AP Psychology Chapter 1-14 Final Review
Authoritative, Authoritarian, Permissive, Uninvolved
Baumrind-parenting styles
Construct Validity
Best type of validity
Biological Perspective
Biological processes influence behavior and mental processes
Sensory Adaptation
decreased responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation eg. socks on feet
habituation
decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.
regression
defense mechanism that allows us to retreat to an earlier more infintile stage of development, first day of school kids will start sucking their thumbs again even if they havent done that in years
repression
defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts that are thought to be unacceptable in society. (unconscious forgetting) ex. forgetting about a test even if you have known about it for months
displacement
defense mechanism that puts a sexual or aggressive impulse onto another object or person. example would be slamming the door when mad at your mom, kicking your dog when your friend and you got into a fight
projection
defense mechanism where impulses are disguised by putting the thought onto another thought. someone who critizes people for gossiping is actually a huge gossip themself
reaction formation
defense mechanism where the ego unconsciously makes unacceptable impulses seem like their opposites. a boy will react to their strong sexual attraction to women by becoming a woman hater.
rationalization
defense mechanism where we unconsciously give a self-justifying explanation for actions to hide the real reason. so tell yourself there is a more acceptable reason for something so you don't realize how bad the thought is. a parent who sees there child stab animals will tell themself the kid is going to be a doctor so it is ok they are stabbing animals
sublimation
defense mechanism where you channel your aggressive feelings onto a different activity. example someone who fights in school will excel at soccer in high school
Smell/Olfaction
depends on chemicals emitted by substance
Monocular Cues
depth cues that do not depend on having two eyes
Light Wavelength
determines the particular hue, longer than visible light infrared, microwaves, radio waves, shorter, UV and X
William Sheldon
developed endo/ecto/meso morphic idea
misinformation effect
distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformaiton
Relative Size Cue
draw things closer to the viewer as bigger
depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
stimulants
drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
barbiturates
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.
Amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
Oedipus complex
during phallic stage, freud's idea that boys develop unconscious sexual desire for mother and hatred/jealousy for their father
Bulimia Nervosa
eating disorder; recurrent episodes of binging and purging (massive eating in private, hiding out then throwing up or laxative usage), looks normal in weight (often) and is obsessed with maintaining weight not necessarily losing weight ; symptoms include: bruising on hand, suspicious behavior, binging/purging, smell from skin and mouth, lank hair, rotting teeth (eventually), puffy skin; Onset: late adolescence, more white middle-class females, but rising in white males
Anorexia Nervosa
eating disorder; severe weight loss accompanied by obsessive worrying about weight gain despite the fact the person is 10-15% below normal body weight; symptoms include: absence of 3 menstrual periods (females), distorted body image, intense fear of weight gain, dull eyes, baggy skin, dull hair, sallow skin, listlessness, overexercises, obsession about amount of food eaten; Onset: early adolescence, more white middle-class females; often comorbid with OCD
eidetic imagery
especially clear form of memory; "photographic memory"
Yerkes-Dodson Law
evidences arousal theory; the more complex a task, the lower level of arousal that can be tolerated without interference before the performance deteriorates; ex. used in class-driving to school, driving angry, finding a new location, boiling an egg
Emotion
experience of feelings that underlies behavior; activates and effects behaviors but difficult to predict behavior; ex. Fear, joy, surprise
placebo effect
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which is assumed to be an active agent.
Sexual Response Cycle
explains sexual drive; Masters & Johnson (1966); EXPLORRE: EXcite, PLateau, ORgasm, REsolution (4 phases); describes the sexual response of males and females
Extrinsic Motivation
external motivation; completion of activity because of the consequence: reward or to avoid punishment; ex. Job, chores, school assignment, etc.
Pheromones
external stimuli; like primary drive, affects sex drive in animals; indirect evidence suggests that humans secrete pheromones to promote sexual pheromones to promote sexual readiness in potential partners; in sweat glands of armpits and genitals
Incentive
external stimulus that motivates behavior; do not need to be aware of it to happen; does not have to be primary or an active, cognitive secondary drive; ex. Bakery, impulse buys, advertisements, Krispy Kreme
Affect (as in facial)
facial expression
confounding variables
factors that cause differences between the experimental group and the control group other than the independent variable
hallucinations
false sensory experiences
representativeness bias
faulty heuristic based on the presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category
availability bias
faulty heuristic that estimates probabilities on information that can be recalled
Attitude
feelings, often based on our beliefs, that predispose us to respond in a particular way to objects, people, and events.
absent-mindedness
forgetting caused by lapses in attention
blocking
forgetting that occurs when an item in memory cannot be accessed or retrieved
individualism
give priority to one's own goals over others
debriefing
giving participants in a research study a complete explanation of the study after the study is completed
collectivism
giving priority to goals of the group over goals of self
forgetting curve
graph plotting amount of retention and forgetting over time for a certain batch of material
Harlow
highlighted importance of physical contact in the formation of attachment with parents
Light Intensity
how much energy a light contains, how bright the object is
Hierarchy of Needs
humanism; Marlow; graduation of primitive motives to more sophisticated, complex (human needs); higher motives only emerge after basic are fulfilled; Stages-physiological, safety, belonging/love (sometimes a separate stage), esteem, and self-actualization
unconditional positive regard
idea created by Carl Rogers, an attitude of total acceptance toward another person. seeing the good in everyone, if you do bad on a test, its still very good that you put forth effort. very humanistic
Set Point
idea that your body returns to a preprogrammed weight; this occurs naturally (after dieting and other events)
prototype
ideal or most representative example of a conceptual category
reliability
if the personality test logically says what its supposed to
validity
if the test assesses what it says its going to assess
Afterimages
if you stare at one color for a while then look at a blank space, you will see color, stare at green, it will be red, yellow blue
aphasia
impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impaired understanding)
transience
impermanence of long-term memory
Left Hemisphere
impulses from the left side of the retina go here
Right Hemisphere
impulses from the right side of the retina go here
intimacy
in Erikson's theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.
unconditioned stimulus (US)
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response
conditioned stimulus (CS)
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
discrimination
in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR)
in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus
unconditioned response (UR)
in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, such as salivation when food is in the mouth
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
reinforcer
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
free association
in psychoanalysis, a method of looking at the unconscious where a person relaxes and speaks their mind, no matter how embarrassing
defense mechanisms
in psychoanalytic theory, a way the ego protects itself against anxiety by unconsciously distorting reality
postconventional
in this Kohlberg level right and wrong determined by society's rules which are viewed as fallible rather than absolute or by abstract ethical principles that emphasize equality and justice
anterograde amnesia
inability to for memories for new information
functional fixedness
inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose
retrograde amnesia
inability to remember information previously stored in memory
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors presented by presenting positive stimuli, such as food; any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response
Normative Social Influence
influence resulting from a person's desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
Informational Social Influence
influence resulting from one's willingness to accept other' opinions about reality.
elaborative rehearsal
information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM
maintenance rehearsal
information is repeated or reviewed to keep from fading in working memory
levels-of-processing theory
information that is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better
aptitudes
innate potentialities
Motive
inner directing force; specific need or desire; arouses individual and directs behavior; ex. Hunger, thirst, achievement; can be environmental cues
neural networks
interconnected neural cells. With experience, networks can learn, as feedbacks strengthens or inhibits connections that produce certain results. COmputer simulations of neural networks who analogous learning
Intrinsic Motivation
internal motivation; completing the activity because it please you; ex. Singing, reading, crosswords, etc.; some people turn these things into extrinsic motivations like jobs but this is rare
assimilation
interpreting one's new experience in terms of one's existing schemas.
Difference Threshold
is the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a change
schema
knowledge luster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, etc.
long-term memory (LTM)
largest memory capacity and duration; stores material organized by meaning
Power Motive
learned; need to be praised by those in authority or power
Social Motive
learned; need to fulfill intimacy and achievement through relationships; not to be confused with affiliation (need to be around people)
observational learning
learning by observing others
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together; the events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
concept hierarchies
levels of concepts in which a more general level includes more specific concepts
Unconscious
levels of processing that occur without awareness from brain systems on automatic pilot to those that have a subtle influence on conscious thoughts and behaviors.
Accommodation
light that centers the pupil is focused by the lens
Pupil
light travels through it, the shutter of a camera
personality inventories
long questionare where people respond to items that ask about a wide range of feelings and behaviors, designed to assess several traits at once
nature-nurture issue
long-standing debate over the relative importance of heredity and environment and their influence on behavior and mental processes.
Color Spectum
longest to shortest wavelength: red orange yellow green blue indigo violet
person-situation controversy
look for genuine personality traits that occur over time and across different scenarios.
morphemes
meaningful units of language that make up words
Achievement Motive
measured by Work & Family Orientation (WOFO) Scales; need to excel or overcome obstacles; often in areas of work, mastery, and competiveness; ex. GPA, award winners, standardized test scores (high), etc.
Oval Window
membrane similar to the eardrum, attached to the cochlea
Preconscious memories
memories of events and facts that can return to consciousness with relative ease when something cues their recall
suggestibility
memory distortion as the result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestion
encoding specifity principle
memory is encoded and stored with specifid cues related to the context in which it was formed
persistence
memory problem in which unwanted memories cannot be put out of mind
mood-congruent memory
memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one's mood
explicit memory
memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled
implicit memory
memory that was not deliberately learned
creativity
mental process that provides novel responses for problems
concepts
mental representations of categories of items or ideas based on experience
method of loci
mnemonic device that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations
conventional
morality at this level of Kohlber'gs theory is determined by approval seeking and law and order. Right and wrong is determined by society's rules. There is respect for authority and majority rule.
preconventional
morality at this level of Kohlberg's theory is determined by the will of outside authority (adults such as parents and teachers) and centers around gaining reward or avoiding punishment.
Rorschach Test
most used projective test, where a person is shown a set of 10 inkblots, identifys peoples inner feelings by analyzing what they say about the inkblots.
MMPI (minnesota multiphasic personality inventory )
most widely researched and clinically used personality test. originally developed to identify emotional disorders, assess abnormal personality tendencies, rather than normal traits
the "Big Five" factors
CANOE, (conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, extraversion)
Reflection of feeling
Carl Rogers's technique of paraphrasing the clients' words attempting to capture the emotional tone expressed.
Excitement
Catatonic state of hyperactive, incoherent behavior
Stupor
Catatonic state of immobility
Natural Selection
Charles Darwin's theory that the features of an organism that help it survive and reproduce are more likely than other features to be passed on to subsequent generations.
Piaget
Cognitive Development Theory
Reliability
Consistency
B. F. Skinner
Created reinforcement theory; behaviorist approach
Freud
Creator of the psychoanalytic model
Grandeur
Delusions in which a person believes life is much better than it really is.
Persecution
Delusions in which a person believes that they are being "hunted down"
Baumrind
Developed the Four Parenting Styles
Personality Disorders
Disorders characterized by inflexible, maladaptive ways of thinking that cause distress and conflicts.
Schizophrenic Disorders
Disorders marked by disordered thought and communication.
Affective Disorders
Disorders that cause a disturbance in the emotional state (e.g. clinical depression)
Anxiety Disorders
Disorders that cause persistent feelings of threat (e.g. panic attacks, phobias)
Dissociative Disorders
Disorders that involve losing contact with portions of consciousness or memory (e.g. psychogenic amnesia)
Content Validity
Does the test reflect the material?
Stimulants
Drugs that normally increase activity level by encouraging communication among neurons in the brain; however, they have also been found to suppress activity level in persons with ADHD.
Visible Light
Electromagnetic radiation that can be seen with the unaided eye
Cognitive thinking
Emphasizes rational thinking (as opposed to subjective emotion, motivation, or repressed conflicts) as the key to treating mental disorders.
Psychoanalysis
Emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and internal conflicts
identity vs. role confusion
Erikson crisis in adolescence
Trust vs. Mistrust, Autonomy vs. self-doubt, initiative vs. guilt, competence vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation generativity vs. stagnation ego-integrity vs. despair
Erikson-psychosocial development
data
Facts, figures, and other evidence gathered through observations.
Delusions
False beliefs about reality.
Stanford-Binet
First Intelligence
John B. Watson
Founder of the Behavioral approach to psychology
psychoanalysis
Freud's theory of personality, attributes thoughts and actions to unconscious motives and conflicts. (Basic idea is that what we think and how we act is based on our unconscious mind and our childhood experiences)
Contact Studies
Harlow; Rhesus monkeys; created surrogate mothers (bare wire and terry cloth); baby monkeys choose cloth 'mothers' over nourishment
Affiliation Motive
need to be with others; anxious if isolated; affiliation increases if danger appears (spirit de corps-being with a sympathetic group); cant be alone; interplay of biological & environmental factors
Feature Detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
Nerves
neural 'cables' containing many axons. These bundled axons, which are part of the peripheral nervous system, connect the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
Organ of Corti
neurons activated by movement of hair cells, fires, impulses then transmitted to the brain via auditory nerve
sensory neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors to the central nervous system
motor neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
Explicit Acts
nonverbal cues to emotion; gestures; but can be misconstrued, ex. crying over onions, laugh at wrong time
Brightness Constancy
objects as being a constant color even as the light reflected off of them changes
Size Constancy
objects closer to our eyes will produce bigger images on our retinas, but we take distance into account
Similarity
objects that are similar in appearance are more likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group
Interposition Cue
objects that block the view to other objects must be closer
Proximity
objects that close together are more likely to be perceived as belonging to the same group
Continuity
objects that form a continuous form are more likely to be perceived as belonging in the same group
Closure
objects that make a recognizable image are more likely to be perceived as belonging in te same group even if it contains caps
Shape Constancy
objects viewed from dfferent angles will produce different shapes, but we know the shape of an object remains constant
naturalistic observation
observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Somnambulism
occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep (sleep walking)
Central Route to Persuasion
occurs when interested people focus on the arguments and respond with favorable thoughts.
Peripheral Route to Persuasion
occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as speaker's attractiveness.
Conduction Deafness
occurs when some goes wrong with the system of conducting the sound to the cochlea
Trichromatic Theory
oldest and most simple theory, we have three cones that detect blue red and green
self actualization
on maslows hierarchy of needs, it is the top that a person tries to reach throughout their life, when every one of your physical and physiological needs are met, complete fulfillment of ones potential
retrieval
one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves location and recovery of information
encoding
one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves modification of information
storage
one of the three basic tasks of memory; involves retention of encoded material over time
fluid intelligence
one's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood
Terman
IQ
Flynn Effect
IQ seems to increase
Personality Psychologists
Identify characteristics or traits
School Psychologists
Identify students with problems and help with placement of students
Cognitive Development Theory
Jean Piaget Theory
Wilhelm Wundt
Known as father of psychology. Created the first scientific laboratory. Used structural approach
Preconventional morality, conventional morality, postconventional morality
Kohlberg-moral reasoning (cross-cultural)
denial, anger, bargaining depression, acceptance
Kubler-Ross' stages of death
Clinical Psychologists
Largest group, help people with psychological problems but can't provide drugs
Insanity
Legally, a person is incapable of recognizing right or wrong.
Bipolar Disorder
Manic Depression was renamed to
Normal Curve
Mean = Median = Mode
Criterion Validity
Measures accuracy of test both presently and in the future
Antidepressant drugs
Medicines that affect depression, usually by their effect on the serotonin and/or norepinephrine pathways in the brain.
Antipsychotic drugs
Medicines that diminish psychotic symptoms, usually by their effect on the dopamine pathways in the brian.
Kohlberg
Moral Development Theory
Agoraphobia`
Most commonly treated phobia
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Multiple Personality Disorder was renamed to
crystallized intelligence
one's accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.
identity
one's sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of self by testing and integrating various roles
self esteem
ones feelings of high or low self worth
ego
operates on reality principle, seeks to gratify id's impulses in realistic ways. mostly conscious awareness and judgement and memory
opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.
oral, anal, phallic, latenty, genital
order of psychosexual stages
chunking
organizing pieces of information into smaller, more meaningful units
Constancy
our ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despites changes in light, angle, etc.
consciousness
our awareness of ourselves and our environment.
Sensory Habituation
our perception of sensations is partially due to how focused we are on them
self-serving bias
our readiness to perceive ourself favorably, so be able to tell ourself we are good
gender identity
our sense of being male or female. our parents can affect this by the way they raise us
personal control
our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless
self concept
our thoughts and feelings about ourself, answers "who am i"
unconscious
part of mind unaware of, made up of unacceptable thoughts, feelings, wishes, and memories.
Lateral Hypothalamus (LH)
part of the hypothalamus; feeding center; stimulates hunger; if destroyed, may cause starvation because organism doesn't receive cue to eat; L comes before V, therefore you have to start eating before you can stop
Ventromedial Hypothalamus (VMH)
part of the hypothalamus; satiety center; ceases hunger; in rats, works as a "on-off' switch (studies caused obese rats); has been challenged as the on-off switch; L comes before V, therefore you have to start eating before you can stop
Top-down Processing
perceive by filling in gaps in what we sense, less accurate but quicker than bottom-up
Cognitive Theory
perception of situations that is essential to emotional experiences; Cannon-Bard is an example; experience depends on one's perception of how to interpret arousal
biological rhythms
periodic physiological fluctuations
imprinting
phenomenon in some animals in which newborns follow the first moving object human or animal that catches their attention
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman's heavy drinking. In severe cases, symptoms include noticeable facial misproportions
engram
physical changes in brain associated with mmory
erogenous zones
pleasure sensitive areas of the body
sensory memory
preserves brief sensory impressions of stimuli
working memory
preserves recently perceived events for less than a minute
algorithms
problem-solving procedures or formulas
factor analysis
procedure that identifies groups of related items on a test
reuptake
process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles
consolidation
process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories
identification
process in which children incorporate their parents values to create their superego
hallucinogens
psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input
significant difference
psychologists accept a difference between the groups as "real" or significant, when the probability that it might be due to an atypical sample drawn by chance less than 5 in 100 (indicated by the notation p<.05
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
REM sleep
rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Meditation
refers to a family of practices that train attention th heighten awareness and bring mental processes under greater voluntary control
Frequency
refers to the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
replication
repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
ex post facto
research in which we choose subjects based on a pre-existing condition
Rods
respond to black and white, outnumber 20:1
Cones
respond to color
recognition
retrieval method in one must identify present stimuli as being previously presented
recall
retrieval method in which one must reproduce previously presented information
Self-disclosure
revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.
preconscious
right below the conscious, there isn't complete control but still accessible. outside awareness
endomorph
round, soft body type
grammar
rules of a language, specifying how to use stuff to make other stuff make sense
Socrates
said "know thyself" - the beginnings of introspection
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
Touch
sense is activated when the skin is indented, pierced, or experiences a change in temperature
Superordinate goals
shared goals that override differences among people and require their cooperation.
ectomorph
slender fragile
Chemical Senses
smell and taste
Vygotsky
social-cognitive development theory where social interaction plays a basic and key roll in the development of cognition.
Outer Ear/Pinna
sound waves collected here
Instinct
specific, inborn behavior patterns characteristic of an entire species; thought to account for human behavior until 1920s when it was learned that 1) behavior is learned, 2) behavior is rarely rigid and inflexible, 3) behavior to instinct means nothing; ex. Salmon swim upstream to spawn, spiders spin webs
anal stage, 18-36 months
stage focuses on bowel and bladder elimination. coping with demands for control (potty training)
latency stage, 6-puberty
stage focuses on dormant sexual feelings
genital stage, puberty-on
stage focuses on maturation of sexual interests
oral stage, 0-18 months
stage focuses on pleasure on the mouth- sucking, biting, chewing
phallic stage, 3-6 years
stage focuses on pleasure zone in the genitals, coping with incestuous sexual feelings
overlearning
startegy when the learner continues to study and rehearse the material after it has been brought to mastery
Drive
state of arousal/tension that motivates behaviors; ex. Hunger, thirst
Opponent-Process Theory
state that sensory receptorsare arranged in retina are in pairs of red/green, yellow/blue, black/white
Activation synthesis theory
states that dreams result when the sleeping brain tries to make sense of its own spontaneous bursts of activity
Weber's Law
states that the change needed is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus
descriptive statistics
statistical procedures used to describe characteristics and responses of groups of subjects
inferential statistics
statistical techniques used to assess whether the results of a study are reliable or whether they might be simply the result of chance
Testosterone
steroid hormone from the androgen group; in both men and women, testosterone plays a key role in health and well-being as well as in sexual functioning; Examples include enhanced libido, increased energy, increased production of red blood cells and protection against osteoporosis.
Subliminal Messages
stimuli below our absolute threshold
retrieval cues
stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness
declarative memory
stores facts
semantic memory
stores general knowledge, including meanings of words
procedural memory
stores memories for how things are done
episodic memory
stores memory for personal events
mesomorph
strong, muscular
Social Facilitation
stronger responses on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others.
Ainsworth
studied types of attachment by use of the strange situation test
gerontology
study of the aging process
experimental group
subjects in an experiment to whom the experimental treatment (independent variable) is administered
teratogens agents
such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
Attribution Theory
suggests how we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition.
priming
technique for curing implicit memories tha provides cues to stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection
mnemonics
techniques for improving memory by making connections between new material and information already in LTM
confirmation bias
tendency to attend to evident that complements and confirms our beliefs or expectations while ignoring evidence that does not.
mental set
tendency to respond to a new problem in the strategy used for a previous problem
hindsight bias
tendency, after learning about an event, to "second guess" that one could have predicted the events
hemispheric specialization
term used to describe the fact the two hemisheres of the brain are designed to handle specific tasks (Left - logic, language; Right - creativity, spatial reasoning, art, emotion)
cerebellum
the ''little brain'' attached to the rear of the brainstem' its functions include processing sensory input and coordination movement output and balance
sensory cortex
the area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
medulla
the base of the brainstem; control heartbeat and breathing
circadian [ser-KAY-dee-an] rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
Nervous System
the body's speedy , electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system
central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
plasticity
the brain's capacity for modification, as evident in brain reorganization following damage (especially in children) and in experiments on the effects of experience on brain development
thalamus
the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
dendrite
the busy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body
Companionate Love
the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom with whom our lives are intertwined.
fetus
the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth in which the first bone cells appear.
embryo
the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month in which major body systems develop.
tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect. (
extinction
the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus does not follow a conditioned stimulus; occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced
withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug.
sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations
parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
somatic nervous system
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles. Also called the skeletal nervous system
Vision
the dominent sense in human beings, gather information using their surroundings more than any other sense
reciprocal determinism
the effect environment has on behavior and cognition(thoughts) created by Bandura
Group Polarization
the enchantment of a group's prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.
independent variable
the experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied
axon
the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands
stranger anxiety
the fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
zygote
the fertilized egg; it enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
control group
the group that is treated in the same way as the experimental group except that the experimental treatment (the independent variable) is not applied
Amplitude
the height of the wave and determines the loudness, measured in decibels
learned helplessness
the hopelessness someone learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events. example dog with electric shock floor, one without the button gives up and thinks cant jump over...or word scramble give up when first 2 dont make sense
acquisition
the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response; in operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response
cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center
synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or cleft.
corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
Occipital Lobe
the lobe in which the visual cortex is, the point that sensation ends and perception begins
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors.
Deindividuation
the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.
Groupthink
the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.
Iris
the muscles that control the pupil, dilate it to let more light in, make it smaller to let less light in
reticular formation
the nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
Optic Nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions
autonomic nervous system
the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the gland and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms
illusory correlation
the perception of a relationship between 2 or more variables where none actually exists
Mere Exposure Effect
the phenomenon that repeated exposure to novel stimuli increases liking of them.
occipital lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; included the visual ares. which recieve visual information from the opposite visual field
parietal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
frontal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgement
temporal lobe
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each of which receives auditory information primarily from the opposite ear
resting potential
the potential difference between the two sides of the membrane of a nerve cell when the cell is not conducting an impulse
Frustration-aggression Principle
the principle that frustration--the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal--creates anger, which can generate aggression.
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
Perception
the process of understanding sensations
Cornea
the protective covering that light first enters through, helps focus light
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Expectancy Bias
the researcher allowing his or her expectations to affect the outcome of a study; or in memory, a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations
personal bias
the researcher allowing personal beliefs to affect the outcome of a study
Psychology
the scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Social Psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.
Kinesthetic Sense
the sense that gives us feedback about the position and orientation of specific body parts
Vestibular Sense
the sense that tells how our body is oriented in space
peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
Absolute Threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect
Cochlea
the snail-shaped tube (in the inner ear coiled around the modiolus) where sound vibrations are converted into nerve impulses by the Organ of Corti
Optic Chiasm
the spot where the nerves cross each other
Blind Spot
the spot where the optic nerve leaves the retina and has no cones or rods
REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Bystander Effect
the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.
Fundamental Attribution Error
the tendency for observers, when analyzing another's behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and overestimate the impact of personal disposition.
Social Loafing
the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.
Foot-in-the-door Phenomenon
the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a large request.
Just-world Phenomenon
the tendency of people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.
Ingroup Bias
the tendency to favor one's own ingroup.
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses
Social Exchange Theory
the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.
Scapegoat Theory
the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.
adolescence
the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
empiricism
the view that (a) knowledge comes from experience via the senses, and (b) science flourishes through observation and experiment.
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes; most research psychologists agree with the former but not the latter
Lorenz
theorist associated with the idea of imprinting as an method of attachment in some animals
Kubler-Ross
theorist who proposed that terminally Ill patients go through a series of stages as they approach death.
collective unconscious
theory developed by Carl Jung, idea that people from the same culture or group will have the same unconscious thoughts, and these thoughts and values can be passed down.
Arousal Theory
theory of motivation; each individual has an optimal level of arousal (alertness, paying attention) that varies from one situation to the next; maintained by desire at that moment; may affect your performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law); Advantages-sensation or thrillseekers
Drive-Reduction Theory
theory that motivated behavior is an attempt to reduce a state of tension/arousal in the body and return the body to a state of balance
Frequency Theory
theory that we sense pitch because the hair cells fire at different rates
Signal Detection Theory
this theory investigates the effects of the distractions and interference we experience while perceiving the world
Hammer/Anvil/Stirrup
three bones as the ossicles, vibration transmitted to the oval window
psychosexual stages
time at which id's pleasure seeking energies focus on distinct pleasure sensitive areas.
lesion
tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue
Introspection
to "look within"
Linear Perspective
to draw train tracks, you would draw two lines that converge at the top of the paper
amygdala
two lima-bean sized neural clusters that are components of the limbic system and are linked to emotion
type A
type of personality that is more aggressive and controlling
type B
type of personality that is more laid back and chill
id
unconscious psychic energy. strives to satisfy basic drives to survive, reproduce, and aggress. operates on pleasure principle which demands immediate gratification. not much control over this.
Discrimination
unjustifiable negative behavior towards a group and its members.
Primary Drive
unlearned; found in all animals and humans; motivates behavior that is vital to the survival of the individual/species; hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, BR needs
Stimulus Motive
unlearned; responsive to external stimuli; pushes us to investigate, and often change, environment; ex. Curiosity, exploration, manipulation, and contact; males more likely to be aggressive probably because of socialization; collectivistic cultures are more likely to seek compromise
Altruism
unselfish regard for the welfare of others.
Auditory/Ear Canal
waves travel through here to eardrum
archetypes
we have our set schemas and ideas for what a man, woman, etc. are so its a way to individuate from our norms and normal schema
Texture Gradient
we know that we can see details in texture close to us but no far away
Gestalt Rules
we normally perceive images as groups, not as isolated elements, innate and inevitable
Bottom-up Processing
we use only the features of the object itself to build a complete perception, automatic process, takes longer but more accurate than top-down
Guilford
Over 100 mental abilities
Experimental Psychologists
Partake in basic research, research for its own sake
Norms
Patterns with groups of people
Cognitive Perspective
Perceptions and thought influence behavior
Depth Cues
Perceptual features that impart information about distance and three-dimentional space
Learning Perspective
Personal experience and reinforcement guide individual development
Neuroticism
Personality trait characterized by persistent anxiety
Continuity view
Perspective that development is graudal and continuous.
Discontinuity view
Perspective that development proceeds in an uneven fashion.
sensorimotor stage
Piaget-stage 1-(from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
mental representation
Piaget-stage 1-ability to form internal images of objects and events and use them to think.
object permanence
Piaget-stage 1-the idea taht objects exist independently of one's own actions or awareness
preoperational stage
Piaget-stage 2-(from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.
irreversibility
Piaget-stage 2-inabiliyt to think through a series of events or mentla operations and then mentally reverse the steps
Animistic thinking
Piaget-stage 2-mode of thought in which inanimate objects are imagined to have life and mental processes
egocentrism
Piaget-stage 2-the child's difficulty in taking another's point of view.
Centration
Piaget-stage 2-thought pattern involving the inability to take into account more than one factor at a time
concrete operational stage
Piaget-stage 3-the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
formal operational stage
Piaget-stage 4-the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts. (
conservation
Piaget-stage3-properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.
Carl Jung
Psychologist that was the student of Freud, placed much more emphasis on social factor, believed in the collective unconscious
Karen Horney
Psychologist who agreed with Alfred Adler, also countered the bias of masculine views to psychology
Alfred Adler
Psychologist who agreed with Freud that childhood experiences were important in shaping personality, but focused on the social factor not sex.
Carl Rogers
Psychologist who believed in humanistic views, developed theory of unconditional positive regard
Jerome Kagan
Psychologist who believed in more biological view, thought our genes had a lot of effect on our personality and thinks child shyness is caused by autonomic nervous system
Martin Seligman
Psychologist who came up with idea of learned helplessness, came up with experiment with dog in electric shocking floor
Abraham Maslow
Psychologist who developed hierarchy of needs, used to show personality because personality develops as a person moves through the pyramid
Sigmund Freud
Psychologist who developed the theory of psychoanalysis, believes that our personality comes from our unconscious mind. Explored the idea of sex, aggression, and other basic drives. Looks at early childhood experiences
pseudopsychology
Psychology that is not based on scientific facts or studies, that is more "common sense" in some cases.
Erikson
Psychosocial development theory
Insight therapies
Psychotherapies in which the therapist helps patients/clients understand their problems.
Talk therapies
Psychotherapies that focus on communicating and verbalizing emotions and motives to understand their problems.
longitudinal study
Research in which a sample of individuals is studied over a long time period.
Two Factor Theory of Emotion
Schacter & Singer (1962); cognitive theory; there are bodily emotions, but we use the emotions/information to tell us how to reaction in the situation; only when we think, recognize, do we experience the emotion
Disorganized
Schizophrenia characterized by childlike behavior, frantic gesturing, etc.
Paranoid
Schizophrenia characterized by extreme suspiciousness and complex delusional systems
Catatonic
Schizophrenia characterized by severe disturbance in motor activity
Undifferentiated
Schizophrenia that is most definitely schizophrenia, but it doesn't fit into any specific category.
Positive Psychology
Seligman; field that studies the strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
Stimulus
Sensory input from the environment.
Sociocultural Perspective
Sociocultural, biological, and psychological factors create individual differences
Personal Discomfort
Some behavior is considered abnormal because it causes _________ (e.g. anxiety, raw hands, etc.)
Power Test
Starts easy and gets harder
William James
Stream of consciousness", created functionalism with others, wrote Principles of Psychology
Kagan
Studied temperament
Industrial and Organizational Psychologists
Study behavior of people and work, like those in organizations
Health Psychologists
Study how behavior and mental aspects affect health
Environmental Psychologists
Study how people's surrounding affect them
Social Psychologists
Study people's behavior in social situations
Consumer Psychologists
Study the behavior of shoppers to predict and explain their behavior
Developmental Psychologists
Study the changes that occur throughout a person's life span
Barnum Effect
Tendency to believe a general personality report
Face Validity
Test looks like it is accurate
Analysis of transference
The Freudian technique of analyzing and interpreting the patient's relationship with the therapist, based on the assumption that this relationship mirrors unresolved conflicts in the patient's past.
external validity
The degree to which the results of an experiment may be applied to the real world (generalizability)
dependent variable
The experimental factor that is being measured; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
internal validity
The extent to which changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable, and thus the degree to which we can infer a cause and effect relationship
Psychosurgery
The general term for surgical intervention in the brain to treat psychological disorders.
median
The measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that separates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half
mode
The measure of central tendency for a distribution, represented by the score that separates the upper half of the scores in a distribution from the lower half; the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
mean
The measure of central tendency most often used to describe a set of data-calculated by adding all the scores and dividing by the number of scores
Deinstitutionalization
The policy for removing patients, whenever possible, from mental hospitals.
Psychopharmacology
The prescribed use of drugs to help treat symptoms of mental illness ostensibly to ensure that individuals are more receptive to talk therapies.
range
The simplest measure of variability, represented by the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a frequency distribution.
Introspection
The subjective observation of one's own experience.
John Locke
Theorized that knowledge is not inborn but is learned from experiences
Psychological therapies
Therapies based on psychological principles; often called "psychotherapy."
Neo-Freudian psychodynamic therapies
Therapies for mental disorder that were developed by psychodynamic theorists who embraced some of Freud's ideas but disagreed with others.
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
Counseling Psychologists
Treat people who have adjustment problems rather than serious mental disorders. Work often at universities
Humanistic therapies
Treatment techniques based on the assumption that people have a tendency for positive growth and self-actualization, which may be blocked by an unhealthy environment that can include negative self-evaluation and criticism from others.
Biomedical therapies
Treatments that focus on altering the brain, especially with drugs, psychosurgery, or electroconvulsive therapy.
Mental Retardation
Two standard deviations below the mean
Psychoanalytic Perspective
Unconscious motives influence behavior
Phobia
Unreasonable fear
Psychological constructs
Used to talk about something we cannot see, touch or measure
Energy Senses
Vision (light), hearing (sound waves), and touch (pressure).
Zone of proximal development
Vygotsky-the difference between what a child can do with help and what the child can do without any help or guidance.
all-or-none response
When a muscle fiber contracts,it contracts completely
Maladaptive
When a person cannot assimilate into society, their behavior is _______
Coconscious
When multiple personalities know about each other.
Educational Psychologists
Work on course planning and instructional methods
pons
a band of nerve fibers linking the medulla oblongata and the cerebellum with the midbrain
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution. the height of the bars indicates the frequency of a group of scores
normal distribution
a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy.
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being.
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span.
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders.
operant chamber
a chamber also known as a Skinner box, containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking; used in operant conditioning research
psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood.
Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
a committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment involving animals for ethics and methodology
schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
Equity
a condition in which people receive from a relationship in proportion to what they give to it.
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
limbic system
a doughnut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brainstem and cerebral hemispheres' associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus
Stereotype
a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
myelin sheath
a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next
spinal cord
a major part of the central nervous system which conducts sensory and motor nerve impulses to and from the brain
standard deviation
a measure of variability that indicates the average distance between the scores and their mean
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment
neuron
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage
action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. The action potential is generated by the movement of positively charged atoms in and out of channels in the axon's membrane.
hypothalamus
a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion
Conflict
a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
projective tests
a personality test, example inkblot test or TAT, gives stimuli that gets a person to give feelings from their unconscious
physical dependence
a physiological need for a drug, marked by unpleasant withdrawal symptoms when the drug is discontinued.
methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels.
Perceptual Set
a predisposition to perceive something in a certain way
random presentation
a process by which chance alone determines the order in which the stimulus is presented
Transduction
a process during which signals are transferred into neural impulses
psychological dependence
a psychological need to use a drug, such as to relieve negative emotions
learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
correlational study
a research project designed to discover the degree to which two variables are related to each other
refractory period
a resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm
random sample
a sample group of subjects selected by chance where every participant within a population has an equal chance of being selected
random sample
a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion; it increases external validity (generalizability)
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function—how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
Retina
a screen in the back of the eye on which inverted images are projected
CT scan
a series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.
reflexes
a simple, automatic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
Social Trap
a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self-interest, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.
night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembere
sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
operational definition
a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. For example, human intelligence may be operationally defined as what an intelligence test measures
correlation coefficient
a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the relationship between 2 variables, ranging from -1 to +1
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer
cross-sectional study
a study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of people, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of a larger group (population)
fMRI
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. MRI scans show brain anatomy; fMRI sans show brain function
MRI
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue allows us to see structures within the brains
expectancy bias
a tendency to distort recalled events to make them fit one's expectations
empirically derived
a test developed by testing a large pool of items then selecting the ones that discriminate between groups
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
a test that asks about a persons values, then gives strength so everyone gets flattered,
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
Ear Drum/Tympanic Membrane
a thin membrane that vibrates as the sound wave hits it
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli; a neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus; also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher
PET scan
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive from of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
Color Blindness
cannot see certain colors
excitatory signals
cause actions; tell body to act quickly
retroactive interference
cause of forgetting by which newly learned information prevents retrieval of previously stored material
proactive interference
cause of forgetting in which previously stored information prevents learning and remembering new information
glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons
interneurons
central nervous system neurons that internally communicate and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
traits
characteristics of behavior, a way we feel and act, assessed by self report inventories and peer reports
neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that traverse the synaptic gaps between neurons. WHen released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impluse
Taste/Gustation
chemical sense involved in food
agonists/antagonists
chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell
flashbulb memory
clear and vivid long-term memory of an especially meaningful event
heuristics
cognitive strategies or "rules of thumb" used as shortcuts to solve complex mental tasks
information-processing model
cognitive understanding of memory emphasizing how information is changed
self-consistency bias
commonly held idea that we are more consistent in our beliefs and ideas than we actually are
Paradoxical sleep
condition where during REM sleep the voluntary muscles in the body are immobile
fixation
conflicts unresolved in earlier psychosexual stage resurfaces as an adult. gets locked at one stage. (ex. freud and cigars)
Non-REM sleep
consists of sleep stages 1 through 4, which are marked by an absence of rapid eye movements, relatively little dreaming, and varied EEG activity
control techniques
constraints that the experimenter places on the experiment to ensure that the control and experimental groups are treated identically, (except for levels of the independent variable); control techniques increase internal validity (the degree to which we can infer cause and effect)
Broca's Area
controls language expression- an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
Wernicke's Area
controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
acoustic encoding
conversion of information to sound patterns
Sound Waves
created by vibrations which travel through the air and collect in our ears
Sigmund Freud
creator of psychoanalysis and one of the most influential men in psychology
Gilligan
criticized Kohlberg's research on moral theory because she felt it was biased against girls
Binocular Cues
cues that depend on having two eyes
Lens
curved and flexible in order to focus light
basic trust
according to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers
manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content).
latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content). Freud believed that a dream's latent content functions as a safety valve.
Secondary Drives
acquired through learning; affiliation, social, achievement, aggression, power; Ex. money, grades, friends, intimacy, acceptance, praise, etc.
Sensation
activation of our senses
accommodation
adapting one's current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
Conformity
adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
informed consent
agreement to participate in psychology research, after being appraised of the dangers and benefits of the research
population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
cognition
all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
EEG electroencephalogram
an amplified recording of the waves of the electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp
motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
Passionate Love
an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.
structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind.
attachment
an emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
Social-responsibility Norm
an expectation that people will help those dependent upon them.
Reciprocity Norm
an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
Fovea
an indentation in the center of the retina that has the highest concentration of cones
temperament
an individual's basic disposition, which is evident from infancy and is generally stable across the lifespan
personality
an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
case study
an observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
shaping
an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Prejudice
an unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude towards a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings and a predisposition to discriminatory action.
Aggression
any physical or verbal behavior for intended to hurt or destroy.
mory
any system that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
Nightmares
are anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep
association areas
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather , they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking
Convergence
as an object gets closer to our face, our eyes must move toward each other to keep focused on the object
random assignment
assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
anxious ambivalent
attachment style in which they are less likely to explore with parent present, protest when they leave, and not comforted when they return
avoidant
attachment style in which they seek little contact with their caregiver and are not distressed when the caregiver leaves
Hearing
auditory senses, waves are created in the air
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV -TR
"Bible" of psychological disorders
Outgroup
"Them"- those perceived as different or apart from one's ingroup.
Ingroup
"Us"- people with whom one shares a common identity.
Fluid Intelligence
-Ability to solve abstract -Decreases with age
Standardized Test
-Administration and scoring is uniform -Time not a factor
Triarchic Theory
-Analytic, experiential, practical -Sternberg
Emotional Intelligence
-EQ -Goleman -Emotional Maturity
Multiple Intelligence
-Gardner -Musical Intelligence -Inter/Intra Personal IQ
G Factor
-General Intelligence -Spearman -High G Factor: good at everything -Low G Factor: struggle with everything
Mild
-May be able to function on their own -6th grade level
Severe
-May learn simple tasks like speaking -Needs constant spervision
Aptitude Test
-Measures potential -Mechanical comprehension
Achievement Test
-Measures what has been learned -Ex: ACT
Profound
-Need constant supervision -MA of 2 years
Crystallized Intelligence
-Using knowledge to solve
Weschler
-WAIS (adults) -WISC (children) -Wordless, puzzles and pictures
self-concept
1) a sense of one's identity and personal worth. (2) all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves, in answer to the question, "Who am I?"
James-Lange Theory
1880s; William James and Carl Lange; theory of emotion; stimuli in environment cause physiological change in bodies, then emotion comes; ex. I see a bear which cause my heart to race, then I become afraid
Cannon-Bard Theory
1920s; theory of emotion; processing emotions and bodily response occur simultaneously; ex. I see a bear, I feel afraid and my heart is racing
Plutchik's 3D model
1980; 8 basic emotions-fear, surprise, sadness, disgust, anger, anticipation, joy, & acceptance; helps adjust to demands of environment; model illustrates how emotions are more alike to those situated near it than those farther away (circle)_; varies with intensity
Moderate
2nd grade level
Thurstone
7 main abilities
Systemic desensitization
A behavioral therapy technique in which anxiety is extinguished by exposing the patient to an anxiety-provoking stimulus.
Antianxiety drugs
A category of drugs that includes the barbiturates and benzodiazepines, drugs that diminish feelings of anxiety.
Institutional Review Board (IRB)
A committee at each institution where research is conducted to review every experiment for ethics and methodology
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
A disorder that follows a distressing event characterized by intense fear and reliving said event.
Cognitive Neuroscience
A field that attempts to understand the links between cognitive processes and brain activity.
scientific method
A five-step process for empirical investigation of a hypothesis under conditions designed to control biases and subjective judgement
Exposure therapy
A form of desensitization therapy in which the patient directly confronts the anxiety-provoking stimulus (as opposed to imagining the stimulus).
Therapy
A general term for any treatment process; in psychology and psychiatry, it refers to a variety of psychological and biomedical techniques aimed at dealing with mental disorders or coping with problems of living.
scatterplot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables
Client-centered therapy
A humanistic approach to treatment developed by Carl Rogers, emphasizing an individual's tendency for healthy psychological growth through self-actualization.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy
A newer form of psychotherapy that combines the techniques of cognitive therapy with those of behavioral therapy.
Phrenology
A now defunct theory that specific mental abilities and characteristics, ranging from memory to the capacity for happiness, are localized in specific regions of the brain.
Conflict
A perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.
Active listener
A person who gives the speaker feedback in such forms as nodding, paraphrasing, maintaining an expression that shows interest, and asking questions for clarification.
Consciousness
A person's subjective experience of the world and the mind.
Antisocial
A personality disorder in which a person cannot empathize with others (e.g. Manson, Bundy)
Narcissistic
A personality disorder in which a person has an exaggerated sense of self-importance.
Schizoid
A personality disorder in which a person has no desire to form relationships.
Paranoid
A personality disorder in which a person is inappropriately suspicious and mistrustful.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
A projective test where a person is shown a picture then tells a story about the picture, the things they say in the picture give insight on what they feel in their unconscious.
Gestalt Psychology
A psychological approach that emphasizes that we often perceive the whole rather than the sum of the parts.
cohort-sequential study
A research method in which a cross section of the population is chosen and then each cohort is followed for a short period of time
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent variable); it allows us to infer a cause and effect relationship between variables
representative sample
A sample obtained in a way that reflects the the distribution of important variables in the larger population in which the researchers are intersted(variables such as age, income level, ethnicity, and geographic distribution).
Hallucination
A sensory experience with no sensory stimulus.
Role
A set of explanations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
Lithium carbonate
A simple chemical compound that is highly effective in dampening the extreme mood swings of bipolar disorder.
Hypochondriasis
A somatoform disorder in which a person BELIEVES something is wrong but nothing is.
Conversion Disorder
A somatoform disorder in which the symptoms are real, but nothing is physiologically wrong.
frequency distribution
A summary chart, showing how frequently each of the various scores in a set of data occurs
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
A treatment that involves magnetic stimulation of specific regions of the brain; unlike ECT, it does not produce a seizure.
Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
A treatment used primarily for depression and involving the application for an electric current to the head, producing a generalized seizure; sometimes called "shock treatment."
Biological
According to the ___________ model, all disorders have a physiological basis.
Psychoanalytic
According to the ___________ model, disorders are symbolic representations of unconscious internal conflicts.
Behavioral
According to the ___________ model, even abnormal behavior can be learned and unlearned.
Diathesis-Stress
According to the ___________ model, we are predisposed to an illness, but we only exhibit it when the we are "pushed over the edge."
Validity
Accuracy
Evolutionary Perspective
Adaptive organisms survive and transmit their genes to future generations
Marcia
Adolescent Identity Theory-4 stages
Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
Albert Ellis's brand of cognitive therapy, based on the idea that irrational thoughts and behaviors are the cause of mental disorders.
Somatoform Disorders
An apparent physical disorder for which there is no evidence of an organic cause
empirical investigation
An approach to research that relies on sensory experience and observation as research data
Community mental health movement
An effort to deinstitutionalize mental patients and to provide therapy from outpatient clinics; proponents envisioned that recovering patients could live with their families, in foster homes, or in group homes.
double blind study
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo
Tardive dyskinesia
An incurable disorder of motor control, especially involving muscles of the face and head, resulting from long-term use of antipsychotic drugs.
Contingency management
An operant conditioning approach to changing behavior by altering the consequences, especially rewards and punishments, of behavior.
Behavior modification
Another term for behavior therapy.
Behavior therapy
Any form of psychotherapy based on the principles of behavioral learning, especially operant conditioning and classical conditioning.
Group therapy
Any form of psychotherapy done with more than one client/patient at a time; often done from a humanistic perspective.
Aversion therapy
As a classical conditioning procedure, aversive counterconditioning involves presenting individuals with an attractive stimulus paired with unpleasant stimulation in order to condition revulsion.
cross-sectional study
As study in which a representative cross section of the population is tested or surveyed at one specific time
Homeostasis
balance; stability; part of the drive-reduction theory; when individual functions effectively because drives are met
superego
begins around age 4 or 5, voice of conscious that forces ego to consider not only the real but ideal viewpoints
Aggression
behavior aimed at inflicting physical or psychological harm; intent is key element; ex. Road rage, passive aggressive acts, hitting
operant behavior
behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences
external locus of control
believe outside has control "the man"
internal locus of control
believe you have control over what you do
maturation
biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
language acquisition device (LAD)
biologically organized mental structure that facilitates learning of language because (according to Chomsky) it is innately programmed with grammatical rules
Shadowing
by shadowing part of your picture, you can imply where the light source is thus implying depth and position of objects