drive-Reduction Theory

theory that motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a state of tension/arousal in the body and return the body to a state of balance

Frequency Theory

theory that we sense pitch because the hair cells fire at different rates

Signal Detection Theory

this theory investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world

Hammer/Anvil/Stirrup

three bones as the ossicles, vibration transmitted to the oval window

psychosexual stages

time at which id's pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct pleasure sensitive areas.

lesion

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

Introspection

to "look within"

Linear Perspective

to draw train tracks, you would draw two lines that converge at the top of the paper

amygdala

two lima-bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion

type A

type of personality that is more aggressive and controlling

type B

type of personality that is more laid back and chill

id

unconscious psychic energy. strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress. operates on pleasure principle which demands immediate gratification. not much control over this.

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group and its members.

Primary Drive

unlearned; found in all animals and humans; motivates behavior that is vital to the survival of the individual/species; hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, BR needs

Stimulus Motive

unlearned; responsive to external stimuli; pushes us to investigate, and often change, environment; ex. Curiosity, exploration, manipulation, and contact; males more likely to be aggressive probably because of socialization; collectivistic cultures are more likely to seek compromise

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Auditory/Ear Canal

waves travel through here to eardrum

archetypes

we have our set schemas and ideas for what a man, woman, etc. are so its a way to individuate from our norms and normal schema

Texture Gradient

we know that we can see details in texture close to us but no far away

Gestalt Rules

we normally perceive images as groups, not as isolated elements, innate and inevitable

Bottom-up Processing

we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception, automatic process, takes longer but more accurate than top-down

Guilford

Over 100 mental abilities

Experimental Psychologists

Partake in basic research, research for its own sake

Norms

Patterns with groups of people

Cognitive Perspective

Perceptions and thought influence behavior

Depth Cues

Perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimentional space

Learning Perspective

Personal experience and reinforcement guide individual development

Neuroticism

Personality trait characterized by persistent anxiety

Continuity view

Perspective that development is graudal and continuous.

Discontinuity view

Perspective that development proceeds in an uneven fashion.

sensorimotor stage

Piaget-stage 1-(from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

mental representation

Piaget-stage 1-ability to form internal images of objects and events and use them to think.

object permanence

Piaget-stage 1-the idea taht objects exist independently of one's own actions or awareness

preoperational stage

Piaget-stage 2-(from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

irreversibility

Piaget-stage 2-inabiliyt to think through a series of events or mentla operations and then mentally reverse the steps

Animistic thinking

Piaget-stage 2-mode of thought in which inanimate objects are imagined to have life and mental processes

egocentrism

Piaget-stage 2-the child's difficulty in taking another's point of view.

Centration

Piaget-stage 2-thought pattern involving the inability to take into account more than one factor at a time

concrete operational stage

Piaget-stage 3-the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.

formal operational stage

Piaget-stage 4-the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (

conservation

Piaget-stage3-properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

Carl Jung

Psychologist that was the student of Freud, placed much more emphasis on social factor, believed in the collective unconscious

Karen Horney

Psychologist who agreed with Alfred Adler, also countered the bias of masculine views to psychology

Alfred Adler

Psychologist who agreed with Freud that childhood experiences were important in shaping personality, but focused on the social factor not sex.

Carl Rogers

Psychologist who believed in humanistic views, developed theory of unconditional positive regard

Jerome Kagan

Psychologist who believed in more biological view, thought our genes had a lot of effect on our personality and thinks child shyness is caused by autonomic nervous system

Martin Seligman

Psychologist who came up with idea of learned helplessness, came up with experiment with dog in electric shocking floor

Abraham Maslow

Psychologist who developed hierarchy of needs, used to show personality because personality develops as a person moves through the pyramid

Sigmund Freud

Psychologist who developed the theory of psychoanalysis, believes that our personality comes from our unconscious mind. Explored the idea of sex, aggression, and other basic drives. Looks at early childhood experiences

pseudopsychology

Psychology that is not based on scientific facts or studies, that is more "common sense" in some cases.

Erikson

Psychosocial development theory

Insight therapies

Psychotherapies in which the therapist helps patients/clients understand their problems.

Talk therapies

Psychotherapies that focus on communicating and verbalizing emotions and motives to understand their problems.

longitudinal study

Research in which a sample of individuals is studied over a long time period.

Two Factor Theory of Emotion

Schacter & Singer (1962); cognitive theory; there are bodily emotions, but we use the emotions/information to tell us how to reaction in the situation; only when we think, recognize, do we experience the emotion

Disorganized

Schizophrenia characterized by childlike behavior, frantic gesturing, etc.

Paranoid

Schizophrenia characterized by extreme suspiciousness and complex delusional systems

Catatonic

Schizophrenia characterized by severe disturbance in motor activity

Undifferentiated

Schizophrenia that is most definitely schizophrenia, but it doesn't fit into any specific category.

Positive Psychology

Seligman; field that studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive

Stimulus

Sensory input from the environment.

Sociocultural Perspective

Sociocultural, biological, and psychological factors create individual differences

Personal Discomfort

Some behavior is considered abnormal because it causes _________ (e.g. anxiety, raw hands, etc.)

Power Test

Starts easy and gets harder

William James

Stream of consciousness", created functionalism with others, wrote Principles of Psychology

Kagan

Studied temperament

Industrial and Organizational Psychologists

Study behavior of people and work, like those in organizations

Health Psychologists

Study how behavior and mental aspects affect health

Environmental Psychologists

Study how people's surrounding affect them

Social Psychologists

Study people's behavior in social situations

Consumer Psychologists

Study the behavior of shoppers to predict and explain their behavior

Developmental Psychologists

Study the changes that occur throughout a person's life span

Barnum Effect

Tendency to believe a general personality report

Face Validity

Test looks like it is accurate

Analysis of transference

The Freudian technique of analyzing and interpreting the patient's relationship with the therapist, based on the assumption that this relationship mirrors unresolved conflicts in the patient's past.

external validity

The degree to which the results of an experiment may be applied to the real world (generalizability)

dependent variable

The experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable

internal validity

The extent to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, and thus the degree to which we can infer a cause and effect relationship

Psychosurgery

The general term for surgical intervention in the brain to treat psychological disorders.

median

The measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that separates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half

mode

The measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that separates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half; the most frequently occurring score in a distribution

mean

The measure of central tendency most often used to describe a set of data-calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores

Deinstitutionalization

The policy for removing patients, whenever possible, from mental hospitals.

Psychopharmacology

The prescribed use of drugs to help treat symptoms of mental illness ostensibly to ensure that individuals are more receptive to talk therapies.

range

The simplest measure of variability, represented by the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a frequency distribution.

Introspection

The subjective observation of one's own experience.

John Locke

Theorized that knowledge is not inborn but is learned from experiences

Psychological therapies

Therapies based on psychological principles; often called "psychotherapy."

Neo-Freudian psychodynamic therapies

Therapies for mental disorder that were developed by psychodynamic theorists who embraced some of Freud's ideas but disagreed with others.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

Counseling Psychologists

Treat people who have adjustment problems rather than serious mental disorders. Work often at universities

Humanistic therapies

Treatment techniques based on the assumption that people have a tendency for positive growth and self-actualization, which may be blocked by an unhealthy environment that can include negative self-evaluation and criticism from others.

Biomedical therapies

Treatments that focus on altering the brain, especially with drugs, psychosurgery, or electroconvulsive therapy.

Mental Retardation

Two standard deviations below the mean

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Unconscious motives influence behavior

Phobia

Unreasonable fear

Psychological constructs

Used to talk about something we cannot see, touch or measure

Energy Senses

Vision (light), hearing (sound waves), and touch (pressure).

Zone of proximal development

Vygotsky-the difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance.

all-or-none response

When a muscle fiber contracts,it contracts completely

Maladaptive

When a person cannot assimilate into society, their behavior is _______

Coconscious

When multiple personalities know about each other.

Educational Psychologists

Work on course planning and instructional methods

pons

a band of nerve fibers linking the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the midbrain

histogram

a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. the height of the bars indicates the frequency of a group of scores

normal distribution

a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population

psychiatry

a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.

counseling psychology

a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.

clinical psychology

a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.

operant chamber

a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking; used in operant conditioning research

psychoactive drug

a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee

a committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment involving animals for ethics and methodology

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

limbic system

a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres' associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

myelin sheath

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next

spinal cord

a major part of the central nervous system which conducts sensory and motor nerve impulses to and from the brain

standard deviation

a measure of variability that indicates the average distance between the scores and their mean

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment

neuron

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

action potential

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.

hypothalamus

a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion

Conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

projective tests

a personality test, example inkblot test or TAT, gives stimuli that gets a person to give feelings from their unconscious

physical dependence

a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.

methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.

Perceptual Set

a predisposition to perceive something in a certain way

random presentation

a process by which chance alone determines the order in which the stimulus is presented

Transduction

a process during which signals are transferred into neural impulses

psychological dependence

a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

correlational study

a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other

refractory period

a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm

random sample

a sample group of subjects selected by chance where every participant within a population has an equal chance of being selected

random sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion; it increases external validity (generalizability)

functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Retina

a screen in the back of the eye on which inverted images are projected

CT scan

a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.

reflexes

a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response

Social Trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembere

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

narcolepsy

a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

hypnosis

a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

dissociation

a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others

operational definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures

correlation coefficient

a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables, ranging from -1 to +1

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer

cross-sectional study

a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

posthypnotic suggestion

a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.

survey

a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of a larger group (population)

fMRI

a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI sans show brain function

MRI

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue allows us to see structures within the brains

expectancy bias

a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations

empirically derived

a test developed by testing a large pool of items then selecting the ones that discriminate between groups

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator

a test that asks about a persons values, then gives strength so everyone gets flattered,

hypothesis

a testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Ear Drum/Tympanic Membrane

a thin membrane that vibrates as the sound wave hits it

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli; a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus; also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

PET scan

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive from of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

Color Blindness

cannot see certain colors

excitatory signals

cause actions; tell body to act quickly

retroactive interference

cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material

proactive interference

cause of forgetting in which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information

glial cells

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons

interneurons

central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

traits

characteristics of behavior, a way we feel and act, assessed by self report inventories and peer reports

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. WHen released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impluse

Taste/Gustation

chemical sense involved in food

agonists/antagonists

chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell

flashbulb memory

clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful event

heuristics

cognitive strategies or "rules of thumb" used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks

information-processing model

cognitive understanding of memory emphasizing how information is changed

self-consistency bias

commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our beliefs and ideas than we actually are

Paradoxical sleep

condition where during REM sleep the voluntary muscles in the body are immobile

fixation

conflicts unresolved in earlier psychosexual stage resurfaces as an adult. gets locked at one stage. (ex. freud and cigars)

Non-REM sleep

consists of sleep stages 1 through 4, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity

control techniques

constraints that the experimenter places on the experiment to ensure that the control and experimental groups are treated identically, (except for levels of the independent variable); control techniques increase internal validity (the degree to which we can infer cause and effect)

Broca's Area

controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

acoustic encoding

conversion of information to sound patterns

Sound Waves

created by vibrations which travel through the air and collect in our ears

Sigmund Freud

creator of psychoanalysis and one of the most influential men in psychology

Gilligan

criticized Kohlberg's research on moral theory because she felt it was biased against girls

Binocular Cues

cues that depend on having two eyes

Lens

curved and flexible in order to focus light

basic trust

according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve.

Secondary Drives

acquired through learning; affiliation, social, achievement, aggression, power; Ex. money, grades, friends, intimacy, acceptance, praise, etc.

Sensation

activation of our senses

accommodation

adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.

Conformity

adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

informed consent

agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research

population

all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

EEG electroencephalogram

an amplified recording of the waves of the electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

Passionate Love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.

attachment

an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

Social-responsibility Norm

an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.

Reciprocity Norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

theory

an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations

Fovea

an indentation in the center of the retina that has the highest concentration of cones

temperament

an individual's basic disposition, which is evident from infancy and is generally stable across the lifespan

personality

an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

case study

an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Prejudice

an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude towards a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior for intended to hurt or destroy.

mory

any system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information

Nightmares

are anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep

association areas

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather , they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

Convergence

as an object gets closer to our face, our eyes must move toward each other to keep focused on the object

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

anxious ambivalent

attachment style in which they are less likely to explore with parent present, protest when they leave, and not comforted when they return

avoidant

attachment style in which they seek little contact with their caregiver and are not distressed when the caregiver leaves

Hearing

auditory senses, waves are created in the air

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV -TR

"Bible" of psychological disorders

Outgroup

"Them"- those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup.

Ingroup

"Us"- people with whom one shares a common identity.

Fluid Intelligence

-Ability to solve abstract -Decreases with age

Standardized Test

-Administration and scoring is uniform -Time not a factor

Triarchic Theory

-Analytic, experiential, practical -Sternberg

Emotional Intelligence

-EQ -Goleman -Emotional Maturity

Multiple Intelligence

-Gardner -Musical Intelligence -Inter/Intra Personal IQ

G Factor

-General Intelligence -Spearman -High G Factor: good at everything -Low G Factor: struggle with everything

Mild

-May be able to function on their own -6th grade level

Severe

-May learn simple tasks like speaking -Needs constant spervision

Aptitude Test

-Measures potential -Mechanical comprehension

Achievement Test

-Measures what has been learned -Ex: ACT

Profound

-Need constant supervision -MA of 2 years

Crystallized Intelligence

-Using knowledge to solve

Weschler

-WAIS (adults) -WISC (children) -Wordless, puzzles and pictures

self-concept

1) a sense of one's identity and personal worth. (2) all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"

James-Lange Theory

1880s; William James and Carl Lange; theory of emotion; stimuli in environment cause physiological change in bodies, then emotion comes; ex. I see a bear which cause my heart to race, then I become afraid

Cannon-Bard Theory

1920s; theory of emotion; processing emotions and bodily response occur simultaneously; ex. I see a bear, I feel afraid and my heart is racing

Plutchik's 3D model

1980; 8 basic emotions-fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, & acceptance; helps adjust to demands of environment; model illustrates how emotions are more alike to those situated near it than those farther away (circle)_; varies with intensity

Moderate

2nd grade level

Thurstone

7 main abilities

Systemic desensitization

A behavioral therapy technique in which anxiety is extinguished by exposing the patient to an anxiety-provoking stimulus.

Antianxiety drugs

A category of drugs that includes the barbiturates and benzodiazepines, drugs that diminish feelings of anxiety.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

A disorder that follows a distressing event characterized by intense fear and reliving said event.

Cognitive Neuroscience

A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity.

scientific method

A five-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgement

Exposure therapy

A form of desensitization therapy in which the patient directly confronts the anxiety-provoking stimulus (as opposed to imagining the stimulus).

Therapy

A general term for any treatment process; in psychology and psychiatry, it refers to a variety of psychological and biomedical techniques aimed at dealing with mental disorders or coping with problems of living.

scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables

Client-centered therapy

A humanistic approach to treatment developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizing an individual's tendency for healthy psychological growth through self-actualization.

Cognitive-behavioral therapy

A newer form of psychotherapy that combines the techniques of cognitive therapy with those of behavioral therapy.

Phrenology

A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain.

Conflict

A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Active listener

A person who gives the speaker feedback in such forms as nodding, paraphrasing, maintaining an expression that shows interest, and asking questions for clarification.

Consciousness

A person's subjective experience of the world and the mind.

Antisocial

A personality disorder in which a person cannot empathize with others (e.g. Manson, Bundy)

Narcissistic

A personality disorder in which a person has an exaggerated sense of self-importance.

Schizoid

A personality disorder in which a person has no desire to form relationships.

Paranoid

A personality disorder in which a person is inappropriately suspicious and mistrustful.

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

A projective test where a person is shown a picture then tells a story about the picture, the things they say in the picture give insight on what they feel in their unconscious.

Gestalt Psychology

A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.

cohort-sequential study

A research method in which a cross section of the population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period of time

experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable); it allows us to infer a cause and effect relationship between variables

representative sample

A sample obtained in a way that reflects the the distribution of important variables in the larger population in which the researchers are intersted(variables such as age, income level, ethnicity, and geographic distribution).

Hallucination

A sensory experience with no sensory stimulus.

Role

A set of explanations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Lithium carbonate

A simple chemical compound that is highly effective in dampening the extreme mood swings of bipolar disorder.

Hypochondriasis

A somatoform disorder in which a person BELIEVES something is wrong but nothing is.

Conversion Disorder

A somatoform disorder in which the symptoms are real, but nothing is physiologically wrong.

frequency distribution

A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A treatment that involves magnetic stimulation of specific regions of the brain; unlike ECT, it does not produce a seizure.

Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)

A treatment used primarily for depression and involving the application for an electric current to the head, producing a generalized seizure; sometimes called "shock treatment."

Biological

According to the ___________ model, all disorders have a physiological basis.

Psychoanalytic

According to the ___________ model, disorders are symbolic representations of unconscious internal conflicts.

Behavioral

According to the ___________ model, even abnormal behavior can be learned and unlearned.

Diathesis-Stress

According to the ___________ model, we are predisposed to an illness, but we only exhibit it when the we are "pushed over the edge."

Validity

Accuracy

Evolutionary Perspective

Adaptive organisms survive and transmit their genes to future generations

Marcia

Adolescent Identity Theory-4 stages

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)

Albert Ellis's brand of cognitive therapy, based on the idea that irrational thoughts and behaviors are the cause of mental disorders.

Somatoform Disorders

An apparent physical disorder for which there is no evidence of an organic cause

empirical investigation

An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data

Community mental health movement

An effort to deinstitutionalize mental patients and to provide therapy from outpatient clinics; proponents envisioned that recovering patients could live with their families, in foster homes, or in group homes.

double blind study

An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo

Tardive dyskinesia

An incurable disorder of motor control, especially involving muscles of the face and head, resulting from long-term use of antipsychotic drugs.

Contingency management

An operant conditioning approach to changing behavior by altering the consequences, especially rewards and punishments, of behavior.

Behavior modification

Another term for behavior therapy.

Behavior therapy

Any form of psychotherapy based on the principles of behavioral learning, especially operant conditioning and classical conditioning.

Group therapy

Any form of psychotherapy done with more than one client/patient at a time; often done from a humanistic perspective.

Aversion therapy

As a classical conditioning procedure, aversive counterconditioning involves presenting individuals with an attractive stimulus paired with unpleasant stimulation in order to condition revulsion.

cross-sectional study

As study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time

Homeostasis

balance; stability; part of the drive-reduction theory; when individual functions effectively because drives are met

superego

begins around age 4 or 5, voice of conscious that forces ego to consider not only the real but ideal viewpoints

Aggression

behavior aimed at inflicting physical or psychological harm; intent is key element; ex. Road rage, passive aggressive acts, hitting

operant behavior

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

external locus of control

believe outside has control "the man"

internal locus of control

believe you have control over what you do

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

language acquisition device (LAD)

biologically organized mental structure that facilitates learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with grammatical rules

Shadowing

by shadowing part of your picture, you can imply where the light source is thus implying depth and position of objects